SINT Ingegneria

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XGSLab™
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USER’S GUIDE
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ELECTROMAGNETIC SIMULATION FOR

POWER, GROUNDING AND LIGHTNING PROTECTION SYSTEMS

1995 – 2019
(Release 9.0.1 - 02/19)

USER’S GUIDE

All Rights Reserved

This document, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form, by any method, for any purpose without the written
permission of SINT Ingegneria Srl.
SINT Ingegneria Srl reserves the right to revise and improve its products as it sees fit. This publication describes the
state of this product at the time of its publication, and may not reflect the product at all times in the future.
The software described in this document is delivered under license agreement.

SINT Ingegneria Srl

Via Cristoforo Colombo, 106
36061, Bassano del Grappa (VI) – Italy
Website: www.xgslab.com

Possession or use of the XGSLab software is authorized only pursuant to a valid written license agreement from SINT
Ingegneria Srl. Before using XGSLab please read the document “General Licensing Conditions“.
While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this User’s Guide, SINT Ingegneria Srl assumes no
responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of the information contained herein.

Trademarks
Windows is a registered trademark of Microsoft.
AutoCAD is a registered trademark of Autodesk.
Other Trademarks are used in this document in an editorial fashion with non intention of infringement.
All trademarks are the legal property of their registered owners.

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REVISION RECORD

Date Release Note

October 2012 4.0.1 New module GSA

September 2014 5.0.1 New module GSA_FD

March 2015 6.0.1 New module XGSA_FD

March 2017 7.0.1 New module XGSA_TD

July 2017 8.0.1 Multilayer Soil Model

November 2017 8.1.1 IEC Standard

February 2018 8.2.1 Low Frequency Breakdown Solution + Draw Tools

April 2018 8.3.1 Higher Robustness Calculation Algorithms + Graphical Outputs

January 2019 8.3.2 General improvements + New module NETS predisposition

February 2019 9.0.1 New module NETS

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FOREWORD
XGSLab history began about in 1990.
The first version of the GSA module was written in FORTRAN language in the period 1995 - 1997.
For more than ten years GSA has been used for professional consultancy and for publications.
In 2006 GSA has ben rewritten in C and in 2007 the first commercial version of GSA was developed.
In the period 2007 - 2013 GSA became one of the most popular grounding software in Europe but also with clients
(universities and companies) worldwide.
At the same time customers’ requests have grown and it has become evident the need for a more powerful tool.
In the period 2012 - 2014 was developed the first commercial version of the GSA_FD module.
At the end of 2014 GSA and GSA_FD were unified in the XGSLab program.
In 2015 was added the XGSA_FD module.
At the beginning of 2017 was added the XGSA_TD module.
In 2017 the multilayer soil model has been implemented. The implemented algorithm is based on is based on a
numerical quadrature routine and is powerful and accurate and allows calculations with an arbitrary layers number.
In 2018 was added the NETS module.
The first four modules are based on a general model for calculation of conductor systems taking into account the earth
effects while the last module NETS is based on Kirchhoff laws for multi-conductors and multi-phase systems.
Shortly, GSA, GSA_FD, XGSA_FD and XGSA_FD are based on Maxwell equations, Green functions and Sommerfeld
integrals and to an “hybrid” numerical approach also called PEEC (Partial Element Equivalent Circuit).
Most people know that the electromagnetic fields are governed by a set of experimental laws known as Maxwell
equations and circuit are governed by the Kirchhoff laws, but on the other hand, not many people know about the
fundamental studies carried out by Green and Sommerfeld.
George Green studied the solution of inhomogeneous differential equations and the so called Green functions are
fundamental solutions of these equations satisfying homogeneous boundary conditions. XGSLab implemented the Green
functions to calculate the scalar potential of a point charge in a multilayer soil models.
Sommerfeld studied the earth reaction to the electromagnetic field and the rigorous solutions of the half space problem
are known as Sommerfeld integrals, XGSLab implemented the Sommerfeld integrals for the calculation of the vector
potential of horizontal or vertical electric dipoles in a multilayer soil models.
Without Green and Sommerfeld studies would not have been possible to develop XGSLab.
Furthermore, the calculation in the time domain were been possible by using the Fourier transforms. Fourier transforms
allow moving from the time domain and vice versa.

Leonhard Euler Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier George Green

(Basel 1707 – St. Petersburg 1783) (Auxerre 1768 – Paris 1830) (Nottingham 1793 – Nottingham 1841)

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Gustav Robert Kirkhhoff James Clerk Maxwell Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld
(Konisberg 1824 – Berlin 1887) (Edinburgh 1831 – Cambridge 1879) (Konigsberg 1868 – Munich 1951)

XGSLab is based on the research of many other scientists as for instance Leonhard Euler and Johann Friedrich Carl
Gauss (1777 – 1855).
It is important to remember these great thinkers of the past but it is also important to be grateful to all mathematician that
in more recent times have improved the scientific computing.

Nowadays, XGSLab is one of the most powerful software of electromagnetic simulation for power, grounding and
lightning protection systems.

As always, in the future XGSLab will be updated and improved day by day.
We will try to make XGSlab grow while maintaining its ease of use, a feature much appreciated by Clients.
As usual, we will continue to consider the suggestions of the many Clients in the world.
Moreover, the cooperation with Universities all around the world will be boosted.

Roberto Andolfato

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 – GETTING STARTED................................................................................................................................. 10
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................................... 10
2. GENERAL CONVENTIONS .......................................................................................................................................... 15
2.1 MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS AND CONSTANTS ................................................................................................. 15
2.2 PHYSICAL SYMBOLS AND CONSTANTS ........................................................................................................... 15
2.3 TERMINOLOGY .................................................................................................................................................... 19
3. GENERAL ASPECTS ................................................................................................................................................... 20
3.1 APPLICATION LIMITS .......................................................................................................................................... 20
3.2 APPLICATION CONTRAINS ................................................................................................................................. 24
3.3 SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS .............................................................................................. 26
3.4 INSTALLATION ..................................................................................................................................................... 28
3.4.1 HARDLOCK KEY .......................................................................................................................................... 28
3.4.2 INSTALL “.NET” FRAMEWORK ................................................................................................................... 29
3.4.3 INSTALLATION SEQUENCE ....................................................................................................................... 29
3.4.4 DIRECTORY STRUCTURE .......................................................................................................................... 30
3.4.5 REPAIR AND REMOVE................................................................................................................................ 31
3.5 THE USER INTERFACE ....................................................................................................................................... 31
3.6 NUMERICAL FORMAT ......................................................................................................................................... 32
3.7 DATA FORMS ....................................................................................................................................................... 33
3.8 GRAPHICAL AND RESULTS FORMS .................................................................................................................. 34
CHAPTER 2 – MENU OPTIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 36
4. FILE............................................................................................................................................................................... 36
4.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................................................................. 36
4.1.1 START PAGE ............................................................................................................................................... 36
4.1.2 NEW.............................................................................................................................................................. 37
4.1.3 OPEN ............................................................................................................................................................ 38
4.1.4 CLOSE .......................................................................................................................................................... 39
4.1.5 SAVE ............................................................................................................................................................ 39
4.1.6 SAVE AS....................................................................................................................................................... 39
4.1.7 SETTINGS .................................................................................................................................................... 39
4.1.8 UNLOCK ....................................................................................................................................................... 43
4.1.9 CLEAR .......................................................................................................................................................... 43
4.1.10 EXIT ............................................................................................................................................................ 43
4.2 MACRO ................................................................................................................................................................. 43
4.2.1 SCHEDULING .............................................................................................................................................. 43
4.2.2 EXECUTE ..................................................................................................................................................... 44
4.2.3 CANCEL ....................................................................................................................................................... 44
5. PROJECT ..................................................................................................................................................................... 44
5.1 MODULE ............................................................................................................................................................... 44
5.1.1 GSA .............................................................................................................................................................. 45
5.1.2 GSA_FD........................................................................................................................................................ 45
5.1.3 XGSA_FD ..................................................................................................................................................... 45
5.1.4 XGSA_TD ..................................................................................................................................................... 45
5.1.5 NETS ............................................................................................................................................................ 45
5.2 GENERAL ............................................................................................................................................................. 45
5.2.1 PROJECT INFORMATION ........................................................................................................................... 45
5.2.2 REFERENCE STANDARD ........................................................................................................................... 46
5.3 WAVEFORM ......................................................................................................................................................... 47
5.3.1 SINUSOIDAL ................................................................................................................................................ 47
5.3.2 TRANSIENT .................................................................................................................................................. 48
5.4 SOIL ...................................................................................................................................................................... 55
5.4.1 UNIFORM MODEL........................................................................................................................................ 57
5.4.2 MULTILAYER MODEL .................................................................................................................................. 63
5.4.3 MULTIZONE MODEL.................................................................................................................................... 71
5.5 DATA ..................................................................................................................................................................... 75
5.5.1 LAYOUT DATA ............................................................................................................................................. 75
5.5.2 ELECTRICAL DATA ..................................................................................................................................... 81
5.5.3 ELECTRODE DATA SETTINGS ................................................................................................................... 99
5.5.4 ELECTRODES FRAGMENTATION ............................................................................................................ 100
5.5.5 DRAW ......................................................................................................................................................... 105
5.5.6 IMPORT AND EXPORT .............................................................................................................................. 107
5.5.7 LIST ............................................................................................................................................................ 114
5.5.8 DISPLAY ..................................................................................................................................................... 121

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5.5.9 EXPERT USER'S TIPS ............................................................................................................................... 128

5.6 LIMITS ................................................................................................................................................................. 129
5.6.1 TOUCH AND STEP VOLTAGES ................................................................................................................ 129
5.6.2 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS ........................................................................................................ 142
5.7 STUDY ................................................................................................................................................................ 143
5.7.1 DEBUG ....................................................................................................................................................... 143
5.7.2 COMPUTE .................................................................................................................................................. 146
5.7.3 CALCULATION TIME ................................................................................................................................. 150
5.7.4 ILL CONDITIONING.................................................................................................................................... 151
5.8 TOOLS ................................................................................................................................................................ 152
5.8.1 EARTHING CURRENT ............................................................................................................................... 152
5.8.2 CONDUCTOR SIZING ................................................................................................................................ 158
5.8.3 CATENARY ................................................................................................................................................ 166
6. ANALYSIS................................................................................................................................................................... 169
6.1 RESULTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 169
6.1.1 GROUND POTENTIAL RISE AND EARTHING IMPEDANCE .................................................................... 169
6.1.2 ADDITIONAL IMPEDANCE ........................................................................................................................ 171
6.1.3 DISTRIBUTIONS ........................................................................................................................................ 173
6.1.4 SOLUTIONS ............................................................................................................................................... 181
6.2 TOUCH AND STEP VOLTAGES ......................................................................................................................... 183
6.2.1 LINE CALCULATION .................................................................................................................................. 184
6.2.2 AREA CALCULATION ................................................................................................................................ 191
6.3 MAGNETIC FIELD............................................................................................................................................... 203
6.3.1 LINE CALCULATION .................................................................................................................................. 203
6.3.2 AREA CALCULATION ................................................................................................................................ 206
6.4 ELECTRIC FIELD ................................................................................................................................................ 211
6.4.1 LINE CALCULATION .................................................................................................................................. 211
6.4.2 AREA CALCULATION ................................................................................................................................ 212
7. SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................................................. 216
7.1 IMAGES............................................................................................................................................................... 216
7.1.1 GALLERY ................................................................................................................................................... 216
7.2 DOCUMENTS ..................................................................................................................................................... 219
7.2.1 REPORT ..................................................................................................................................................... 219
7.2.2 LIST OF ITEMS .......................................................................................................................................... 220
8. LIBRARIES ................................................................................................................................................................. 221
8.1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................................................................... 221
8.1.1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES .......................................................................................................................... 221
8.1.2 MATERIAL CONSTANTS ........................................................................................................................... 224
8.1.3 SOIL PROPERTIES .................................................................................................................................... 225
8.1.4 SOIL COVERING LAYER PROPERTIES ................................................................................................... 226
8.1.5 WIRES AND RODS .................................................................................................................................... 227
8.2 NETS ................................................................................................................................................................... 228
8.2.1 CABLES ...................................................................................................................................................... 228
8.2.2 OVERHEAD LINES..................................................................................................................................... 231
8.2.3 TRANSFORMERS ...................................................................................................................................... 231
8.3 UPDATINGS ........................................................................................................................................................ 233
8.3.1 COMMIT ..................................................................................................................................................... 233
8.3.2 UPDATE ..................................................................................................................................................... 233
9. WINDOWS .................................................................................................................................................................. 234
9.1 MESSAGES ........................................................................................................................................................ 234
9.2 CLOSE ALL ......................................................................................................................................................... 234
10. HELP ......................................................................................................................................................................... 235
10.1 ABOUT XGSLAB ............................................................................................................................................... 235
10.2 LICENSE ........................................................................................................................................................... 236
10.3 USER’S GUIDE ................................................................................................................................................. 236
10.4 TUTORIAL ......................................................................................................................................................... 236
APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................................................................... 237
11. SOIL PROPERTIES .................................................................................................................................................. 237
11.1 MOISTURE SALT AND TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE ............................................................................... 237
11.2 FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE .......................................................................................................................... 240
11.3 RESISTIVITY MEASURES ................................................................................................................................ 246
11.4 TAB FOR SOIL RESISTIVITY MEASURES RECORDING ............................................................................... 252
12. TROUBLESHOOTING .............................................................................................................................................. 253
12.1 WRONG FONT IN LEGENDS ........................................................................................................................... 253
13. MISCELLANEOUS .................................................................................................................................................... 254
13.1 TYPICAL LAYOUT DATA .................................................................................................................................. 254
13.1.1 UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................... 254

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13.1.2 OVERHEAD SYSTEMS ............................................................................................................................ 256

13.2 FLOW CHART ................................................................................................................................................... 258
BIBLIOGRAPHY (PARTIAL) ........................................................................................................................................... 259

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CHAPTER 1 – GETTING STARTED

1. INTRODUCTION
Congratulation on your decision to use XGSLab software in your engineering work!

Problems involved in electromagnetic simulations taking into account the presence of underground systems are
generally considered complex because most approximations and simplifications used in other fields are often not
applicable.
This mainly for the following reason:
- The conductors network layout can be complex, conductors can be parallel, vertical or inclined relative to the soil
surface and moreover they can be long and short, but can neither be approximated by an infinite conductor nor by an
infinitesimally small conductor
- The conductors themselves can either be bare or insulated. When the bare conductors are buried, both longitudinal
current through the conductor and leakage current into the surrounding medium must be taken into account
- The earth reaction evaluation requires the calculation of the Sommerfeld integrals. These integrals cannot be solve in
analytical way and are also difficult to solve in numerical way because the presence of poles and because the
integrand includes very oscillating Bessel function
- In most cases, the soil is highly heterogeneous and can be approximated by horizontal or vertical layers all
characterized by highly different soil parameters. Moreover the soil parameters are frequency dependent and when
the electric field overcome a given limit, the soil is affected by ionization phenomena and its behaviour is not linear
- The conductors network size can be very large (up to hundreds kilometres) and the classic finite elements approach
cannot be easily applied
- Last but not least, the current dissipated through the grounding system into the surrounding medium can be a time-
harmonic current (for example during a single phase to earth fault) or a transient current (which occurs for example
during lightning strikes). In case of the transient current energization, frequencies up to a few MHz has to be
considered and propagation effects cannot be neglected

The challenge is to develop an high accurate model but suitable for common PC, easy to use by engineers who need not
to be necessarily experts in the specific field, and moreover stable and fast.

XGSLab is one of the most powerful software of electromagnetic simulation for power, grounding and lightning protection
systems and the only software available on the market that takes into account both EN and IEEE standards.
XGSLab includes the following modules:
- GSA (GROUNDING SYSTEM ANALYSIS) for basic application with underground systems
- GSA_FD (GROUNDING SYSTEM ANALYSIS in the FREQUENCY DOMAIN) for general applications with
underground systems
- XGSA_FD (OVER AND UNDER GROUND SYSTEM ANALYSIS in the FREQUENCY DOMAIN) for general
applications with overhead and underground systems
- XGSA_TD (OVER AND UNDER GROUND SYSTEM ANALYSIS in the TIME DOMAIN) for general applications with
overhead and underground systems
- NETS (NETWORK SOLVER) solver for multi-conductor and multi-phase full meshed networks

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XGSLab integrates the module SRA (Soil Resistivity Analysis) to calculate the multilayer soil models parameters starting
from measured soil resistivity data.
XGSA_TD integrates the module FA (Fourier Analysis) to switch from the time domain to the frequency domain and vice
versa.

The XGSLab scope is so wide because the implemented model is for general use and solves the Maxwell equations in
non stationary conditions taking into account the earth lack of homogeneity by the Green functions, the earth reactions
by the Sommerfeld integrals and moving from the frequency to the time domain by means the Fourier transforms.
Remember briefly that:
- Green functions are fundamental solutions of inhomogeneous differential equations satisfying the boundary
conditions on the electromagnetic fields at interface between different media and among other things can be used to
calculate the scalar potential of a point charge in a multilayer soil model
- Sommerfeld integrals represent the exact solution of the Maxwell equations related to infinitesimal current elements
radiating in the presence of a lossy half space satisfying the boundary conditions on the electromagnetic fields at the
half space interface. Sommerfeld integrals can be used to calculate the vector potential of horizontal or vertical
electric dipoles in a multilayer soil model

Modules GSA. GSA_FD, XGSA_FD and XGSA_TD are based on an “hybrid” numerical approach also called PEEC
(Partial Element Equivalent Circuit) and take into circuit and electromagnetic theory combined into a single calculation
model. Hybrid methods gather the strength points of the other methods and are well suited for engineering purposes
because they allow the analysis of complex scenarios including additional external parameters such as voltages,
currents and impedances.

Despite the fact XGSLab can be used not only for grounding systems analysis but also for power and lightning protection
systems, the software acronym remember its original purpose.
It is important to remember that the grounding systems calculation requires taking into account non-insulated or weakly
insulated conductors buried close to the surface of a dissipative non-uniform media and for this reasons does not allow
the approximations typical of insulated or overhead systems. Moreover, it is important to remember also that the
proximity of the ground also has implications for overhead conductors.
An algorithm for overhead systems who take into account the ground effects is necessarily based on the same theory of
an algorithm for grounding systems.

All algorithms implemented in XGSLab are highly efficient in terms of computation speed and has been validated and
tested by many Customers.

GSA
GSA is a widely used and recognized module for earthing calculations and design including soil analysis. GSA can
analyse the low frequency performance of grounding systems composed by many distinct electrodes of any shape into a
uniform or multilayer soil model. GSA can import earth grid data from “dxf” files, delivering professional numerical and
graphical output useful for investigation of GPR and leakage current, earth potential, touch and step voltage distributions.

GSA_FD
GSA_FD is a module for earth grid calculation and design in the frequency domain, including soil analysis and
represents the state of the art of grounding system software.

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GSA_FD represents a new way to study large grounding systems where experience shows that the horizontal variation
of the soil resistivity makes inefficient multilayer soil models. In these cases, the use of a more accurate electric model of
the electrodes which takes into account the effects of self and mutual impedances, and when possible of a soil model
which consider the horizontal variation of the soil resistivity (multizone), is preferable. The circuit parameters, as self and
mutual impedances, can be known with greater certainty than the soil resistivity. In fact, in the frequency range we are
interested in, these circuit parameters depend weakly on the soil properties.
For these important reasons, GSA_FD is more reliable and precise than correspondent module from competitors.
Moreover, taking into account self and mutual impedance effects, allows to overcome the equipotential condition of the
electrodes on which standard GSA is based. This allows the analysis of electrodes whose size are comparable with the
wavelength as better specified in the following. Competitor packages usually do not take into account the mutual
impedance effects thus leading, in some particular conditions, to significant errors. In particular, with the equipotential
condition hypothesis, the maximum touch voltage is widely underestimated and this may result in grounding system
oversizing with additional cost sink even 50%. GSA_FD can allow a significant cost saving in grounding system
construction and materials.
GSA_FD may be used in the frequency domain range from DC to more than 10 MHz.
GSA_FD can analyse grounding systems composed by many distinct electrodes of any shape, size and kind of
conductor (solid, hollow or stranded and coated or bare) into a uniform, multilayer or multizone soil model. Similarly to
GSA, GSA_FD can also import earth grid data from “dxf” files delivering professional numerical and graphical output
useful for investigation of GPR and potential, current, leakage current, earth potential, touch and step voltage
distributions.
In DC conditions GSA_FD is a good tool for cathodic protection and anode bed analysis with impressed current systems.
GSA_FD can also calculate magnetic fields due to grounding systems or cable, and electromagnetic interference
(induced current and potential due to resistive, capacitive and inductive coupling) between grounding systems or cable
and pipeline or underground electrodes in general.

XGSA_FD
XGSA_FD extends the GSA_FD application field to the overhead systems.
XGSA_FD can manage catenary conductors and bundle conductors too and can also take into account sources where
potential or leakage current and/or longitudinal current are known and independent by other conditions.
For these reasons XGSA_FD is probably one of the most powerful and multipurpose tools on the market for these kind of
calculations.
XGSA_FD calculation model is directly derived from GSA_FD and its main features and application limits can be
considered the same.
In addition to GSA_FD, XGSA_FD can calculate electromagnetic fields and interference (e.g. between power lines and
installation as pipelines, railways or communications lines), taking into account overhead and/or underground systems,
and can also calculate lightning effects and fault current distributions.
Electric and magnetic fields are calculated by means the Jefimenko’s equations and then taking into account the
propagation effects.
XGSA_FD greatly expands the application possibilities of XGSLab and it actually makes a real laboratory for engineering
applications and for research.

XGSA_TD
XGSA_TD extends the XGSA_FD application field to the time domain.
In this regard, XGSA_FD uses the so-called “frequency domain approach”. As known, a transient can be considered as
the superposition of many single frequency waveform calculated with the forward Fourier transform. Using the frequency

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domain model implemented in XGSA_FD it is then possible calculate a response for each of these single frequency
waveform. The resulting time domain response can be obtained by applying the inverse Fourier transform to all these
response.

NETS
NETS is a very flexible tool to solve full meshed multi-conductor and multi-phase networks taking into account all the
neutral conductors paths as well as the earth path, and is based on Kirchhoff laws for multi-conductor and multi-phase
systems.
This approach is general and overcome the classic method of symmetrical components and can be used to represents
power systems as multi-conductor networks enabling the consideration of asymmetrical and/or unbalanced systems also
in presence of grounding circuits or circuits with a different phases number.
The network components (generators, lines, cables, transformers, loads ..) are represented with multi-port cells and the
connection between cells is obtained by means of multi-port buses.
The grounding systems (substation grids, tower footings …) can be specified in an arbitrary way.
NETS can be used to solve networks in steady state or fault conditions and to calculate potentials and currents or short
circuit currents (three-phase, phase to phase, phase to phase to earth, single-phase to earth) with or without fault
impedances.
In particular, NETS can be used for the calculation of the fault current distribution in power networks and between power
circuits and earth. An accurate knowledge of the fault current distribution is crucial in grounding, mitigation to reduce
interference on communication circuits and pipelines, power systems protections calibration and coordination, neutral
grounding resistor sizing and many others applications.

Moreover

GSA or GSA_FD?
GSA can be used when equipotential conditions are acceptable.
GSA_FD has a wider application range than GSA but GSA is cheaper, easier to use, requires a simplified data entry and
requires less computer resources (memory and computing power).
GSA_FD requires additional information about the topology of the conductor system and in order to calculate their self
and mutual impedances and moreover, a greater expertise in the evaluation of results.
Whenever applicable GSA it is the preferred module but if GSA cannot be used and computer resources are not a limit,
GSA_FD is the right solution.
See also 3.1 for a more detailed answer.

GSA_FD or XGSA_FD?
GSA_FD takes into account only underground conductors while XGSA_FD can take into account also overhead
conductors. So, XGSA_FD has a wider application range than GSA_FD.
Moreover XGSA_FD can take into account conductors where voltages and currents are given and can calculate also
electric fields.

XGSA_FD or XGSA_TD?
The two modules are not alternative the one to the other. XGSA_TD is simply a need in case of time domain analysis.

Why NETS?

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NETS is a very useful tools to calculate data input for others XGSLab modules (for instance the split factor or the current
to earth) without unrealistic assumptions as for instance, magnitude of fault current known and unaffected by grounding
impedances, impedances of overhead earth wires or tower footing resistances uniform along the line, or again, infinite
length of lines …
Moreover, NETS represents the link between XGS and the most diffused commercial software for power systems
analysis.

This guide describes how to uses all the available modules.

Please be aware that XGSLab is not a typical "point and click" computer program. Before to use XGSLab, the User is
advised to read this User’s Guide and the step-by-step examples included in the Tutorial. It is important to remember that
the User must have a good knowledge about the specific design rules and the corresponding reference standards.
Reference standards are not supplied with the XGSLab software but it has to be a documentation available to the User.
Anyway, for a successful application of the code the user should be familiar with the basic theory.

Finally, it is also important to bear in mind that XGSLab accuracy (as for any other computer algorithm) is dependent on
the accuracy of the data input and then on how fine soil model, material properties, layout and topology reflect actual
field conditions.

All main XGSLab options are described and detailed in this User’s Guide but the software includes many other options
that the User can discover while using. If you have not used XGSLab before, we suggest you read this User’s Guide
before performing a simulation to familiarize yourself with the capabilities of the program.

We wish you good work.

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2. GENERAL CONVENTIONS

2.1 MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS AND CONSTANTS

The mathematical symbols in Table 2-1 will be used.

Description Used

real number n
unit imaginary number j  1
complex number (Cartesian or rectangular notation – real and imaginary component
or part)
n  a  jb
complex number (polar or angle notation – magnitude or modulus or absolute value
and phase or argument)
n  r  or n  n 
vectors n
scalar product (or dot product) ab
vector product (or cross product) ab
Table 2-1: Mathematical symbols

The mathematical constants in Table 2-2 will be used.

Description and Units Value

Pi  = 3.14159…
Euler or Napier number e = 2,718281…
Euler Mascheroni constant  = 0.5882156…
Euler Mascheroni constant (exponential form) C  e = 1.781072…
Table 2-2: Mathematical constants

2.2 PHYSICAL SYMBOLS AND CONSTANTS

General physical symbols in
active or real power (W) P
reactive power (var) Q
complex power (VA) S  P  jQ
apparent power (VA) S
Table 2-3 will be used.
Corresponding per unit length symbols are in lowercase letter (where applicable).
Used symbols are substantially equivalent to symbols used in literature (e.g. ITU directives).

The symbol of transversal current “J” is derived from the symbol “j” used for the current density and taking into account
that general symbols are obtained using the corresponding capital letter of the per unit ones.
The same symbol “J” is used for leakage and injected current.

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Symbols “U” and “V” have been used respectively for potential and voltage but in literature and standards sometime the
meanings of these symbols is frequently different or opposite and is not possible a unique option is not possible. For
these reasons, the symbol “U” has been used also for touch and step voltages.

In order to indicate the greatness per unit length or per unit of surface or volume, the lowercase letters corresponding to
the general symbol will be used.

Description and Units Used

time (s) t
frequency (Hz) f
angular frequency (rad/s) 
scalar potential (V) U
vector potential (Vs/m or Wb/m) A
voltage or potential difference (V) V
current (A) I
electromotive force or EMF (V) E
transversal or leakage current (A) J
resistance (Ω) R
conductance (S) G
inductance (H) L
capacitance (F) C
coefficient of potential (Ω) W
inductive reactance (Ω) X  L
1
capacitive reactance (Ω) X 
C
impedance (Ω) Z  R  jX
mutual impedance (Ω) M  j L
admittance (S) Y
charge (C) Q
3 2
charge density (C/m or C/m or C/m) q
2
current density (A/m or A/m) j
electric field (V/m) E
magnetic field (A/m) H
2
magnetic flux density (T = Wb/m ) B
2
electric displacement field (C/m ) D
magnetic flux (Wb = Vs) 
active or real power (W) P
reactive power (var) Q
complex power (VA) S  P  jQ
apparent power (VA) S

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Table 2-3: Physical symbols - General

Moreover, following specific physical symbols will be used.

Table 2-4 contains the symbols related to propagation media, conductors and insulating.

Description and Units Used

free space permittivity (F/m) 0
free space permeability (H/m) 0
earth (or soil) resistivity (Ωm) E
earth (or soil) relative permittivity  rE
upper layer soil resistivity (Ωm) 1
upper layer soil relative permittivity  r1
upper layer soil relative permeability  r1
thickness of upper layer (m) h1
soil resistivity of a generic layer (Ωm) i
soil relative permittivity of a generic layer  ri
soil relative permeability of a generic layer  ri
soil covering layer material resistivity (Ωm) S
thickness of soil covering layer material (m) hS
reduction factor of touch and step voltages due to a soil covering layer CS
external diameter of conductor (m) d or de
internal diameter of hollow conductor (m) di
thickness of hollow conductor (m) tm
bundle conductor diameter (m) D
equivalent bundle conductor diameter (m) D eq
conductor resistivity (Ωm) m
conductor relative permeability rm
conductor covering thickness (m) tc
conductor covering resistivity (Ωm) c
conductor covering relative permittivity  rc
Table 2-4: Physical symbols – Propagation media, conductors and insulating

Table 2-5 contains the main symbols used in grounding systems literature.
Used symbols are substantially equivalent to symbols used in main standards and guides.
Anyway, Table 2-5 gives also the correspondence between Used, EN and IEEE symbols.

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Description and Units Used EN Std IEEE Std

resistance of the human body (Ω) RB RB RB
impedance of the human body (Ω) ZB ZT Z B
additional resistance (Ω) Ra Ra
shoe resistance (Ω) Rshoe
shoes resistance in parallel (Ω) Rshoes
glove resistance (Ω) R glove
self-resistance of each foot to remote earth (Ω) Rf Rf
mutual resistance between two feet (Ω) Rm Rm
resistance to earth (to ground) (Ω) RE RE Rg
Earth (Ground) Potential Rise (V) UE U E EPR GPR
earth or earth surface potential (V)  
effective touch voltage (V) UT UT
prospective (or source) touch voltage (V) U ST U ST U vT Et
permissible effective touch voltage (V) U TP U Tp
permissible prospective (or source) touch voltage (V) U STP U STP U vTp Etouch
effective step voltage (V) US US
prospective (or source) step voltage (V) U SS U SS U vS Es
permissible effective step voltage (V) U SP U Sp
permissible prospective (or source) step voltage (V) U SSP U SSP U vSp E step
earth fault current (A) IF I F I k''1 IF
current to earth (to ground) (A) IE IE Ig
drawn current (A) ID ID Ie
current flowing through the human body (A) IB IB IB
permissible current through the human body (A) I BP I Bp
single phase to earth fault clearance time (s) tF tF ts
decrement factor Df Df
reduction factor (split factor) r r Sf
phase to phase to earth short circuit current (A) I k'' 2 I k'' 2
short circuit clearance time (s) tc tc
Table 2-5: Physical symbols – Grounding systems

Other symbols, when specifically used, will be defined and described according to the subject.

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The physical constants in Table 2-6 will be used.

Description and Units Value

1
speed of light in the free space (m/s) c0  = 299792.458
 0 0
free space permeability (H/m) 0  4 10 7
1
0  = 8.85418782×10
−12
free space permittivity (F/m)
c 0
2
0

Table 2-6: Physical constants

2.3 TERMINOLOGY
The following terminology will be used:
- Program: indicates XGSLab package software
- Module: indicates GSA, GSA_FD, XGSA_FD, XGSA_TD or NETS
- *GSA* indicates GSA, GSA_FD, XGSA_FD and XGSA_TD modules
- *_FD indicates both GSA_FD and XGSA_FD modules
- XGSA_* indicates both XGSA_FD and XGSA_TD modules
- Module: indicates also SRA or FA
- Model: indicates the PEEC method

The same meaning is to be attributed to the following words when used:

- earth(ing) and ground(ing)

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3. GENERAL ASPECTS

3.1 APPLICATION LIMITS

About the modules *GSA*, the following table summarizes the main assumptions on which the different modules are
based.

Aspects taken into account GSA GSA_FD XGSA_FD XGSA_TD

Resistive coupling Yes Yes Yes Yes

Capacitive coupling No Yes Yes Yes
Self-Impedance No Yes Yes Yes
Mutual Impedance (inductive coupling) No Yes Yes Yes
Uniform Soil Model Yes Yes Yes Yes
Multilayer Soil Model Yes Yes Yes Yes
Multizone Soil Model No Yes Yes No
Frequency Dependence of Soil Parameters No ρ, ε = f(ω) ρ, ε = f(ω) ρ, ε = f(ω)
-ϒr -ϒr -ϒr
Propagation law 1/r e /r e /r e /r
Time domain No No No Yes
Table 3-1: Main assumption on the different modules

As fundamental assumption, in the GSA module each buried electrode is assumed equipotential.
Moreover GSA uses the propagation law related to the stationary condition.
This limit becomes evident with large electrodes, low soil resistivity or high frequency.
GSA is substantially a low frequency module and can calculate only resistive components of impedance to earth.
Reactive components of impedance to earth are significant when resistance to earth is low (less than 0.5 Ω) or grounding
system extension is large.
GSA_FD takes into account the voltage drops along conductors due to both self and mutual impedances and the
propagation effects and then remove previous limit.
Moreover GSA_FD takes into account the soil permittivity and the frequency dependence of soil parameters and allows
setting the used model.
XGSA_FD is based on a model similar to GSA_FD but takes into account both underground and overhead conductors.
XGSA_TD is based on the so-called “frequency domain approach” and applies XGSA_FD to the single frequency
waveform calculated with forward Fourier transform of the transient input. The response in the time domain is obtained
with the inverse Fourier transform of all these responses.

The following figures show the effects of self and mutual impedances in a square and well meshed buried electrode
energized with a current injected in a corner.
Figure 3-1 shows the earth surface potential calculated with the GSA module and reflects the equipotential condition of
the electrode (the earth surface potential over the electrode is wavy because the meshes effects).
Figure 3-2 and Figure 3-3 show the earth surface potentials calculated with the GSA_FD module and highlight
respectively the effect of the self and self + mutual impedances. Self and even more self + mutual impedance tend to
increase the earth surface potentials close to the injection point (represented in the figures with an arrow).

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High frequency, low soil resistivity, spread meshes or high impedance conductors can make this differences more and
more evident.

Figure 3-1: Earth surface potential distribution – GSA (equipotential condition)

Figure 3-2: Earth surface potential distribution – GSA_FD (only self-impedance)

Figure 3-3: Earth surface potential distribution – GSA_FD (self + mutual impedance)

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The application limits of GSA and GSA_FD were determined by a parametric analysis albeit limited to the case of square
and well meshed test grid made of copper. Figure 3-4 summarizes the results.
The analysed parameters were the maximum grid size “D” (the grid diagonal), soil resistivity “ρ” and frequency “f”.

Figure 3-4: Application domain of GSA and GSA_FD

Figure 3-4 indicates that both modules GSA and GSA_FD can be adopted in the area below the dotted red line whereas
only the module GSA_FD can be used above this line.
The highlighted area of Figure 3-4 indicates the usual condition at power frequency (50 or 60 Hz).
In its application dominion, the errors made by GSA in the GPR and touch voltages calculation are lower than 10%.

The parametric analysis was carried out assuming the test grid energized with a current injected in a corner. If the
current is injected in the grid centre, the maximum grid size is double than that mentioned in the previous graph. In other
words, “D” indicates the maximum distance between the injection point and the most distant point of the electrode.

Application limits of GSA may be also defined as a function of the wavelength of the electromagnetic field in the earth:


  3162
f

where:
- λ (m) = wavelength
- ρ (Ωm) = soil resistivity
- f (Hz) = frequency

GSA may be used if D < λ/10 and D < 700 m (this last restriction because of the effects of the DC component of the self
impedance). GSA_FD may be applied in all cases.

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For example, with a grid corner injection point and a quite low soil resistivity 50 Ωm, the maximum electrode size that can
be studied with the GSA module is about D = 316 m and D = 289 m respectively for frequency 50 and 60 Hz. In the same
conditions, but assuming a grid centre injection point, the maximum electrode size is about D = 632 m and D = 578 m
respectively for frequency 50 and 60 Hz.

It is reaffirmed that that a copper test grid has been taken into account in the above considerations. Because of the
copper cost, in some countries grounding systems are often made of steel. In these cases, the self-impedance values
introduce further limits to the application range of the GSA, and GSA_FD could be necessary for small systems too.

Briefly, at power frequency, GSA may be applied in most practical situations but it tends to underestimate the resistance
to earth in case of low resistivity, large grids, spread meshes or high impedance conductors.
At high frequency, GSA may be applied to grids with a maximum size of about ten meters.
GSA_FD may be applied in all cases.

As general rule, it is prudential to establish the frequency of 10 MHz as the application limit of GSA_FD.
In any case, this limit is conservative and should not be understood in an absolute sense.
This limit means that starting from 10 MHz, calculation accuracy gradually decreases.
The frequency range from DC to a few MHz contains all power system frequencies and the most significant frequency
spectrum of the electromagnetic transient as represented in the Figure 3-5 (corona effects are clearly out of the
application range).

Figure 3-5: Frequency spectrum of electromagnetic transient

The application limits of XGSA_FD for underground systems can be assumed as the same of GSA_FD.
The application limits of XGSA_FD for overhead systems are the same that for underground systems.
The application limits of XGSA_FD with system of conductors partly under and partly over ground are usually affected by
the low frequency breakdown problem (see literature). In XGSA_FD this problem has been solved by using a specific
conditioning procedure.

The application limits of XGSA_TD can be assumed starting from the application limits of XGSA_FD.
The frequency spectrum of the input transient has to be included in the frequency application range of XGSA_FD and
then their bandwidth has to be limited to 10 MHz. As said, the most significant frequency spectrum of the electromagnetic
transient is included in this range.

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Moreover, a basic requirement for the time domain method based on the “frequency domain approach” (as XGSA_TD) is
that the system is linear, which makes this method unsuitable for modelling of non-linear phenomena.

About the module NETS the following application limits should be considered.
NETS is a module based on the circuit theory and in particular on Kirchhoff laws for multi-conductor and multi-phase
systems.
This approach is general and overcome the classic method of symmetrical components and can be used to represents
power systems as multi-conductor networks enabling the consideration of asymmetrical systems also in presence of
grounding circuits or circuits with a different phases number.
The network is represented by means buses and cells.
The cells can represent many type of components like feeders, cables, lines, transformers, loads …
The calculation is performed in static conditions.
The frequency limit is related to the models used in particular for lines, cables and transformers.
If the network includes a cell representative of a line the frequency should be lower than 10 kHz.
If the network includes a cell representative of a cable the frequency should be lower than 1 kHz.
If the network includes a cell representative of a transformer the frequency should be lower than 1 kHz.
NETS is then substantially a low frequency tool useful in particular to calculate voltages and currents or short circuit
currents fault current distributions and split factors.

3.2 APPLICATION CONTRAINS

All the XGSLab modules have be extensively tested but as evident, they can become vulnerable and ill conditioned when
the data input are unreasonable or unrealistic.

The modules *GSA* may be used taking into account the following general constraints:

Layout
- Each electrode has to be represented as a thin cylindrical elements (wires, pipes, rods …) assembly. All non-
cylindrical elements have to be replaced with cylindrical elements with equivalent electrical data
- Elements may be solid, hollow or stranded and coated or bare
- With XGSA_*, overhead elements can be also representative of bundle conductors
- For each element, the outer diameter has to be small compared to its length and this for both bare or covered
elements (thin elements condition)
- For each element, the length has to be small compared to the maximum electrode size and to the wavelength of the
electromagnetic field in the propagation media (at the frequencies of interest, the second condition is usually
significant only for buried elements) (short elements condition)
- The whole system of conductors has to be partitioned in a number of elements that may not cause the exceeding of
the hardware limits (computer time and memory capacity). See 3.3 for details. In any case, the maximum elements
number also depending on the program version
- The spacing between elements (except consecutive elements) has to be much bigger than their diameters, so that
proximity effects (current distribution within one element influenced by current in an adjacent element) may be
ignored
- All underground electrodes are assumed to be buried in the same soil. With multilayer soil model, each buried
electrode may be placed in any layers or across layers but no elements can lie across the interface between layers

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- With XGSA_* each electrode may be placed in either air or soil or across the air – soil surface but no elements can
lie on or too close air – soil surface
- With *_FD and multizone soil model, all underground electrodes may be placed in different zones of the soil and each
element will be considered placed in the zone of its central point

Propagation Medium
- The air has to be represented as a uniform model of a good dielectric media (with a very high residual low frequency
resistivity). This condition is normally satisfied in the ionosphere (up to about 60 km from soil surface) if the electric
field is lower than the breakdown value
- The soil (or water) has to be represented as a uniform or multilayer model. The maximum layers number is unlimited
for calculation and virtually unlimited (limited to twenty) for soil resistivity analysis
- The soil resistivity should be in the range between 0.1 Ωm and 100 kΩm and the ratio between maximum and
minimum resistivities of layers should be 100. These values fully cover all the conditions that are found in nature
- With *_FD the soil may be represented also as a multizone model (uniform soil within each zone)
- The soil and the air should have a linear behaviour. This is important for the application of the effects superposition.
This condition is normally satisfied if no ionization phenomena occur. The effects of soil ionization can be significant
in case of little grounding systems (as single rods) but can be ignored for grounding grids in high voltage substations
- Possible soil covering layer has to be thin (up to 150 mm)
- When concrete foundations are analysed, concrete resistivity is assumed equal to the surrounding soil resistivity
(field and laboratory measures confirm the validity of this assumption). Anyway, a cylindrical concrete or GEM
(Ground Enhancement Material or backfill) shell around the conductors with a resistivity different from the
surrounding soil resistivity can be taken into account

Leakage Current
- The current to earth must not be so high as to produce soil ionization phenomenon. Soil ionization phenomenon may
occur with voltage gradient exceeding about 300 - 1000 kV/m (the value varies with the soil type ad condition) and
2
then with current density exceeding 3 -10 kA/m with reference to a soil resistivity of 100 Ωm. In practical cases, soil
ionization phenomenon can occur only taking into account contemporarily a great current to earth and a little
electrode. If the grounding system is designed to comply with far more stringent criteria of touch and step voltages
permissible value, the voltage gradient can always be assumed to be below the critical range
- The current to earth must not be so high as to produce soil drying phenomenon. Soil resistivity close to a grounding
systems may be affected by current flowing from the electrodes into the surrounding soil. The thermal characteristics
and the moisture content of the soil will determine if a current of a given magnitude and duration causes significant
drying and thus if it increases the effective soil resistivity. To remain in conservative conditions the value of current
2
density does not have to exceed 200 A/m for 1 s. In normal situation the leakage current density close to a
grounding system can reach and exceed 5 A/m for horizontal wires and 10 A/m for vertical rods, corresponding to a
2
current density of 159 A/m taking into account wires and rods as cylindrical electrodes having respectively a
diameter of 10 and 20 mm
- With XGSA_*, the maximum electric field in the air must be lower the breakdown value (about 3000 kV/m depending
on temperature, pressure, wet, pollution …). With an electric field value over this limit, the air can begin to
breakdown, becoming partially conductive. In practical cases, air ionization phenomenon may occur with high voltage
systems (usually over 100 kV) or lightning

The module NETS may be used taking into account the following general constraints:

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Propagation Medium
- The air has to be represented as a uniform model with a very high resistivity (for practical applications without loss)
and with permeability and permittivity as the free space
- The soil has to be represented as a uniform model and is bounded by a flat plane with infinite extent

Lines and Cables

- Lines and cables must comply the conditions for the “uniform transmission line model” and in particular:
- There are no variations along the axial direction of conductors and surrounding media characteristics
- The conductors are perfectly horizontal and are long enough so that end effects con be neglected (this make the field
problem two-dimensional). The sag of aerial lines is taken into account indirectly by using an average height above
ground
- The materials of conductors and surrounding media are linear
- The conductors spacing are much less than the wavelength relevant to the frequency under consideration
- The conductors spacing between conductors of aerial lines is at least one order of magnitude larger than the radius
of the conductors so that proximity effects (current distribution within one conductor influenced by current in adjacent
conductors) can be ignored
- The thin wire approximation is valid
- Lines and cables are represented using the P model. This model is more suitable than the T model to represent long
lines and cables but the following limits should been taken into account:
- Overhead lines length should be lower than 250 km
- Underground or aerial cable length should be lower than 100 km
- Lines and cables longer than previous limits should be represented with more cells in series
- Lines including overhead wires must be divided in more cells in series. The length of each single cell depends on the
ratio between longitudinal impedance and transverse admittance
- The propagation effects along lines and cables were not considered
- Multi core or pipe type cables are treated with an equivalent arrangement of single core cables

Transformers
- The transformers must be with 2 windings. It is possible to consider three-phase or single-phase transformers or
autotransformers

If all previous conditions are fulfilled, calculation accuracy may be appropriate for engineering perspective.

3.3 SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

XGSLab is designed to operate on personal computer (PC) having the following software and hardware requirements.

Software requirements:
- Operating system: Windows® 7 or upper, 32 or 64 bit (Windows® 10 included)
- Microsoft® .NET Framework 4.5 installed

Hardware requirements suggested:

- HD: 100 MB free space
- RAM: depending on module and maximum elements or cells number
- CPU: Intel Core i7, quad-core or more for higher version

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- Monitor: 24’ with resolution 1920x1080 (full HD) or more

About the modules *GSA*, the following hardware requirements should be considered.
Figure 3-6 shows the RAM requirements as a function of module and maximum elements number.
Taking into account that the maximum elements number is limited depending on the program version, the following RAM
requirements are suggested:
- Light version (up to 2000 elements): at least 2 GB for GSA and 4 GB for *_FD and XGSA_TD
- Standard version (up to 5000 elements): at least 4 GB for GSA and 8, better 16 GB for *_FD and XGSA_TD
- Professional version (up to 10000+ elements): at least 16 GB for GSA and 32 GB for *_FD and XGSA_TD

Moreover the following special versions are available:

- Educational version (up to 1000 elements): same requirements of Light version
- Research version (up to 5000 elements): same requirements of Standard version

Figure 3-6: RAM requirements

Professional version is virtually unlimited in elements number and then, more than 10000 elements can be taken into
account, but in this case, the maximum number of elements is limited by the operating systems. A 64 bit operating
system (the operating system required in such cases), limits the size of a single matrix of double precision complex
numbers (16 Bytes) to the theoretical limit 16384 x 16384 (exactly 4 GB). This means that anyway, the maximum
elements number cannot be over the limits in Table 3-2.

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Without With
Module
RAM Saving RAM Saving

GSA 16384

GSA_FD 8192 16384

8192 victims + 16384 victims +

XGSA_FD 16384 sources = 16384 sources =
24576 32768

XGSA_TD 8192 16384

Table 3-2: Theoretical maximum elements number for Professional version

About the module NETS, the following hardware requirements should be considered.
Taking into account that the maximum cells number is limited depending on the program version, the following RAM
requirements are suggested:
- Light version (up to 20 cells): at least 2 GB
- Standard version (up to 50 cells): at least 2 GB
- Professional version (up to 1000+ cells considering 4+4 ports for each cell): at least 8 GB

As above described, a 64 bit operating system limits the size of a single matrix of double precision complex numbers to
16384 x 16384 (exactly 4 GB). Taking into account this limit, the theoretical maximum number of unknowns is 16384,
that match to 1024 cells with 4+4 ports.

Previous requirements are evaluated taking into account about 2 GB RAM for operative system and others basic
applications and without using virtual memory RAM resources (HDD). As general rule, before starting calculations with a
large number of elements or cells, close the unused application in order to free up the available RAM.

3.4 INSTALLATION
XGSLab is available as single user license or network license version.
The single user license version includes a local hardlock key that plugs into the “USB” PC port.
The network license version includes a network hardlock key that plugs into the “USB” Server PC port.
XGSLab may not be run without the hardlock in place.

The following installation steps are required:

- Download the software from the helpdesk area
- Once the software is available on the PC execute XGSLabSetup.exe
- Insert the hardlock into the USB port

More details in the following.

3.4.1 HARDLOCK KEY

Depending on the license purchased, XGSLab is provided with a local or network hardlock key.

In case of single user license, XGSLab works in stand-alone mode and is provided with a local hardlock key.

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The hardlock key contains information regarding license necessary for working with XGSLab and must be connected to
the USB local port when using the software.

In case of network license, XGSLab works in “Client/Server” mode and is provided with a network hardlock key.
XGSLab supports “Network Hardlock Protection” (NHP).
To configure XGSLab with NHP it is necessary to install a service application that manages the user connections. This
service needs to be installed on the PC where the network hardlock is located (Server PC).
All PCs where XGSLab works need to be visible each other.
NHP software works with TCP/IP protocol. On every Client PC, where XGSLab is located, it is necessary to setup some
registry items, server address and TCP/IP port used are required.
For further information, see check the documentation on our web helpdesk area.

3.4.2 INSTALL “.NET” FRAMEWORK

XGSLab requires that “.NET” Framework 4.5 libraries be installed on PC. If XGSLab setup does not find the correct
“.NET” framework libraries, it will install all those files that are prerequisite to make XGSLab working properly.

3.4.3 INSTALLATION SEQUENCE

To install XGSLab download the software from the helpdesk area into a directory of your local PC and execute the
XGSLabSetup.exe.
The setup application will start automatically (see Figure 3-7).
Before installing a new software version, the setup application uninstalls the old software version.
Follow the step by step instructions and click “Next” when ready (some installation sequence steps are here not showed
because trivial as for example “Confirm License Agreement”).

Figure 3-7: “Welcome” window

Then specify the installation folder (see Figure 3-8).

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Figure 3-8: “Select Destination Location” window

Then confirm to proceed. When the installation is completed, a final message will be shown (see Figure 3-9).

Figure 3-9: “Installation Final Report” window

3.4.4 DIRECTORY STRUCTURE

The main XGSLab files and directories are the following (see Figure 3-10):

Main Files:
- XGSLab.exe: executable application
- XGSLabUserGuide.pdf: User’s Guide
- XGSLabTutorial.pdf: Tutorial
- Settings.xml: file settings

Directories:
- CAD: it contains usable CAD blocks
- db: it contains the template database (gsdata.xgslab)

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- lib: it contains libraries

- Log: it contains files that trace exceptions
- Projects: it contains tutorial sample projects
- StartPage: it contains useful files to generate the StartPage

Figure 3-10: Main directory structure and files

3.4.5 REPAIR AND REMOVE

Setup is also useful to repair damaged files or to remove XGSLab program.

In this case, run again “XGSLabSetup.exe” (see also 3.4.3).

3.5 THE USER INTERFACE

The XGSLab User interface is divided into the following windows (see Figure 3-11):
- A1: Title bar
- A2: Quick access bar
- B: Menu option bar
- C: Tool bar
- D: Input data area
- D1: Tab bar
- D2: Group box
- D3: Box (text box, combo box, check box)
- D4: Label
- D5: Button
- E: output data area or extended input data area
- E1: Legend area
- F: messages (info, warnings, errors, help) area (selected using the specific tab)

The group box D2 can be closed or open depending on specific conditions.

By default, only the enabled group boxes are opened.

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Tables in the window E may include many information and then many columns but they can be customized by the User
depending on the specific needs using the pop up menu that appears by clicking the mouse on the grid header.

B C A1
A2
E1
D3

D2

D1
E

D5
D4

Figure 3-11: Window features in the User interface

The following background filling colors identifies the boxes or screen areas of XGSLab containing input data or
calculation results:
- Input data area: depending on the layout style chosen
- Active Group Box: depending on the layout style chosen
- Data required or editable: yellow
- Data calculated by XGSLab and not editable: white

3.6 NUMERICAL FORMAT

Starting the program, the following messages appears to inform about the number data setting.

If the Typical European Number Format is set:

Current Number Format Setting: 123,45
Use this format for entering numeric data in the software
To change the format select: "Windows Control Panel -> Region and Language -> Additional Settings"

If the Typical American Number Format is set:

Current Number Format Setting: 123.45
Use this format for entering numeric data in the software
To change the format select: "Windows Control Panel -> Region and Language -> Additional Settings"

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Enter numerical data using the specified number format settings.

3.7 DATA FORMS

Each “Data Form” is divided into two logical areas (see Figure 3-12):
- A: a toolbar with the command buttons
- B: a list to insert or display the data with all records stored in a database

If a wrong data is inserted (e.g. the data is not a number or is out of range), the program alerts the User as follow:
- It emits an alarm sound (see 4.1.7.1)
- It writes a note in the message area

In this case, the data should be corrected before proceeding.

A
B

Figure 3-12: Typical “Data Form” structure

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Images Button Description

Toolbar panel used for moving through the records

Add new record. The detail area becomes ready to insert new field values.
Every input value is not stored until the User confirms with the save button
Remove current record. When a current record is deleted, this will be effective only
if a confirmation with save button is given
Save all changes upon current record in the database
Refresh all values
Duplicate current record
Undo modification
Export records in file format like .xls, .pdf, .html, …
Table 3-3: “Data Form” command buttons

3.8 GRAPHICAL AND RESULTS FORMS

Each “Graphical Form” is divided into four logical areas (see Figure 3-13):
- A: a toolbar column with the command buttons
- B: a main area, where all graphical data or graphical results are represented
- C: an info area where details about graphical representation may be found
- D: an additional information bar, in the bottom side of the main area, where the User can view for example the pointer
coordinates when the cursor moves on the main area

D
Figure 3-13: Typical “Results Form” structure

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The toolbar area A also contains information about the calculation starting times. The indicated time is related to the
starting of the calculation made to obtain the data represented in the graphic. In the case of “Line Calculation” and “Area
Calculation” two calculation times are indicated: the first one is related to the solution of the linear system, the second
one to the specific calculation.
This information is useful to recognize the graphic when more graphic windows are available.

Anyway, the graphical results related to calculations did before the calculation in progress, indicated the calculation
starting time on red background.

Images Button Description

Save graphical data or result in “png” format according to a selected path
Print graphical data or result on a selected printer device
Copy graphical data or results on Windows clipboard for other applications
Keep Image. Selection of this option allows to store represented image for
subsequent report creation
Move. User can move represented image in all directions pressing down the left
mouse button
Mouse +/-. With left and right mouse buttons the User can enlarge and contract
graphical representations in the main area (left button: zoom in, right button:
zoom out)

Zoom extension. Selection of this option allows to adapt graphical image size
according to the main area size

Zoom area. The User can enlarge a specific area. Selection of an area is
possible by dragging the mouse cursor pressing down the left mouse button

Full screen. With this selection it is possible to maximize the screen area.
“Graphical Form” may be separated from main interface. Selection of full screen
option again allows to reconnect it

Measure. With this tool it is possible to measure the distance between two
points on the soil surface

DXF. With this tool it is possible to export in a *.dxf file the contour lines

Table 3-4: “Graphical Form and “Results Form” command buttons

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CHAPTER 2 – MENU OPTIONS

The XGSLab menu contains the following main options:
- File
- Project
- Analysis
- Summary
- Libraries
- Windows
- Help

All the XGSLab menu options are integrated in a common shell program.

4. FILE

4.1 GENERAL

4.1.1 START PAGE

Select “File  General  Start Page” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 4-2) to display the start page of
XGSLab.

Figure 4-1: “Start Page” window

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XGSLab shows a window with the main starting options and the list of the recent projects.
Moreover the “Start Page” includes useful information about utilities and links that can be help the User.
The documents section includes:
- User’s Guide
- Tutorial
- General Licensing Conditions

The arrow in the Figure 4-1 indicates the position for the following useful icons:
- Home: use this command to return to the “Start Page”
- Cloud: indicates that there is an active Internet connection
- Flag: the full flag indicates that there is a notification available, while an empty flag indicates that there are no
notifications

We advise the User to read the “Start Page” at least at the first time he/she uses XGSLab.

4.1.2 NEW

Select “File  General  New” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 4-2) to create a new project.

Figure 4-2: “New Project” window

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XGSLab shows a window with the list of the existing projects in the default project directory.
To create a new project enter a “Project Name” in the proper box and click “Save”.
The “Project Name” will appear in the program title bar.

Starting from release 6.6.1 on, all project is included in one single file.
When a new project is created a new “xgslab” file will be created.
Previous versions worked with a directory structure and many files for a single project.

4.1.3 OPEN

Select “File  General  Open” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 4-3) to open an existing project.
The "Open" function allows to open an existing project and the calculation results if available.

Figure 4-3: “Open an existing Project” window

XGSLab shows a window with the list of the existing projects included in the default project directory.
The default project directory is the one used in the last access.
To open an existing project select it and click “Open” or double-click on it.
The “Project Name” will appear in the program title bar.
It is also possible open an existing project directly double-clicking on the suitable “xgslab” file from Windows® Explorer.

By default, projects folder is located under XGSLab installation directory but the User may change the projects directory.

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Important notice: when User changes module or soil model parameters or layout, topology, electrical data … on
existing projects, the calculation matrices need to be recalculated. In all these cases a new calculation is required.

Important notice: in order to maintain the compatibility with projects created with older XGSLab versions, from release
6.6.1 on, the User has just to open the file with “sdf” extension located in the “data” directory. If once opened the project
is saved, its compatibility with previous XGSLab versions is lost forever. For this reason, we suggest to open the “sdf” file
and then “save as” it into a file with a new name or in a different path changing its extension in “xgslab”. Handling in this
way the old files the User will obtain a complete compatibility and also the possibility to continue manipulating the old
files with the old versions of XGSLab.

4.1.4 CLOSE

Select “File  General  Close” command from “Menu option bar” to close an open project.
It is then either possible to create a new project or to open an existing project as previously described.

4.1.5 SAVE

Select “File  General  Save” command from “Menu option bar” to save an open project.
The "Save" function allows to save the project and the calculation results if available.

4.1.6 SAVE AS...

Select “File  General  Save as...” command from “Menu option bar” to save an open project.
The "Save as..." function allows to save the selected project in a directory different from the default projects folder.
To manipulate the project use the project dialog form (see 4.1.1).

4.1.7 SETTINGS

The default XGSLab settings may be changed by the User.

The “Default” panel includes “Regional Options, Sounds, Calculation Options, Expert User’s Settings and Layout Style”
The “Colors and Graphics” panel includes graphics output parameters and several colors settings.

4.1.7.1 DEFAULT

Select “File  General  Settings  Default” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 4-4).

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Figure 4-4: “Settings – Default” window

Regional Options
It is possible to change the reference language used in the program.
For the English language two options are available: US (ANSI) and en-UK (IEC).
It is possible to change the number format settings.
To change the number format select: "Windows Control Panel -> Region and Language -> Additional Settings".
Usually, the following numerical formats are used:
- European Countries 1.243.456.900,00
- American Countries: 1,243,456,900.00

Sounds
It is possible to specify two files “wav” containing the parametric sounds used by the program to advise the User about
messages or errors and warnings respectively. To set a sound, specify the path and name of the respective files “wav”.
Then click “Apply” in the “Default” Panel. When the alert sounds are used, remember to switch on the PC speaker.
If the parametric sounds files are not specified, XGSLab uses the PC speaker beep.

Calculation Options
It is possible to set the number of thread used by XGSLab for the calculations as follows:
- Thread Number = 0 (default condition): all thread will be involved on calculation
- Thread Number = n: only “n” thread will be involved on calculation

Important notice: taking into account that the calculation time can be quite long, we advise the user to set a threads
number lower than the maximum. Indeed, leaving at least one free thread, allows the User to go on working on
something else while the calculation in running. On the other hand, if the threads number is set at its maximum, all the
capability of the computer is devoted to the calculation and so other programs work at considerably reduced speed.

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Important notice: the settings “Thread Number = 0” could give problem in case of XEON® threads. In this case, the
suggestion is to set half of the maximum detected thread numbers.

With *_FD it is also possible to set the threshold of elements number above which a RAM saving calculation option is
adopted in the general linear system solution.

If the elements number is below the “RAM Saving” threshold the program uses a single step solver.
The solver finds directly the solution of the “2n” order system:

 A11   A12   x1   b1 


 A21   A22   x2  b2 

The single step process works with a “2n” order matrix and requires RAM resources proportional to “2n x 2n”.

If the elements number is above the “RAM Saving” threshold the program uses a double step solver.
The previous “2n” order system can be splitted in two “n” order equations as follows:

 A11 x1   A12 x2   b1

 A21 x1   A22 x2   b2 

From the second equation it follows:

x2    A22  b2    A21 x1

1

Replacing in the first equation and rearranging, the following “n” order linear system is obtained:

 A    A  A
11 12 22   A21 x1  b1   A12  A22  b2 
1 1

The solution “x1” can be used to calculate “x2” using previous equation.
The two steps process works with “n” order matrices and requires RAM resources proportional to “n x n”.
So, the two steps process can save RAM resources. On the other side, this process requires an inversion of a “n” order
matrix, some multiplications between “n” order matrices and a solution of a “n” order system.
The two step solver process is less efficient and accurate than the single step process and should be used only when
necessary. Moreover, in some circumstances (short and/or well insulated elements), the RAM saving calculation option
can cause numerical instability.

On the other hand, the RAM saving calculation option allows to make calculations when RAM resource is limited.
A default “RAM Saving” = 5000 elements is adopted but the User may change this value between 1 and 8192.
When the “RAM Saving” = 1 element, RAM Saving calculation option is always adopted.

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Important notice: The “RAM Saving” threshold is related to the total elements number with GSA_FD and XGSA_TD and
to the victim elements number with XGSA_FD.

Expert User’s Settings

Using the modules *GSA*, it is possible to set the parameter “L (m)” to improve the potential coefficient calculation
precision.
The default value is L = 1 m but the User can set a lower value in case of elements close to interface between layers with
a very different resistivity. In the opposite conditions, the User can set a higher value making the calculation faster.

Layout Style
It is possible to set the style of the XGSLab windows.

4.1.7.2 COLORS AND GRAPHICS

Select “File  File  Settings  Colors and Graphics” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 4-5).

Figure 4-5: “Settings - Colors and Graphics” window

Some options in the following are available only when using *GSA* (they are not applicable to NETS).

Graphics Output
It is possible to change the display options for graphical results as follows:
- Height and Width: size (pixel number) of graphical results images. Set these values according to the needed
resolution. With larger values the graphics quality will be better but the size of the file images increase
- Zoom Step: scaling factor for zoom in/out in graphical forms. For example a value of 5% implies that zoom-in
command increases graphical images at 105% and zoom-out reduces graphical image size at 95%
- Calculation Domain: style of lines used in order to represent calculation lines and areas

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- Buried Conductor: style of lines used in order to represent buried conductors (available only when using XGSA_*)
- Fill Resolution: track bar that allows setting filler resolution in area calculation results. A higher value implies a longer
computation time to obtain the representation

Level Colors
It is possible to select the set of the used colors for the scale colors levels representation (area calculation and
distributions results).
If the “User Scale” is checked, the User can customize single colors choosing from a palette.
The levels number can be customized by the User.

Groups Colors
It is possible to change default groups colors in orthographic projection graphics choosing from a palette.

Graphic Elements Colors

It is possible to change default colors for the listed graphical elements used in the program.

Restore Default Colors

This button allows the User to reset the colors to the initial settings.

4.1.8 UNLOCK

Select “File  General  Unlock” command from “Menu option bar” to delete temporary files that can prevent the
opening of existing projects.
When opening a project XGSLab automatically creates a temporary file in order to prevent other Users open the same
file. This temporary file will automatically delete closing the project. If the project is closed in a different way (e.g.
interrupted with the task manager option) the temporary file is not deleted, and prevents the reopening of the project.

4.1.9 CLEAR

Select “File  General  Clear” command from “Menu option bar” to delete unused or empty files in the local directory
where temporary files are saved.

4.1.10 EXIT

Select “File  General  Exit” command from “Menu option bar” to terminate the XGSLab execution.

4.2 MACRO

4.2.1 SCHEDULING

This option is available only if “Project  Module  GSA or *_FD” is selected and only for Professional version.
Select “File  Macro  Scheduling” command from “Menu option bar” to open the scheduling panel.

This option allows to run a list of projects in sequence and it's very useful in the case of projects that take a long CPU
time. Calculations can be done for example during the night and results will be available in the next morning.

Select the tab “Projects” (see Figure 4-6).

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The User can set the path of each project (see the following figure).
The list can include projects that require different modules such as GSA, GSA_FD and XGSA_FD (but not XGSA_TD).

Figure 4-6: “Scheduling” window

Select the tab “Messages” (see Figure 4-6).

The User can read messages written during the calculation process.

4.2.2 EXECUTE

Select “File  Macro  Execute” command from “Menu option bar” to run the calculation process.

The calculation sequence takes place in the same order of the project list.
Calculation results of each project will be saved.

4.2.3 CANCEL

Select “File  Macro  Cancel” command from “Menu option bar” to stop the calculation process.

5. PROJECT

5.1 MODULE
XGSLab includes the following modules:
- GSA

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- GSA_FD
- XGSA_FD
- XGSA_TD
- NETS

When a new module is selected all the open windows will be closed and calculation must be restarted.

GSA requires a complete set of information regarding reference standard, soil model parameters, grounding system
layout and electrical data.
GSA_FD also requires soil permittivity, material parameters (conductors and insulating), conductors topology and
calculation frequency.
XGSA_FD also requires data about overhead conductors and eventually, potential or leakage current and/or longitudinal
current on sources conductors (conductors where potential or leakage current and/or longitudinal current are known and
independent).
XGSA_TD requires the description of the transient wave shape in the time domain. XGSA_TD uses XGSA_FD in the
calculation process and then requires similar data input.
Some of the required data (as earthing current, minimum conductor size and catenary parameters) can be calculated
using specific tools included in the program.
NETS requires a complete set of information about bus and cells.

5.1.1 GSA

Select “Project  Module  GSA” command from “Menu option bar” to select the module GSA.

5.1.2 GSA_FD

Select “Project  Module  GSA_FD” command from ““Menu option bar” to select the module GSA_FD.

5.1.3 XGSA_FD

Select “Project  Module  XGSA_FD” command from “Menu option bar” to select the module XGSA_FD.

5.1.4 XGSA_TD

Select “Project  Module  XGSA_TD” command from “Menu option bar” to select the module XGSA_TD.

5.1.5 NETS

Select “Project  Module  NETS” command from “Menu option bar” to select the module NETS.

5.2 GENERAL

5.2.1 PROJECT INFORMATION

Select “Project  General  Project Information” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 5-1) to open a
window where the User can write and save the main information related to the project.

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Figure 5-1: “Project Information” window

5.2.2 REFERENCE STANDARD

This option is available if “Project  Module  GSA or *_FD” is selected.

Select “Project  General  Reference Standard” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 5-2) to choose the
reference standard to be used in the project.

Figure 5-2: “Reference Standards” window

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The User can choose the reference standard for the following areas:
- Touch and Step Voltages
- Conductor Sizing
- Earthing Current

It is then possible to apply different standards to different areas.

The User can choose to design the grounding systems according to the following reference standards:
- International standard: IEC/TS 60479-1:2005 (not available for Conductor Sizing and Earthing Current)
- European standard: HD 637 S1:1999
- European standard: EN 50522:2010
- USA standard: IEEE Std 80-2000
- USA standard: IEEE Std 80-2013

The IEC standards can be used when allowed and when possible because their safety limits are based on recent
knowledge about interference of the fault current with the T-phase (occurs at around 0.4 s) of the heart pulse which is
more likely to cause fibrillation of the heart.

The EN standards can be used in those European countries that are members and affiliate members of CENELEC
committee (more than 50 countries) and accepted in many other countries in the world (Africa, Far East ...).
The HD 637 S1:1999 standard could be uses up to 01/11/2013. It can be used to verify existing grounding system.
The User has to take into account the special national conditions and national provision of some countries as specified in
the HD 637 S1:1999 Annex T.
The User has to take into account the special national deviation of some countries as specified in the EN 50522:2010
Annex.

The IEEE standards are widely used in USA and adopted in several other countries in South America, Australia and in
the Middle East.
The IEEE Std 80-2000 standard is expired. It can be used to verify existing grounding system.

5.3 WAVEFORM
XGSLab supports the following waveforms:
- Sinusoidal
- Transient

5.3.1 SINUSOIDAL

This option is available if “Project  Module  *_FD, XGSA_TD” or NETS is selected.

Select “Project  Waveform  Sinusoidal” command from “Menu option bar”.

Insert the frequency value in the “Sinusoidal” group box (see Figure 5-3).
XGSLab accepts any value of positive frequency but as said in 3.1, the application frequency range is about from DC to
more than 10 MHz. Frequencies above 10 MHz are accepted but the User must take into account that from 10 MHz
calculation accuracy gradually decreases.

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The XGSA_FD application frequency range is from DC to more than 10 MHz but with system of conductors partly under
and partly over ground, in very particular circumstances, XGSA_FD could be affected by the low frequency breakdown
problem.

The NETS application frequency range is from DC to a few kHz depending on presence of lines, cables or transformers.
Using the module NETS the frequency is used in calculation of lines and cables parameters.

Figure 5-3: “Sinusoidal” group box

5.3.2 TRANSIENT

This option is available if “Project  Module  XGSA_TD” is selected.

In general, it is quite difficult to calculate the response of a system of conductors to a transient input directly in the time
domain. One possible and widely used approach in this regard is the so-called “frequency domain approach”.
As known, a transient can be considered as the superposition of many single frequency waveform calculated with the
forward Fourier transforms.
Using the frequency domain model implemented in XGSA_FD it is then possible calculate the response of the system for
each of these single frequency waveform.
The resulting time domain response can be obtained by applying the inverse Fourier transform to all these response.
As said in 3.1, the frequency spectrum of the input transient has to be limited to 10 MHz and the system has to be linear.

Select “Project  Waveform  Transient” command from “Menu option bar”.

First, enter the reference frequency value in the “Sinusoidal” group box (see Figure 5-3).
The reference frequency cannot be zero and is required in order to allow the updating of the reactance of the additional
impedances for each single frequency waveform. The value of the inserted reactance is assumed related to the
reference frequency. Then, in case of inductive or capacitive reactance respectively, the additional impedance will be
updated as follows:

fc
Z L  R  jX L
fr

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fr
Z C  R  jX C
fc
where:
- R (Ω) = resistance
- XL (Ω) = inductive reactance
- XC (Ω) = capacitive reactance
- fc (Hz) = calculation frequency
- fr (Hz) = reference frequency

Select the transient type in the “Transient” group box (see Figure 5-4).
XGSA_TD supports the following transient type:
- Function
- Samples (not yet available)

Figure 5-4: “Transient” group box

In order to complete the data input press “Edit” in the “Transient“ group box (see Figure 5-4) and select the appropriate
function model.
The following well established models are implemented:
- Double Exponential
- Pulse
- Heidler

The formulas of the implemented models are the following:

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f peak    2  
t t

Double Exponential f t   e e 1 

k  


n
f peak   
t t

Pulse f t   1 e 1 
e 2
k  


n
t 
 
f peak   1 
t

Heidler f t   n
e 2

k t 
1   
 1 

where:
- fpeak (V or A) = peak value (1 for normalized function)
- k = corrective factor of the peak value
- n = steepness factor
- τ1 (μs) = front time or rise time to peak parameter
- τ2 (μs) = decay time or time to half value parameter

The double exponential function is quite commonly used in experimental study but in general cannot well represent a
lightning current because it starts unrealistically with the maximum current steepness at the time t = 0, while as known,
the front of the lightning short stroke current exhibits firstly a slowly rising portion followed by a fast current rise. This
disadvantage can be avoid with the Pulse and Heidler functions. In particular, the Heidler function is also adopted by the
IEC 62305 standard as representative of the standard lightning short strokes. More details in the available wide literature.

Important notice: the front and decay time parameters τ1 and τ2 are related (but different) to the front and decay time
values T1 and T2 displayed in Figure 5-5 in case of current impulse (in case of voltage impulse, the front time is usually
related to the points 30% and 90% of the peak value). The parameters correspondent to typical front and time values T1
and T2 can be found in the reference literature. Moreover, consider that sometime front and decay time values are not
defined as in Figure 5-5 but T1 corresponds to the peak time (from t = 0 to t = peak) and T2 to the half time (from t = 0 to t
= peak/2).

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Figure 5-5: Definition of front and decay time T1 and T2

Insert in the edit panel the required parameters of the selected model.
The edit panel allows to enter the parameters of the normalized function (with peak value = 1). The peak value is then
not required. The normalized transient function represents the wave shape of all the injected currents or impressed EMF
applied to the system of conductors. The User may apply to the same system an arbitrary number of injected currents or
impressed EMF, each with a specific peak value, but all these will be applied to the same time t = 0, and will have the
same wave shape. Of course for t < 0 the injected currents or impressed EMF are null.
The corrective factor of the peak value is calculated in order to have a peak value equal to 1. The corrective factor for the
Heidler function is not exact but is anyway well approximated (error less than 2%) if n > 3 and τ2/τ1 > 10.
The steepness factor can be usually set in the range 2 - 10. The steepness factor used in the IEC 62305-1 standard for
the Heidler function is n = 10.
As said, the usual front and decay time parameters of the usual impulse of current or voltage can be found in the
reference literature or reference standards.

In this regard, in the following some general information about the standard lightning strokes.
Cloud to earth lightning are classified by the IEC 62305 standard as follows:
- First positive short stroke
- First negative short stroke
- Subsequent negative short stroke
- Long stroke

First stroke current may have positive polarity (in 10% of cases) or negative polarity (in 90% of cases), while subsequent
stroke polarity is always negative. Polarity indicates the sign of the charge in the part of the cloud where the lightning
starts. The negative and positive charge are in the bottom and upper part of the cloud respectively.

The standard lightning wave shape of first and subsequent strokes may be well represented with the Heidler function.
The analytical expression deduced by Heidler is based on years of statistical analysis of lightning strokes in different
parts of world.

The main parameters standardized by IEC 62305-1 for first and subsequent strokes are the following (the peak values
depend on the protection level of the lightning protection system):
- First positive short stroke: Ipeak = 200, 150 or 100 kA, T1/T2 = 10/350 µs, τ1 = 19 µs, τ2 = 485 µs

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- First negative short stroke: Ipeak = 100, 75 or 50 kA, T1/T2 = 1/200 µs, τ1 = 1.82 µs, τ2 = 285 µs
- Subsequent negative short stroke: Ipeak = 50, 37.5 or 25 kA, T1/T2 = 0.25/100 µs, τ1 = 0.454 µs, τ2 = 143 µs

Other impulse current waveform used in the design of low voltages power lines within structures:
- T1/T2 = 1.2/50 µs, τ1 = 0.404 µs, τ2 = 68.5 µs
- T1/T2 = 8/20 μs, τ1 = 4.33 µs, τ2 = 17.3 µs

In case of double exponential current impulse, the following approximated formulas can be adopted in order to obtain the
front and decay time parameters τ1 and τ2 starting from the related front and decay time values T1 and T2:

T1
1  valid if 1   2
2.75

T2
2  valid if 1   2
0.693

Then click “View” in the edit panel group box to display the normalized transient function in the time domain (see Figure
5-4). The normalized transient function will be displayed in the interval between t = 0 (application instant) and t = Tc
(sampling time). The calculation of the sampling time value is based on the decay time parameter, on the time domain
-3
transient truncation criteria (the normalized transient has been truncated when its value is lower than 10 ), and the
maximum frequency sampling integral set inside the program (about 2 kHz). After the sampling time, the transient
function is anyway negligible if compared with its peak value.
Set the maximum value to resize the time axis of the time domain distribution.

Set the eventual low pass digital filter frequency.

The frequency can be set in the range between 1 MHz and 10 MHz.
If for instance a value 8 MHz is set, the transient frequency spectrum for frequency over 8 MHz will be gradually
attenuated and their effects will be negligible.
No filter is applied if a value 10 MHz is set.
A digital filter can be useful in order to remove unwanted parts of the transient, such as high frequency noise.
Use the digital filter option with full knowledge of the facts about its effects.

Set the number of critical frequencies.

The User can set “Frequencies” as “Default” or “Custom”.
With “Default” option, the box “Frequencies No” is enabled and the User can set:
- N = 167: in this case, the set of critical frequencies is chosen based on literature suggestions. This set is suitable for
engineering applications
- N = 1101: in this case, the set of critical frequencies is chosen based on suggestion of Prof. Heidler. This set is
suitable for scientific applications and as evident, it require a long calculation time

With “Custom” option, the seven boxes related to the decades between 1 Hz and 10 MHz are enabled and the User can
set for each single decade a number of critical frequencies (or leave the default values).
In this case, the critical frequencies are chosen as in the following (If the number of critical frequencies for a decade is
set zero, no critical frequencies in this decade will be set):

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f max  f min
f0  0 Hz, f i  f min  i Hz with i  0,1,K n  1 for each decade, f N  10 MHz
n

where:
- n = number of critical frequencies for each decade
- N = total number of critical frequencies

Important notice: the settings of the critical frequencies is for expert Users.
As general rule, a total number of critical frequencies lower than 100 is usually too poor while a number 1000 or more is
time consuming but sometime can be useful to improve the results in the time domain (and in particular to limit offset).
In case of doubts, the User should use the “Default” critical frequencies.
As additional rule, the critical frequencies number should be increased in case of high resistivity soils and large systems.
In these cases, resonances may occur that require a higher density of critical frequencies especially in the upper
decades.

Click “Calculate” in the edit panel group box to obtain the forward Fourier transform of the normalized transient function.
The used forward Fourier transform formula is the following:

N 1
F k    f n e  j 2kn / N with k  0,1,  N  1
n 0

where:
- F = frequency spectrum of the input function
- f = time domain samples of the input function
- N = samples number

The samples number N is automatically set by the program and is always a power of 2.
The frequency spectrum is usually complex, and if the transient is real (as in the case of interest), the frequency
spectrum meet the Hermitian symmetry condition and then:

F  k    F * k 

Moreover the frequency spectrum is periodic with period N:

F k  nN   F k 

The previous properties of the frequency spectrum can be used in order to limit the frequency samples of the frequency
spectrum to N/2+1.

In general N/2+1 represents a too large number of calculation frequencies and then, only a limited number of critical
frequencies (see above) are used in the calculation.

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The frequency spectrum of the input function at the critical frequencies is then represented in numerical form (see Figure
5-4).
The frequency spectrum normalized with respect the DC component is also displayed in real and imaginary parts and
modulus by default and in only in modulus if the “Log – Log” flag is selected (see Figure 5-4).
Set the maximum value to resize the frequency axis of the frequency spectrum distribution.

The minimum frequency in the frequency spectrum is zero (DC) and usually the maximum value of the frequency
spectrum modulus is the value at zero frequency.
The maximum critical frequency is set 10 MHz.
In order to ensure a good calculation precision, the maximum frequency spectrum of the transient input should be lower
than 10 MHz. The highest frequencies in the frequency spectrum are related to the faster time variation in the transient.
The lightning current impulse usually has the highest frequency content during its rise, and then, during the first moment
of the stroke.

Click” the “Export” button above the table with the frequency spectrum values (see Figure 5-4) in order to export the
frequency spectrum (at the critical frequencies) data in numerical form.
Click” the “Copy Image” button above the time domain or frequency spectrum distributions (see Figure 5-4) in order to
copy the images on Windows clipboard for other applications.

Then click “Apply” in the edit panel group box to accept the frequency spectrum calculated.
The single frequency waveform used in the next calculations corresponds to the critical frequencies.
When the calculation process will run, for each single critical frequency a response will be obtain. In general, for each
single critical frequency all matrices of the calculation procedure in the frequency domain have to be recalculated and
then, the whole calculation process is usually quite heavy.
The set of the N/2+1 responses is then obtained by interpolating the results at the critical frequencies.
The set of the N/2+1 responses can be indicated as G(k). Taking into account the properties of the function G (Hermitian
symmetry and periodicity), the response in the time domain can be calculated with the following inverse Fourier
transform formula:

1 N 2 N 1 
g n     G k e j 2nk / N   G *  N  k e j 2nk / N 
  with n  0,1,  N  1
N  k 0 k  N 21 

The only real part of the function g(n) will be consider.

Important notice: as said, the calculation in the time domain can be quite heavy. In this regard, it can be useful to
consider that the effects of a transient can be calculated also in the frequency domain. This approach is approximated
but useful for engineering purposes. The key idea is to represent the transient with a single frequency waveform having
“equivalent” values of frequency and effective value.
The equivalent frequency can be calculated as follows:

1
f eq 
4T1

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where:
- feq (MHz) = equivalent frequency of the single frequency waveform
- T1 (μs) = front time or rise time to peak of the transient

The equivalent effective current can be calculated as follows:

I peak
I eff 
2

where:
- Ipeak (A) = current peak of the transient
- Ieff (A) = effective current of the single frequency waveform

The equivalent frequency of the standard lightning are the following:

- First positive short stroke: 25 kHz
- First negative short stroke: 250 kHz
- Subsequent negative short stroke: 1 MHz

For instance, a first positive short stroke with Ipeak = 200 kA is equivalent to a single frequency waveform with frequency
25 kHz and effective current 200/√2 = 141.4 kA.
The equivalence between impulse and single frequency waveform means that, the maximum values of touch and step
voltages or magnetic and electric field of the two waveform are the same for engineering perspective. This values have
to be compared with limits related to the same frequency.

5.4 SOIL

This option is available if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

XGSLab supports the following soil models:
- Uniform Model
- Multilayer Model
- Multizone Model (available only when using *_FD)

In all cases, the presence of an additional “Soil Covering Layer” can be considered.
Of course it is possible also to consider water or ice or any other propagation media.

There is many literature about the criteria to set an appropriate soil model which can be used for predict the
performances of a grounding system. Regarding this point, we can only provide a few but useful basic tips.

A uniform soil model should be used only when there is a moderate variation in apparent measured resistivity both in
vertical and horizontal direction but, for the majority of the soils, this assumption is not valid.
A uniform soil model can be often used for preliminary calculations or also in case of high frequency calculations. At high
frequency, the penetration depth of the electromagnetic fields in the soil is limited (the penetration depth tends to a
constant value depending on soil resistivity and permittivity as frequency tends to infinite), so the soil resistivity of the
depth layers do not affect the results.

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It is important to know that it is not possible to find an equivalent uniform soil for an actual heterogeneous soil but that it
is only possible to assume a soil with average characteristics.

The soil structure in general changes both in vertical and horizontal direction as represented in the following figure.

B A

Figure 5-6: Soil structure and grounding system small “A” and intermediate “B”

The vertical changings are usually predominant on the horizontal ones, but to correctly apply this concept it is essential
to consider also the grounding system size.
In case of small grounding systems (maximum size up to a few hundred meters), soil model is not significantly affected to
horizontal changings in soil resistivity and usually a multilayer soil model is appropriate. The layer number depends on
the soil resistivity variations in vertical direction and three or four layers can be sufficient for most cases.
In case of grounding systems of intermediate size, soil model is affected to both horizontal and vertical changings in soil
resistivity and usually an equivalent double or triple layer soil model is appropriate. This is the most important case in
practical applications.
In case of large grounding systems (maximum size over a few kilometres), soil model is significantly affected to
horizontal changings in soil resistivity and usually a multizone soil model is appropriate. The zone number depends on
the system size and soil resistivity variations in horizontal direction.

The soil model parameters include in general resistivity, permittivity and permeability.

GSA uses a frequency independent model which takes into account only the low frequency soil resistivity while *_FD and
XGSA_TD can use also a frequency dependent model which takes into account the soil effective resistivity and
permittivity.
The low frequency soil resistivity value may be calculated from on-site measured values as in 11.3.
The high frequency soil permittivity value may be set as described in 11.2.

When using *_FD and XGSA_TD, before proceedings select the appropriate model in the “Frequency Dependence”
group box. The following models have been implemented:
- Independent (default model)
- Messier
- Visacro - Portela
- Visacro – Alipio

The selected model affects the calculation results only if the frequency is higher than about 100 kHz.
There is no generally accepted formulation to express the frequency dependence of soil parameters. In case of doubt or
in absence of further information, in order to consider the soil parameters frequency dependence the Messier model and
the default value of high frequency permittivity can be used. More details in 11.2.

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The effective resistivity and permittivity of the soil will be automatically calculated by using the selected frequency
dependence model starting from the values of frequency, low frequency resistivity and high frequency permittivity.
The soil effective resistivity and permittivity values will be used in the calculations.

The independent model assumes that soil parameters are not frequency dependent. In this case, with any frequency, the
soil effective resistivity will be the low frequency resistivity and the soil effective permittivity the high frequency
permittivity. The consideration of frequency independent soil parameters leads to conservative values of grounding
impedance.

XGSLab takes into account as default a soil effective relative permeability 1.

5.4.1 UNIFORM MODEL

If a uniform soil model is chosen, XGSLab requires the low frequency soil resistivity and the high frequency soil
permittivity values.

Select “Project  Soil  Uniform Model” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 5-7).

Figure 5-7: “Uniform Model” direct input

Insert the required data in the “Uniform Model” group box.

The default value of the high frequency soil permittivity displayed in the “Uniform Model” group box is 6.
The User can modify the proposed parameter: the modified value will be used in the next calculation.

Important notice: XGSLab accepts a minimum resistivity value 0.1 Ωm. This value is well lower the minimum resistivity
values of all kind of soils in nature and also lower to the resistivity of the sea water (usually in the range 0.20 – 0.25 Ωm).

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If the low frequency soil resistivity is not directly available, click “Calculate” in the “Uniform Model” group box (see Figure
5-7). XGSLab requires the measured Wenner or Schlumberger resistances (also called apparent soil resistances) or
apparent resistivities and the corresponding electrodes spacing and depth which are necessary to calculate the soil
resistivity value (see Figure 5-8).

Set the Flag “Measures Type” in order to decide if the reference values are resistances or resistivities.
The following apparent soil resistivities or resistances will be calculated (11.3):

2R
E  (if Measures Type = R)
k

E
Rk (if Measures Type = ρ)
2

1 1 1 1
k   
c 2  b A  bV  a  c   b A  bV  c 2  b A  bV  a  c   b A  bV 
2 2 2 2 2 2

where:

- E (Ωm) = apparent soil resistivity

- a (m) = electrodes spacing if Wenner method is used
- a (m) = spacing between voltage probes if Schlumberger method is used
- bA (m) = depth of the current probes

- bV (m) = depth of the voltage probes

- c (m) = spacing between voltage and current probes if Schlumberger method is used

- R (Ω) = Wenner resistance if a  c , Schlumberger resistance if a  c

As known, the Wenner method can be considered as a particular case of the Schlumberger method with a  c.

Important notice: in the following, Schlumberger indicates both the arrangements Schlumberger – Palmer (with a > c)
and Schlumberger (with a < c).

Often, instruments give directly the apparent resistivity value taking into account only the electrodes spacing, not the
electrodes depth. In these cases, in order to correct the measures considering the electrodes depth, the User can
calculate the corresponding measured resistances as follows:

a
R   E b  0 
ca  c 

Then, the User can insert these apparent soil resistances including electrodes spacing and depth and set up “Measures
Type = R”. With the above formula, XGSLab will calculate the apparent resistivity values taking into account the
electrodes depth.

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Anyway, only the apparent resistivities will be used to calculate the corresponding uniform soil model.

The default value for the electrodes depth is zero and this assumption is valid if:

b  a and b  c

Set the Flag “Consider Probes Depth = No” in order to ignore the electrodes depth effects. In this case, the electrode
depth columns will be hidden and all electrode depth values will be forced to zero.
If the electrodes depth are not taken into account:

2a
k
ca  c 

In these conditions, the relation between Wenner and Schlumberger resistances and apparent soil resistivities are
respectively (11.3):

 E  2aRW

ca  c 
E   RS
a

The electrodes spacing and Wenner or Schlumberger resistances or apparent soil resistivities can be copied from “xls” or
“txt” file and then pasted in the input data table using the specific icon.
The data form of the copied data has to be coherent with the selected number format settings.
The measured data will be considered resistances or resistivities if “Measures Type” = R or ρ respectively.

Also a manual data input is possible for the resistivity measured values. This way of entering soil data consists in
creating a tab filled in with electrodes spacing and depth values and related Wenner or Schlumberger resistances or
directly apparent soil resistivities depending on the available data.
By default “c = a” and “b = 0” but the User can confirm or change the proposed values.

It is not necessary to input the measured Wenner or Schlumberger resistance or resistivity values sorted by increasing
electrodes spacing values. Also multiple measured values with same electrodes spacing can be inputted.

The flag “Selected” in the input data area is normally checked. Unchecking the flag, the data in the row will not be taken
into account in the soil model calculation. This option is very useful because it allows the User not to take into account
some measure records without deleting them. It is also possible to select multiple data rows and to swap them on or off
by clicking on the right mouse button.

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B
E
C

Figure 5-8: “Uniform Model” resistivity calculations

At the end of data input, click “Calculate” (see arrow A in Figure 5-8).
XGSLab calculates the low frequency soil resistivity value as a simple arithmetic average of the measured apparent soil
resistivity values, that is:

N
 m ai , ci 
 E lf  
i 1 N

where:

-  E lf (Ωm) = low frequency soil resistivity

- m (ai , ci ) (Ωm) = measured apparent soil resistivity

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- ai , ci (m) = electrodes spacing

- N = number of measures

The calculated parameter  E lf is then displayed (see arrow B in Figure 5-8).

At the same time, also the error and RMS error values are displayed (see arrow E in Figure 5-8).
The RMS error is calculated with the following formula:

  m  ai , ci   c  ai , ci  
2
N
1
RMS Error 
N
 
i 1   m  ai , ci 



where:

- m (ai , ci ) (Ωm) = measured apparent soil resistivity

- c (ai , ci ) (Ωm) = calculated apparent soil resistivity

- ai , ci (m) = electrodes spacing

- N = number of measures

The RMS error is related to the differences between measured and calculated values of all the available measures and
indicates the degree of correspondence between measured values and soil model.
The soil model may be considered faithful if the RMS error is lower than 10% and acceptable if lower than 15%.
If the RMS error is greater than 15%, a multilayer model should be considered.
The measures with module of Error > RMS Error may be considered doubtful.
The measures with module of Error > 2*RMS Error may be ignored (clearing the flag “Selected”) in order to improve the
accuracy of the soil model.
If one or more states “Selected” are modify, click “Calculate” to update the soil model parameter.

To accept the calculated value click “Apply” (see arrow C in Figure 5-8).

The confirmed parameter  E lf is then displayed in the “Uniform Model” group box (see arrow D in Figure 5-8).

The User can modify the calculated parameter: the modified value will be used in the next calculation.

GSA uses in the calculation the low frequency resistivity and does not take into account the soil permittivity value.
The modules *_FD and XGSA_TD use in the calculation the soil effective resistivity and permittivity. These values are
automatically calculated by using the selected frequency dependence model (see 11) starting from the values of
frequency, low frequency resistivity and high frequency permittivity.

Click “View” in the “Results” group box to represent the low frequency measured and calculated values and the soil
model in a graphical mode (see Figure 5-9). Select the flag “Log – Log” and click “View” again to have the same
representation in logarithmic scale.
The User can change the maximum represented value for both axis of the graphic representation.

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In order to represent in the same graphic soil resistivity measures performed with both Wenner and Sclumberger
method, the “x” coordinate is set as follows:

xc

Of course, for measure with the Wenner method (c = a), it follows “x = a”.

Figure 5-9: Uniform soil model measured resistivities value and soil model

Insert the resistivity s and thickness hs in the “Uniform Model” group box to consider the presence of a covering layer.
Select “Libraries  Soil Covering Layer Properties” command from “Menu option bar” to search a suitable s value for

the most used covering layer material.

Important notice: XGSLab takes into account the soil covering layer only to calculate the reduction factor to apply to the
touch and step voltages. Calculations of resistance to earth, earth potential, prospective touch and step voltages take
into account only the native soil resistivity model. Besides, the soil covering layer is assumed superposed to the soil and
not included in the soil (see Figure 5-10). In this way, in the same calculation it is possible to take into account more
different soil covering layer thickness without change the depth of the grounding system.

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Soil covering layer surface

soil surface

z=0.00

soil
z

Figure 5-10: Soil model with a superposed soil covering layer

The reduction factor can be calculated as described in 5.6.1.3.

Click “View” in the “Results” group box to represent the measured and calculated values and the soil model parameters
in a graphical mode superposed with soil covering layer parameters (see Figure 5-11). Select the flag “Log – Log” and
click “View” again to have the same representation in logarithmic scale but consider that in this case the soil covering
layer parameters are not represented. Note that in this case, the “x” axis is shifted to the right direction in order to
represent the soil covering layer resistivity and thickness values.

Figure 5-11: Uniform soil model with soil covering layer measured resistivities value and soil model

5.4.2 MULTILAYER MODEL

The multilayer soil model consists of an arbitrary number of horizontal layers as represented in the following figure.
For the multilayer versions of XGSLab the layers number are limited to twenty (so virtually unlimited) in the SRA module
and unlimited in the calculation. The limit twenty layers is set in order to avoid a senseless layers number but is anyway
strongly suggested to limit the layers number to a reasonable value (five or six layers).
The two layers versions of XGSLab are limited to two layers for both soil resistivity analysis and calculation.

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Soil Surface

x
Layer 1 h1
z1
Layer 2 h2
z2

Layer i hi

zi

Layer n-1 hn-1

zn-1

z Layer n

Figure 5-12: Multilayer Soil Model

If a multilayer model is chosen, XGSLab requires the low frequency soil resistivity, the high frequency soil permittivity and
the thickness values for each layer (thickness of the bottom layer is infinite).

Select “Project  Soil  Multilayer Model” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 5-13).

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Figure 5-13: “Multilayer Model” direct input

Insert the required data in the “Multilayer Model” group box.

The default value of the high frequency soil permittivity displayed in the “Multilayer Model” group box is 6 for all layers.
The User can modify the proposed parameters: the modified values will be used in the next calculation.

If the low frequency soil resistivity and thickness of each layer are not directly available, click “Calculate” in the “Multilayer
Model” group box (see Figure 5-13). XGSLab requires the measured Wenner or Schlumberger resistances or apparent
soil resistivities and the corresponding electrodes spacing and depth which are necessary to calculate the soil parameter
values by using the dedicated module SRA “Soil Resistivity Analysis”.

The required data can be inserted and managed as described in 5.4.1. Only the apparent soil resistivities and electrodes
spacing will be used to calculate the corresponding multilayer soil model parameters.

Click “View” in the extended input area to display the soil resistivity measured values.
Usually the measured values distribution can be appreciated in a better way by if the “Log – Log” flag is selected.
The User can change the maximum represented value for both axis of the graphic representation.
The “x” coordinate is set as follows:

xc (then xa with Wenner method)

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Set the “Layers Number” depending on the apparent soil resistivity measured values distribution. A greater number of
points of inflection implies that more layers are necessary to fit the data.
As general and simple rule, (see Figure 5-14):
- a distribution substantially flat corresponds to a uniform model
- a distribution simply ascending or descending corresponds to a double layer model
- a distribution with a minimum or a maximum corresponds to a triple layer model
- a distribution with a minimum and a maximum corresponds to a four layers model
- a distribution with two minimum and a maximum or a minimum and two maximum corresponds to a five layers model

a) b) c)

Figure 5-14: Typical apparent soil resistivity distributions (Wenner method): a) double layer, b) triple layer, c) four layers

In case of doubt, try with two layers and then increase the layers number depending on the resulting RMS error. The
right layers number is the minimum number beyond which the RMS error does not decrease significantly.

The flag “Average” is unchecked by default but the Users can change the default choice.
If the flag “Average” is selected, SRA performs the following preliminary operations:
- group the measures with the same pair "a" and "c" by making the average and note the number of occurrences
- sorts the grouped measures according “c” and then according “a” if “c” is the same

Then, SRA works with the grouped measures.

Important notice: the “Average” option is useful when a large set of measures is available. This option can increases
the calculation speed but slightly reduces the calculation accuracy.

The number of measures with different electrodes spacing “a” and “c” shall be anyway at least equal to the number of
parameters to calculate, and then at least 2n-1 where “n” is the layers number (for instance, with 6 layers, the
parameters are 11).
An error message appears if the number of measures with different electrodes spacing is lower than 2n-1. A warning
message appears if the number of measures with different electrodes spacing is in the range from 2n-1 to 4n-2.
Of course, a large number of layers requires a large number of measures with different electrodes.

The flag “Weights” is selected by default but the Users can change the default choice.
If the flag “Weights” is selected, SRA applies a specific weight function to each measure (or grouped measure) in order
to obtain a model with an improved agreement for first al last values of the sorted list of the measures (or grouped
measures). This because, as known, the resistivity of the upper layer affects mainly touch and step voltages while the
resistivity of the bottom layer affects mainly resistance to earth and GPR.

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The default values for initial conditions, lower and upper constrains values used in the calculation for each layer can be
accepted or modified by the User.
Initial conditions default values are set by a simple and empirical algorithm based on the measured values but can be
improved by expert Users. A better initial condition can produce a better result. In the following some tips in order to
improve the initial conditions referring to the five layers soil model condition represented in Figure 5-15.

ρ (Ωm)
B
D
A+
A

C
E

x (m)

Figure 5-15: Apparent soil resistivity distributions

The User can individuate the key points (green conn in Figure 5-15). The key points A and E represent the starting and
ending points while B and D are local maximum and C is a local minimum.
The new initial conditions may be set as following.

Initial conditions for layer resistivity:

- 1   A with double layer soil model

- 1  2 3 A  1 3 A with three or more layers

-  2  2 B if  B  max(  A ;  E ) else  2   B
- 3  C 2 if  C  min(  A ;  E ) else  3   C
-  4  2 D if  D  max(  A ;  E ) else  4   D
- 5   E

Initial conditions for layer thickness:

-
h1  1

-
h2  aB  h1
- h3  aC  h1  h2
- h4  aD  h1  h2  h3

Also constraints default values are set considering the measured values.

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The reason of constraints is to avoid results without physical meaning (resistivities too low, negative or too high,
thickness too low or negative) or too different from the measured values.
Moreover, the thickness constraints are related to the maximum investigation depth assuming that no information are
available to depth over that value. Finally, taking into account that effects on the soil surface of a resistivity variation
decrease with depth, constraints on thicknesses values increase with depth.
It is important to consider that constraints are also used in the optimization process and this can limit the search of
optimized results also inside the constraints range. Reducing the constraints range is then generally not recommended.
Of course, initial conditions must be included in the constraints range.

Figure 5-16: “Multilayer Model” parameter calculation

At the end of data input, click “Calculate” (see arrow A in Figure 5-16).
SRA calculates the parameters (low frequency soil resistivity and thickness for each layer) that best fit the measured
data using an optimization procedure that finds the minimum of the following squared error function taking into account
constrains:

  a , c    c ai , ci , 1lf ,  2lf ,  nlf , h1 , h2 , hn1 

2

 1lf ,  2lf ,  n lf , h1 , h2 , hn1    wi ri  m i i

N


i 1   m ai , ci  

10
wi  1  2i  N  1
N

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where (a = “Average” unchecked, b = “Average” checked):

-  = squared error function

- wi = weight function

- ri = a) 1, b) number of occurrences

- m (ai , ci ) (Ωm) = measured apparent soil resistivity of a) all measures, b) grouped measures

- c (ai , ci ) (Ωm) = calculated apparent soil resistivity

- ai , ci (m) = electrodes spacing

- N = a) number of measures, b) number of grouped measures

Several methods to calculate the multilayer model parameters have been proposed in literature.
Different methods are based on different optimization algorithm and can be classified as:
- direct search method: downhill simplex method (DSM), genetic algorithms (GA)
- gradient based methods: steepest descent method (SDM), Levenberg Marquardt method (LMM), conjugate gradient
method (CGM), trust region method (TRM)

The IEEE Std 81-1983 indicates the steepest descent method (SDM) but only limited to a double layer soil model.
The LMM is a good method but sometime it provides extreme resistivity values.
SRA uses the TRM. The TRM is an evolution of the LMM and can be considered as a method reliable and robust and
with strong convergent properties that can be applied also in case of ill conditioned problems.
The TRM is widely used in power engineering but also in finance, applied mathematics, physics, computer science,
economics, sociology, biology, medicine, mechanical engineering, chemistry, and other areas.
TRM has a global convergence and local super convergence, which differentiates them from line search methods and
Newton methods. TRM have better convergence when compared with widely used Newton-type methods.

Important notice: the optimization algorithm used by SRA is fully deterministic but, taking into account many different
soil structures in the same measures set, in exceptional conditions, it can give slightly different results with the same data
input, initial conditions and constraints. This because problems related to the approximations in the binary real numbers
representations. As known the optimization algorithm searches a minimum of a nonlinear function of 2n-1 independent
variables. In general conditions, and in particular when layer number is high, these functions have many local minima
and each one of these minima can represent a solution. Therefore, the searching process can find one of these local
minima.

At the end of the calculation process, the calculated parameters are then displayed (see arrow B in Figure 5-16).
When a result is too close or corresponding to a constraint (and this will be highlighted by SRA with yellow colour), it
means that probably beyond the specific constraints a better result exists. The User may change the constraint value and
repeat the calculation.
When a result is unrealistic (and this will be highlighted by SRA with red colour), the problem has to be reconsidered by
setting suitable constraints. Unrealistic values do not pass the next debug procedure.
Unrealistic values has been set as following:
- upper layer thickness < 0.1 m
- other layer thickness < 0.2 m

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- resistivities out of the range 0.1 Ωm – 100 kΩm

At the same time, also the error and RMS error values are displayed (see arrow F in Figure 5-16).
The RMS error is calculated with the following formula:

  m  ai , ci   c  ai , ci  
2
N
1
RMS Error 
N
 
i 1   m  ai , ci 



where:

- m (ai , ci ) (Ωm) = measured apparent soil resistivity

- c (ai , ci ) (Ωm) = calculated apparent soil resistivity

- ai , ci (m) = electrodes spacing

- N = number of measures

Important notice: the RMS Error is an important parameters to evaluate the optimization result, but more solutions with
the same RMS Errors are in general possible, this in particular when a big number of layers is adopted. Solutions with
similar RMS Errors provide similar results in terms of GPR and touch and step voltages if the grounding system is
located close to the soil surface.

Also in this case, the soil model may be considered faithful if the RMS error is lower than 10% and acceptable if lower
than 15%.
The measures with module of Error > RMS Error may be considered doubtful.
The measures with module of Error > 2*RMS Error may be ignored (clearing the flag “Selected”) in order to improve the
accuracy of the soil model.

The User may try to reduce the RMS error by increasing the “Layers Number” and repeating the calculation process.
The use of the RMS error as criterion to evaluate the quality of a model is good but the best criterion of judgment
requires the visual comparison of model and measures. For instance an expert User can modify results by adding
artificial measures or removing doubtful measures.

To accept the calculated values click “Apply” (see arrow C in Figure 5-16).
The confirmed parameters are then displayed in the “Multilayer Model” group box (see arrow D in Figure 5-16).
The User can modify the calculated parameters: the modified values will be used in the next calculation.

GSA uses in the calculation the parameters low frequency soil resistivity and thickness for each layer and do not take
into account the soil permittivity values.
The modules *_FD and XGSA_TD use in the calculation parameters of effective soil resistivity, effective soil permittivity
and thickness for each layer. These effectives values are automatically calculated by using the selected frequency
dependence model (11) starting from the values of frequency, low frequency resistivity and high frequency permittivity.

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Click “View” in the “Results” group box to represent the low frequency measured and calculated values and the soil
model in a graphical mode (see Figure 5-17). Select the flag “Log – Log” and click “View” again to have the same
representation in logarithmic scale.
The User can change the maximum represented value for both axis of the graphic representation.

Figure 5-17: Multiayer soil model measured resistivities value and soil model

Insert the resistivity s and thickness hs in the “Multilayer Model” group box to consider the presence of a covering

layer (see 5.4.1 for details).

5.4.3 MULTIZONE MODEL

A multizone soil model should be used when the size of the system of conductors is so large than a horizontal soil
resistivity changing is expected. In these cases, the soil can be assumed divided in more zones as in Figure 5-18.
Each zone can be represented with a uniform soil model. A more refined soil model for each single zone is impracticable
and anyway, also with a uniform soil model the solution is rigorous with two zones while, with more zones can be found
only in an approximate way and under certain conditions as explained below. In some aspects, the multizone soil model
is an experimental model but as it is easy to understand, in the case of very large electrodes, this model allows a more
accurate simulation than of a multilayer soil model.

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Zone 2 Zone 3

Zone 4

Zone
1
Zone 5

x
z

Figure 5-18: Multizone Soil Model

This option is available if “Project  Module  *_FD” is selected.

The multizone soil model can be used when frequency is lower than 100 kHz.
The multizone soil model is rigorous in all cases when the zone number is limited to two.
The use of the multizone soil model with more zones requires attention.
In these cases, this option uses an approximated approach and should be used:
- When the system of conductors includes only insulated elements without particular restrictions
- When the system of conductors includes both insulated or bare elements provided that the bare elements fulfil the
following conditions:
- Calculation of current, voltage and leakage current distributions: elements are not close to the intersection between
three or more zones. Bare elements in the orange areas in Figure 5-18 must be avoided. The radius of the orange
areas is a few dozen meters
- Calculation of earth potential and touch and step voltages distributions: the previous condition and moreover
calculation points are close enough to the electrodes and far enough to the zones border

The calculation precision improves if

- The difference of resistivity between adjacent zones decreases (the ration between resistivity of adjacent zones
should be lower than 1/3)
- The distance between elements belonging to different and not adjacent zones is high. The zones size should be in
the order of some hundreds of meters

Figure 5-19 represents some possible applications of the multizone soil model.

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Zone 1 Zone 2
Zone 1

Zone n Substation

Zone 1 Zone 2
Wind Turbine
Zone 2

Zone 4

Zone 3
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3

Power Line

Pipeline

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone n

Figure 5-19: Possible applications of the multizone soil model

Select “Project  Soil  Multizone Model” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 5-20).

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Figure 5-20: “Multizone Soil Model” direct input

If the low frequency soil resistivity of each zone are not directly available, click “Calculate” in the “Multizone Soil Model”
group box (see Figure 5-20). XGSLab requires the measured Wenner or Schlumberger resistances or apparent soil
resistivities and the corresponding electrodes spacing and depth which are necessary to calculate the soil resistivity
value for each zone, and as additional information, also the zone identification number (see Figure 5-8).

The data input and calculation for each zone is very similar to the uniform soil model (see 5.4.1 for details).
Only the apparent soil resistivities will be used to calculate the corresponding uniform soil model for each zone.

At the end of data input, click “Calculate” (see arrow A in Figure 5-8).
To accept the calculated values click “Apply” (see arrow C in Figure 5-8).

The confirmed parameters  E lf are then uploaded in the “Multizone Soil Model” input table (see below).

In order to complete the data input press “Edit” in the “Multizone Soil Model“ group box (see Figure 5-20) and then insert
the required data in the table in the right. XGSLab requires the name, the coordinates of the landmark, low frequency soil

resistivity  E lf (the User can modify the calculated value or add a value if missing), the high frequency soil permittivity

 rE hf and the possible soil covering layer parameters for of each zone.

The default value of the high frequency soil permittivity displayed in the “Multizone Soil Model” group box is 6.
The User can modify the proposed parameter as indicated in 5.4.1: the modified value will be used in the next
calculation.

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The flag “Selected” in the input data area is normally checked. Unchecking the flag, the data in the row will not be taken
into account.

The modules *_FD use in the calculation the soil effective resistivity and permittivity. These values are automatically
calculated by using the selected frequency dependence model (11) starting from the values of frequency, low frequency
resistivity and high frequency permittivity.

To accept the data input click “End Edit” (see arrow in Figure 5-20).
The inserted values can be displayed in the “Multizone Soil Model “ group box. The multizone soil model map will be
represented also in graphical way with the layout of the system of conductors. The soil parameters of each point of the
map correspond to the parameters of the closest reference point (the so-called zone landmark).

5.5 DATA
The data include:
- Layout data
- Electrical data

With the modules *GSA*, the layout and/or electrical data of the system of conductors may be enter in XGSLab in many
ways:
- The option “Project  Data  Draw” allows to draw directly the layout
- The option “Project  Data  Import” allows to load the layout and electrical data from a “dxf” file
- The option “Project  Data  List” allows to check, update, edit or add layout and electrical data

The data may be edited directly in the “List” but this is useful only to locally modify data loaded with “Draw” or “Import”.
Moreover, the option “Draw” is useful to modify data loaded with the option “Import”.

With the module NETS, the layout and/or electrical data of the network may be enter in XGSLab essentially using the
option “Project  Data  Draw” that allows to draw directly the layout and to add the electrical data.

5.5.1 LAYOUT DATA

With the modules *GSA*, the layout data includes all the geometrical and physical data of the system of conductors and
then:
- Distribution
- Nodes
- Cross section
- Partition
- Materials properties

Layout data includes also information about reference object to use as background for the system of conductors.
See 13.1 for typical layout data for underground and overhead systems.

The topological information about the layout of the system of conductors (nodes) and the material properties are used by
*_FD and XGSA_TD.

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GSA assumes that all the conductors belonging to the same electrode are interconnected to each other (even if they are
not graphically continuous) and uses the material description only for the list of items.

With the module NETS the layout data includes all the information about connections between cells and buses (a cell
can be connected to other cells only by the interposition of a bus), also called linkage or boundary equations.
Cells and buses are characterized by a set of coordinates in the “X,Y” plane related to their start, center and end points.
These coordinates are relevant only for the graphic representation of the network layout and not to the real extension for
instance of lines and cables and anyway are not used in the calculations.
Moreover with the module NETS, data as line or cable length and cross section layout and details are considered as
electrical data because directly involved in the calculation of electrical parameters.

5.5.1.1 SYSTEM OF CONDUCTORS, ELECTRODES, SPANS AND ELEMENTS

This point is relevant if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

It is important to distinguish among:
- System of conductors (or conductors network): a system of conductors may be composed by many underground
conductors (or simply grounding system) and/or overhead conductors (or overhead system)
- Grounding System: a grounding system may be composed by many independent underground electrodes
- Overhead System: an overhead system may be composed by many independent overhead electrodes
- Electrodes: XGSLab can take into account a contemporary presence of many electrodes (up to 99). Each electrode
can inject into the earth or in the surrounding medium any current value (also zero). An electrode is generally
composed by a network of several spans (or conductors) buried or driven into the soil or lying in the air
- Spans: a span is a straight and horizontal, tilted or vertical oriented conductor (wire, pipe, rod …). Spans
composed by not straight conductors have to be divided into several straight spans. The spans may be assembled in
any shape but may be connected to each other only at their ends and in a node. All the electrical physical
quantities (e.g. longitudinal current and electromotive force) have to be referred to the orientation of the
span. A span is generally composed by many elements connected in series to each other
- Spans: overhead spans may also have a catenary shape
- Elements: an element is a thin, straight and with cylindrical section oriented bar. The elements may be solid, hollow
or stranded and coated or bare. The elements having a section different from cylindrical have to be represented with
an equivalent cylindrical section. The total elements number must not exceed the PC performances (see 3.1). The
orientation of the elements comes directly from their span. The elements represent the application basis of the
boundary element method used by XGSLab to calculate the grounding system
- Elements: overhead elements may also be representative of bundle conductors

With XGSA_FD it is also important to distinguish among:

- Victims: elements with voltage and current unknown and dependent
- Sources: elements with voltage and current known and independent

GSA and GSA_FD can take into account only underground electrodes while XGSA_* can take into account also
overhead electrodes.

Figure 5-21 helps to understand the meaning of the previous terms. In Figure 5-21, the grounding system includes two
underground electrodes (the large one on the left and the small one on the right). The overhead system includes a single
overhead electrode (orange lines).

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Each electrode includes many spans. Stars indicate the nodes among spans. The red line indicates a horizontal span
(e.g. a wire or a pipe) and the green line indicates a vertical span (e.g. a rod) of the grounding system. The violet line
indicates a wire catenary span of the overhead system. The blue and grey dashed span represent the division of a span
in elements (each dash indicates an element).
With XGSA_FD spans can be declared victims or sources.

Important notice: the “z” axis is oriented downwards.

Important notice: the conductors coordinate are always referred to their longitudinal axis.

Figure 5-21: Underground and overhead systems, electrodes, spans (and nodes) and elements

As said, nodes are used only by *_FD and XGSA_TD.

GSA requires spans divided into one or more elements.
*_FD and XGSA_TD require spans divided into two or more elements.

5.5.1.2 SPAN DIVISION IN THE LAYERS INTERFACE CROSSING

This point is relevant if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

With multilayer soil model, each buried electrode may be placed in any layers or across layers but no elements can lie
across the interface between the layers.

With XGSA_* each electrode may be placed in either air or soil or across the soil surface but no elements can lie across
the interface between air and soil.
Moreover, with XGSA_FD the soil may be represented as a multizone model and the electrodes may be placed partially
or completely in different zones. In these cases is possible and accepted, elements lie across the interface between
zones.

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Figure 5-22 represents the division of a vertical conductor (e.g. a rod) in elements in case of a triple layer soil model. If
the vertical conductor lies across the interface between layers, XGSLab automatically divides it at the cross points and
then provides to the partitioning of the parts of the conductor.

Soil Surface

Upper Layer

Central Layer

Bottom Layer

Figure 5-22: Elements division of a buried span in case of a triple layer soil model

Figure 5-23 represents the division of an overhead / underground conductor in elements provided by XGSA_*.
XGSA_* automatically divides it at the interface between air and soil and then provides to the partitioning of the two
halves of the conductor.

Air

Soil Surface

Upper Layer

Bottom Layer

Figure 5-23: Elements division of an overhead / underground span in case of a double layer soil model

5.5.1.3 EQUIVALENT CYLINDRICAL ELEMENTS

This point is relevant if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

Elements having a not cylindrical section have to be represented with an equivalent cylindrical section.
In general equivalent element must have the same admittance (or resistance) to earth and the same self-impedance of
the actual element.
GSA does not consider the self-impedance of the elements and then required that only the condition about the
admittance to earth is met while *_FD and XGSA_TD require that both conditions are met.

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It is not trivial to obtain a cylindrical element equivalent to a non-cylindrical one and anyway, in general it is possible to
obtain an approximate equivalence of the admittance to earth or of the self-impedance but not both. This because the
two equivalence required conflicting conditions.

For instance, to obtain the same admittance to earth, the equivalent element must have the same coating and the same
outer surface of the actual element while for bare elements, IEEE Std 80-1986, IEEE Std 80-2000 and IEEE Std 80-2013
give following direction.
The equivalent outer diameter of a flat strip conductor is (see IEEE Std 80-1986 Appendix H Table II pag. 255):

w
d
2

where:

- d (m) = equivalent outer diameter

- w (m) = width of the strip

When the strip thickness is not negligible in comparison to the strip width, previous formula is not correct. For instance,
the equivalent diameter of a 30 mm × 3 mm strip is about 23 mm (IEEE Std 80-2000 Annex G pag. 186 and IEEE Std
80-2013 Annex G pag. 188). In general, if the actual element has a rectangular cross section (solid or hollow), the
following empirical rules may be used as first assumption in order to obtain approximately the same admittance to earth:

w
d if w/t >> 10
2

w
d if w/t = 10
1 .3

wt
d 2 if w/t << 10 (with w > t)


where:

- d (m) = equivalent outer diameter

- w (m) = width of the strip
- t (m) = thickness of the strip

Under DC condition, to obtain the same self-impedance (resistance), the equivalent cylindrical element must have the
same cross section and material of the actual element. In these cases, it is possible to satisfy both conditions about
admittance to earth and self-impedance. For instance, a strip 30 mm × 3 mm strip is equivalent to a tubular conductor
2
with outer diameter 23 mm and cross section 90 mm .
With some approximation, these conclusions can be valid also at power frequency.

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Under AC condition, it is possible to obtain the same self-impedance only if the actual element has specific cross
sections. For instance, from literature, stranded conductors may be represented as hollow conductors having the same
cross section and material and also the same outer diameter. In this case, it is possible to satisfy both conditions about
admittance to earth and self-impedance.

The conductor diameter has to be selected by the User on the basis of mechanical purposes or standard limits.
Subsequently, once the fault current will be known, the section of the wire conductors will be assessed by the program
on the basis of the thermal stress due to the transferred currents (see 5.8.2). If the selected wire diameter does not
match the section suggested by the program, the User may change the diameter.

XGSA_* can take into account also bundle conductors.

If the sub conductors are arranged in a circle, the equivalent bundle diameter can be calculated as follows:

d
Deq  D n n
D
where:

- Deq (m) = equivalent bundle diameter

- D (m) = bundle diameter

- d (m) = diameter of sub conductors

- n = number of sub conductors

n=3

Figure 5-24: Bundle conductor

XGSA_* uses the equivalent bundle diameter as external diameter of the elements in the calculation of the external
component of the self-impedance and in the calculation of the self-coefficient of potential.
In the calculation of the internal component of the self-impedance XGSA_* takes into account a parallel of “n” conductors
and if necessary, each conductor of the bundle is preliminarily treated as previous described.

5.5.1.4 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

This point is relevant if “Project  Module  NETS is selected.

In order to represents a network, NETS uses cells and buses.

NETS uses the following kind of cells and buses:

- Cell 1: is a multi-port cell with only a group of ports (side in): these cells are used to represent feeders, ideal voltages
or currents sources, transverse impedances or faults
- Cell 2: is a multi-port cell with two group of ports (sides in and out): these cells are used to represent lines, cables,
transformers, longitudinal impedances or switches

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- Bus: is a multi-port bus with an arbitrary number of group of ports

- The maximum number of ports for each group is 26

The connections between group of ports are automatically recognized by NETS and they go to form the linkage or
boundary equations.
The connection between each single port and other ports connected to the same bus is performed by the user in the
“Bus and Cell Edit” by defining the phase of each port.
This operation is tedious but fundamental.
The program help the User by offering some default data entry to check and eventually confirm.

It is possible to set up to 26 different phases (A, B, C … Z).

In 3-phase systems, they are normally used phases A, B, C and N or alternatively R, S, T and N.
The rule is arbitrary but must be the same at least for the ports of the cells connected to the same bus. The rule can be
also changed for each single bus but this is not a good practice.
Phase N may seem inappropriate but does not give rise to confusion.

5.5.2 ELECTRICAL DATA

With the modules *GSA*, the electrical data include all the electrical information about the system of conductors and
then:
- Frequency for *_FD and transient wave shape for XGSA_TD
- Injected current (injection point and reference point)
- Impressed electromotive force
- Additional impedance
- Sources of potential or leakage current and/or longitudinal current

Frequency and transient wave shape have been already treated (see 5.3).

GSA does not take into account impressed electromotive force, additional impedance and sources.
Moreover, using GSA the injected current may be concentrated at any point of the electrode where the fault happens and
it is not necessary to specify the exact injection points.
GSA_FD and XGSA_TD do not take into account sources.

XGSA_FD can takes into account sources. The so-called sources are conductors where potential or leakage current
and/or longitudinal current are known and independent by other conditions.
In each single source, it is possible to force a potential (U) or a leakage current distribution (J) or a longitudinal current
(I).
The following rules are important:
- If U = 0, J = 0 and I = 0 (the default conditions) the source is assumed as victim
- The current I can be set independently by U and J
- It is possible to force U or J but not both contemporary
- When U = Uforced, J = Jcalculated and when J = Jforced, U = Ucalculated
- The condition U = 0, J = 0 and I = Iforced means U = 0forced, J = Jcalculated and I = Iforced

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In the sources spans, no current can be injected, no electromotive force can be impressed and no additional impedances
can be applied.

Important notice: sources do not have in general a physical meanings. Sources with a uniform potential and a uniform
longitudinal current can be assumed as lossless conductors but sources with a uniform leakage current and a uniform
longitudinal current cannot exist.
Anyway XGSA_FD allows to consider also this sources.

With the module NETS, the electrical data include all the parameters about each single cell and then:
- Frequency
- Impressed Voltages
- Impressed Currents
- Longitudinal and transverse impedance
- Lines and cables length and cross section layout

With NETS module, many electrical data are saved in the lines, cables and transformers libraries.
These additional data are automatically loaded by selecting the specific component from the suitable library.

5.5.2.1 INJECTED CURRENTS

This point is relevant if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

Injected currents may be applied to each starting or ending element of each span.
The current is injected in the element center by means an ideal current generator (with infinite internal impedance).

Je

Figure 5-25: Starting element with injected current

With GSA and *_FD the injected currents have to be specified in both real and imaginary parts. The entered data will be
considered as effective values.
With XGSA_TD the injected currents can be specified in both real and imaginary parts but only the real part is
considered. The entered data will be considered as peak values.

At power frequency the total earthing current may be calculated as in 5.8.1 and then eventually divided in many “Injection
Points”.

In the Figure 5-26 the blue arrow indicates the positive versus of the blue and grey dashed span.
The arrow is oriented from the starting to the ending point of the span.
The black and red arrows indicate respectively the starting and ending element of this span.

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An injected current applied to an element means that a current generator forces a current into that specific element. The
injected current flows to other elements, and then is spread to the earth.
The same in case of overhead spans.

Figure 5-26: Injection points

XGSLab allows to indicate also “Reference Point”.

A “Reference Point” corresponds to an “Injection Point” with a zero injected current.
The “Reference Points” can be located in some places for specific potential and touch voltage investigations.

GSA does not require to specify the exact injection point. GSA assumes the electrodes as equipotential and for this
reason, each “Injection Point” is important only for the value of the injected current and for the electrode in which it is
placed, not for its position within the electrode. At the same time, the reference points are not taken into account at all by
GSA. This is because in GSA electrodes are the only reference that can be regarded.

With high injected current values, soil ionization phenomena can occur. These phenomena are not taken into account by
XGSLab as described in 3.1 but XGSLab can help to verify if ionization phenomenon can occur (see 6.1.3).

5.5.2.2 IMPRESSED ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

This point is relevant if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

Impressed electromotive force may be applied to each starting or ending element of each span.
The electromotive force is impressed in the two halves of the element by means two ideal current generators (with zero
internal impedance).

Ee/2 Ee/2

- + - +

Figure 5-27: Starting element with impressed electromotive force

With GSA and *_FD the impressed electromotive forces have to be specified in both real and imaginary parts. The
entered data will be considered as effective values.

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With XGSA_TD the impressed electromotive forces can be specified in both real and imaginary parts but only the real
part is considered. The entered data will be considered as peak values.

Referring to the Figure 5-26, an impressed electromotive force applied to an element means that an electromotive force
generator forces a voltage along that specific element taking into account its span orientation.

GSA does not take into account impressed electromotive force.

The impressed electromotive force can represent a voltage generator or an induced voltage due to electromagnetic
coupling effects. In this second case, in the frequency domain the impressed electromotive force may be calculated
using the following formula:

E  kMIl

where:
- E (V/m) = electromotive force
- k = total screen factor
- M (Ω/m) = mutual impedance
- I (A) = source current
- l (m) = coupling extension

The total screen factor depends on the screen factors of source, victim and environment.
See literature or reference standard for more details.

The mutual impedance between parallel conductors of infinite extension on the soil surface (or above or below but close
to the soil surface) of a uniform soil, may be obtain to Figure 5-28 (Sunde):

Figure 5-28: Mutual impedance between two parallel conductors

The formulas corresponding to the Figure 5-28 are the following:

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0
M  jL  j  yK  y    e yK1  e y 
    a2 y 2 a 1 a
2
e

1
e  j0 (  j re 0 )
e

1
a  j0 (  j ra 0 )  j 0 0
a

where:
- M (Ω/m) = mutual impedance
- L (H/m) = mutual inductance

- e (1/m) = propagation constant of the earth

- a (1/m) = propagation constant of the air

- y (m) = distance between conductors

- K1 indicates the second kind modified Bessel function

Previous formulas include complex number and second kind modified Bessel function and are not immediate to
calculate. For this reason, the use of the previous graph represents a quick solution.

The source current must take into account all phase currents in steady state conditions and the only fault to earth current
in fault to earth condition.

As example, with following data:

- y = 20 m
- ρ = 100 Ωm
- f = 1000 Hz

- y f  = 63.2

from Figure 5-28 it follows:

-3 -3
- M Real = about 9.5 * 10 Ω/(km*Hz). With f = 1000 Hz = 9.5 * 10 Ω/m
-3 -3
- M Imaginary = about 3 * 10 Ω/(km*Hz) With f = 1000 Hz = 3 * 10 Ω/m

Assuming moreover for example:

- k = 0.5
- I = 1000 A
- l = 200 m

it follows:
-3
- E = -0.5 * (9.5 + j3) * 10 * 1000 * 200 = -950 – j300 V

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This resulting electromotive force may be applied to the starting or ending element of a single span or distributed
between more spans.

5.5.2.3 ADDITIONAL IMPEDANCES

This point is relevant if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

Additional longitudinal and transverse impedances may be applied to each starting or ending elements of each span.

GSA does not take into account additional impedance.

With *_FD and XGSA_TD the additional impedances have to be specified in both real and imaginary parts.
The entered data will be considered as referred to the frequency value set in 5.3.1. XGSA_TD recalculates the additional
impedances for each single frequency of the frequency spectrum as described in 5.3.2.

In order to avoid calculation instability:

- The modulus of the entered additional longitudinal impedance must be not exceeding 10 MΩ
- The modulus of the entered additional transverse impedance must be not lower than 0.1 mΩ

The additional longitudinal impedances will be added to the self-impedance of the starting or ending elements.
The additional transverse impedances will be arranged together with the self and mutual resistance coefficients of the
starting or ending elements.

Important notice: the additional transverse impedance connects the element centre with a point in the earth at infinite
distance where the potential is zero. Then, the current through the additional transverse impedance will be spread to the
earth far from the element, and will not affect the earth potential and electric field close to it (this is exactly what happens
if the additional transverse impedances simulates a characteristic impedance of a conductor of infinite length).

Figure 5-29 shows an element (in this specific case the start element of a generic span) where both additional
longitudinal and transverse impedances are applied. Longitudinal impedance is applied half to the element start and half
to the element end.

Zl/2 Zl/2

Zt

Figure 5-29: Starting element with longitudinal and transverse impedance

Using both longitudinal and transverse impedances to the same element, the transverse impedance is between two
halves longitudinal impedances and this may be undesirable.
In order to consider distinct longitudinal and transverse impedances, the arrangement in Figure 5-30 may be used.
Longitudinal impedance can be used to simulate pipeline insulating joint while transverse impedance can be used to
simulate the resistance to earth of the surge arrester applied to pipeline (when triggered) or a pipeline characteristic
impedance. Figure 5-30 represents two pipelines separated by an insulating joint when the surge arrester applied to the

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left pipeline is triggered. Removing the longitudinal impedance is possible to simulate, the case when both the surges
arrester applied to the pipelines are triggered.
Using longitudinal and transverse impedances on distinct elements, all combinations are possible.

Zl/2 Zl/2

Zt

Figure 5-30: Ending element with transverse impedance and starting element with longitudinal impedance

5.5.2.4 COMBINATIONS

This point is relevant if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

Using the components above describes it is possible to obtain interesting options.
For instance, using an additional span with two elements with an impressed electromotive force and a very little
additional transverse impedance respectively, it is possible to fix the voltage at a specific point of the conductors network.

Ee/2 Ee/2

- + - +

Zt
Point with a fixed
potential Ee

Figure 5-31: Combination of components to fix the potential at a point

Interrupting a span and using two opposite injected currents, it is possible to represent a longitudinal ideal current
generator applied at a specific point of the conductors network.

Je Je

Figure 5-32: Combination of components to represent a longitudinal ideal current generator

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5.5.2.5 BUSES

This point is relevant if “Project  Module  NETS is selected.

NETS uses buses to interconnect cells.
Buses are numbered in a progressive way and can be marked with:
- Tag
- Name

5.5.2.6 CELLS

This point is relevant if “Project  Module  NETS is selected.

NETS uses cells to represent component of a network.

A cell can be represented as a “box” with ports as represented in the following figure.

U1 in, I1 in U1 out, I1 out

U2 in, I2 in U2 out, I2 out

Un in, In in Un out, In out

Ie in Ie out

Figure 5-33: Generic cell

NETS uses the following type of cells 1 (with ports only on side in):
- Feeder
- Ideal Voltage Source
- Ideal Current Source
- Transverse Impedance (or Fault)

and the following type of cells 2 (with ports on both sides in and out):
- Line
- Cable
- Transformer
- Longitudinal Impedance (or Switch)

With these cells is possible to arrange many types of network.

Cells are numbered in a progressive way and can be marked with:

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- Tag
- Name

The cells combine linear and lumped coupled or uncoupled parameters like impedances or generators.

The data required in the general part of the “Edit Cell” are limited to the following.
- Type
- Tag
- Name
- Rotation [deg]
- Ports [or Cables] Number

Press “Circuit Diagram” to represents the diagram of the cell type selected. This diagram is very useful to understand the
electrical scheme of the cell and the data required in the following data entry steps.

Important notice: the cells editing requires several complex numbers. Complex numbers can be edit in both Cartesian
and polar notation.
In order to edit impedances with Cartesian notation, resistance (Real part) must be positive and reactance (Imaginary
part) can be positive (if inductive) or negative (if capacitive).
In order to edit impedances with polar notation, the magnitude must be positive and the phase can be positive in the
range 0 to 90 deg (if inductive) or negative in the range 0 to -90 deg (if capacitive).

FEEDER

A feeder can represent a generator or the Thevenin equivalent circuit of a part of a network.
The cell is represented as in the following figure.

E1 Z1 U1, I1

E2 Z2 U2, I2

En Zn Un, In

Ze

Ie

Figure 5-34: Feeder (n = neutral, e = earth)

The data required in the “Edit Cell” are limited to the following.
In general:
- Ze (Ω) = common transverse impedance

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For each port:

- Phase
- E (V) = phase voltage
- Z (Ω) = longitudinal impedance

The model of the feeder is not dependent on the frequency set up (see 5.3.1).

In a 3-phase network, all phases impedances can be calculated with the formulas:

Z  Z  cos   j sin  

V2 V 3E 2 3E
Z    
Scc 3I cc Scc 3I cc

1
cos  
1  X R
2

where:
- V (V) = rated line voltage
- E (V) = rated phase voltage
- Scc (VA) = short circuit power
- Icc (A) = three phase short circuit current
- cos  = short circuit power factor

- X/R = ratio between reactance and resistance

In power distribution networks, the short circuit power depends on the rated voltage.
The following values can be used as reference for well meshed networks:
- Rated voltage 400 kV: Icc = 50 – 63 kA, Scc = 34600 – 43600MVA
- Rated voltage 230 kV: Icc = 40 – 50 kA, Scc = 15900 – 19900 MVA
- Rated voltage 132 kV: Icc = 31.5 – 40 kA, Scc = 7200 – 9150 MVA

In power distribution and transmission networks, reactance “X” is normally much greater than resistance “R”.
In distribution networks the “X/R” ratio is usually between 3 and 10.
In transmission networks the “X/R” ratio is usually between 10 and 30.

If the feeder represents a synchronous generator, the reactance “X” can be chosen as in the following:
- If the clearance time is lower than 500 ms, the reactance can be set as the transient reactance
- If the clearance time is greater than 500 ms, the reactance can be set as the steady-state or synchronous reactance
- If the fault is electrically far from the generator, the difference in results assuming transient or steady-state reactance
is anyway limited

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IDEAL VOLTAGE SOURCE

An ideal voltage source can be used to force a potential in a network.

The cell is represented as in the following figure and is equivalent to a feeder without impedances.

E1 U1, I1

E2 U2, I2

En Un, In

Ie

Figure 5-35: Ideal Voltage Source (n = neutral, e = earth)

The data required in the “Edit Cell” are limited to the following.
For each port:
- Phase
- E (V) = phase voltage

The model of the ideal voltage source is not dependent on the frequency set up (see 5.3.1).

With two ideal current sources with equal and opposite currents (represented as in the following point) and a longitudinal
impedance in parallel, it is possible to simulate a real voltage source between two buses. If the no load phase voltage is
“E” and the internal impedance is “Z”, the current sources have to be respectively “-E/Z” and “+E/Z” and the longitudinal
impedance “Z”.

E Z
I=-E/Z I=+E/Z

Figure 5-36: Voltage Source between two Buses

IDEAL CURRENT SOURCE

An ideal current source can be used to force a current in a network.

The cell is represented as in the following figure and is equivalent to a feeder without impedances and with voltage
source replaced by a current source.

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I1 U1, I1

I2 U2, I2

In Un, In

Ie

Figure 5-37: Ideal Current Source (n = neutral, e = earth)

The data required in the “Edit Cell” are limited to the following.
For each port:
- Phase
- I (A) = phase current

The model of the ideal current source is not dependent on the frequency set up (see 5.3.1).

With two ideal current sources with equal and opposite currents, it is possible to simulate an ideal current sources
between two buses.

I I=-I I=+I

Figure 5-38: Ideal Current Source between two Buses

TRANSVERSE IMPEDANCE (OR FAULT)

A transverse impedance can represent a load or a fault.

The cell is represented as in the following figure.

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Z1 U1, I1

Z2 U2, I2

Zn Un, In

Ze

Ie

Figure 5-39: Transverse Impedance (n = neutral, e = earth)

The data required in the “Edit Cell” are limited to the following.
In general:
- Ze (Ω) = common transverse impedance

For each port:

- Phase
- Z (Ω) = longitudinal impedance

The model of the transverse impedance is not dependent on the frequency set up (see 5.3.1).

In a 3-phase network, a set of three impedances connected in delta (D) can always be represented with an equivalent
set of three impedances connected in wye (Y) by using the well known formulas.
With obvious meaning of the symbols it follows:

 Z1   Z31 0 0   Z12 
   0  
0   Z 23 
1
Z 2    Z12
 Z  Z12  Z 23  Z31  0 Z 
Z 23  
 3  0 31 

Then, the representation in previous figure can be used in all cases.

In a 3-phase network a three-phase short circuit can be simulated with all impedances null or very little. In a similar way,
it is possible to simulate a single phase to earth or a phase to phase to earth or a double phase short circuit.

OVERHEAD LINE

A line can be represented with a double multi-port cell as in the following figure.
A port can represent a phase conductor or an overhead earth wire (also called overhead ground wire or also shield wire).

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U1 in, I1 in Phase Conductor or Overhead Earth U1 out, I1 out

Wire

U2 in, I2 in Phase Conductor or Overhead Earth U2 out, I2 out

Wire

Un in, In in Phase Conductor or Overhead Earth Un out, In out

Wire

Ie in Ie out

Figure 5-40: Overhead Line (n = neutral, e = earth)

XGSLab automatically calculates the line parameters and then self and mutual impedances and admittances.
The equivalent circuit for each single span is as represented in the following figure.

U1 in, I1 in Zs U1 out, I1 out

Ym/2 Ym/2
U2 in, I2 in U2 out, I2 out

Zm

Un in, In in Un out, In out

Ys/2 Ys/2

Ie in Ie out

Figure 5-41: Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Single Span of an Overhead Line

The data required in the “Edit Cell” are limited to the following.
In general:
- L (m) = line length
- Span = number of equal spans along the line
- ρ (Ωm) = earth resistivity
- εr = earth relative permittivity
- t (°C) = operative temperature
- OHEW Link (flag selected by default)

For each port:

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- Code = code related to the lines library

- Phase (in / out)
- Zt (Ω) = additional transverse impedance
- x (m) = location with respect to a vertical arbitrary common reference of the conductor axis (positive or negative)
- h (m) = distance to ground of the conductor axis (it is a distance, not a coordinate so is always positive)

Reference Reference

x (-) x (+)

h h

Soil surface Soil surface

Figure 5-42: Cross section of an overhead line with two examples of reference for “x”

The model of the overhead line is dependent on the frequency set up (see 5.3.1).

The line parameters will be calculated as series of equal spans.

The model of a single cell line is then suitable also for long lines.

The line length is arbitrary and does not pose constraints for lines without overhead earth wires.
On the opposite, the presence of overhead earth wires requires some important precautions as described below.

When the flag “OHEW Link” is selected the overhead earth wires are connected the one to each other at each span with
a suitable small resistance. In the opposite case, the OHEW are assumed not directly connected the one to each other
(but anyway connected across the tower resistance and at the line ends or intermediate buses).
This option is effective of course in case of two or more OHEW.

The additional transverse impedance can be useful to simulate overhead earth wires connected to earth at each span
through the tower footing resistance.
Usually this impedance is real and represents the tower footing resistance.
In this case, the conductance of the overhead earth wires is calculated as follows:

1 n
g  (S/m)
Zt S Zt L

where:
- g (S/m) = average conductance
- Zt (Ω) = average tower footing impedance
- S (m) = average span length
- n = span number

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- L (m) = line length

Important notice: in case of two overhead earth wires, the tower footing impedance must be set double than the actual
value. The two overhead earth wires are in parallel. The equivalent tower footing impedance will be half than the set
value and then correct.

Important notice: at power frequency, the length of lines including overhead earth wires should be limited to:

Rt
L  10S
Rs

where:
- Rt (Ω) = average resistance to earth of each single tower
- Rs (Ω) = average resistance of a span of overhead earth wire

For instance, if S = 400 m, Rt = 10 Ω and Rs = 0.4 Ω, it follows L = about 20 km.

The reason of this limitation is not trivial but evident. If the line is long, the high conductance to earth of an overhead
earth wire tends to decouple input from output. In other words, in these cases, a current or a voltage impressed at the
input of the overhead earth wire, does not produces any appreciable current or voltage at the output.
If the previous condition is fulfilled, the problem can be avoided or at least limited.
Very long lines should be divided into sections respecting the previous constraint.
More details in the NETS tutorial.

The sag of aerial lines is taken into account by using the following average height above ground (approximation valid for
span length up to 500 m and acceptable up to 1000 m):

sag
h  hmidspan 
3

Most of the data related to the specific conductor are loaded from the library “Lines”.
The parameters related to the line are automatically calculated by the program but are not accessible.

Long lines are usually transposed.

In order to arrange the phase transposition, the long line has to be divided in parts (3, 6, 9 …) connected with buses.
The phase transpositions have to be managed by changing the phases location (coordinate X,h) for each line portion and
with appropriate connections to the buses.

Important notice: some formulas used to calculate self and mutual admittances of and between conductors are
protected by division by zero using a minimum frequency 1 mHz (the frequency is forced to 1 mHz if lower).

CABLE

A cable can be represented with a double multi-port cell as in the following figure.

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Important notice: NETS considers single core and pipe type cables. Moreover, NETS considers both underground and
overhead cables.

Each single cable can requires up to three ports:

- Core
- Screen (metallic shield or sheath)
- Armor

A port can represent the core, the screen or the armor (not the whole cable).

U1 in, I1 in Core, Screen or Armor U1 out, I1 out

U2 in, I2 in Core, Screen or Armor U2 out, I2 out

Un in, In in Core, Screen or Armor Un out, In out

Ie in Ie out

Figure 5-43: Cable (n = neutral, e = earth)

XGSLab automatically calculates the cable parameters and then self and mutual impedances and admittances.

The data required in the “Edit Cell” are limited to the following.
In general:
- L (m) = cable length
- ρ (Ωm) = earth resistivity
- εr = earth relative permittivity
- t (°C) = operative temperature

In addition for pipe type cables:

- Pipe Diameter (mm) = inner diameter of the pipe
- Pipe x (m) = location with respect to a vertical arbitrary common reference of the pipe axis (positive or negative)
- z (m) = location of the pipe axis with respect to the soil surface (depth if positive, height if negative)

For each single core cable:

- Code = code related to the cables library
- x (m) = location with respect to a vertical arbitrary common reference of the conductor axis (positive or negative)
- z (m) = location of the conductor axis with respect to the soil surface (depth if positive, height if negative)

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For each port of each single core cable (Core or Screen or Armor):
- Phase (in / out)

The model of the cable is dependent on the frequency set up (see 5.3.1).

Important notice: the coordinate “z” of conductor axes can be part positive and part negative but usually they should be
all positive or negative.

Most of the data related to the specific conductor are loaded from the library “Cables”.
The parameters related to the cable are automatically calculated by the program but are not accessible.
Moreover, the program automatically divides the cable in a suitable number of equal spans with length about 100 m.

Long cables (cables with length > 1 km) are usually transposed or the screen are connected with the cross bonding
technique.
In order to arrange the phase transposition or the cross bonding, the long cable has to be divided in parts (3, 6, 9 …)
connected with buses.
The phase transpositions or the cross bonding have to be managed by changing the phases location (coordinate X,h) for
each cable portion and anyway with appropriate connections to the buses.

TRANSFORMER

A transformer can be represented with a double multi-port cell as for lines and cables.
It is possible to represent three-phase or single-phase two windings transformers with connections D or Y at both sides
and arbitrary vector group from 0 to 11.
The cell is represented as in the following figure.

U1 in, I1 in U1 out, I1 out

U2 in, I2 in U2 out, I2 out

U3 in, I3 in U3 out, I3 out

Un in, In in Un out, In out

Ie in Ie out

Figure 5-44: Three-Phase Two Windings Transformer (n = neutral, e = earth)

The data required in the “Edit Cell” are limited to the following.
In general:
- Code = code related to the library transformer

For each port:

- Phase (in / out)

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The model of the transformer is not dependent on the frequency set up (see 5.3.1).
The transformer parameters are calculated on the base of the data in the library transformer, and these data are related
to the rated frequency of the transformer (a data included in the library transformer).
The frequency dependence of transformer parameters is quite complex and transformer parameters at frequencies
different from the rated frequency should be evaluated with specific measurements.
Anyway, the frequency set up in 5.3.1 and the rated frequency of the transformer should be the same.

Most of the data related to the specific transformer are loaded from the library “Transformers”.
The short circuit and no load impedances of the transformer are automatically calculated by the program.

LONGITUDINAL IMPEDANCE (OR SWITCH)

A longitudinal impedance can represent an impedance, a switch or an interruption on one or more phases.
The cell is represented as in the following figure.

U1 in, I1 in Z1 U1 out, I1 out

U2 in, I2 in Z2 U2 out, I2 out

Un in, In in Zn Un out, In out

Ie in Ie out

Figure 5-45: Longitudinal Impedance (n = neutral)

The data required in the “Edit Cell” are limited to the following.
For each port:
- Phase (in / out)
- Z (Ω) = longitudinal impedance

5.5.3 ELECTRODE DATA SETTINGS

This point is relevant if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

The User can set the following data for all horizontal and vertical span of the system of conductors (in brackets the
default values):
- Electrode
- Tag
Horizontal
- dh (mm) (10) = horizontal conductors diameter
2
- sh (mm ) (78.5) = horizontal conductors cross section
- th (mm) (5) = horizontal conductors wall thickness
- mh (copper) = horizontal conductors material (metal)
- tch (mm) = horizontal conductors covering material thickness

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- ch = horizontal conductors covering material

Vertical
- dv (mm) (20) = vertical conductors diameter
2
- sv (mm ) (314.1) = vertical conductors cross section
- tv (mm) (5) = vertical conductors wall thickness
- mv (steel) = vertical conductors material (metal)
- tcv (mm) = vertical conductors covering material thickness
- cv = vertical conductors covering material

XGSLab proposes previous data settings for all new drawing or imported spans.
Usually horizontal conductors included wires and pipes while vertical conductors included rods.
In a subsequent stage the data of the imported conductors should be adjusted taking into account the specific case.
GSA uses cross size and material description only for the List of Items.

When setting a diameter, automatically will be calculated the cross section and wall thickness related to the
corresponding solid round conductor.
When setting a diameter and a cross section, automatically will be calculated the corresponding wall thickness.
When setting a diameter and a wall thickness, automatically will be calculated the corresponding cross section.

The values of diameter, cross section and wall thickness have to be coherent. When the User set the previous additional
data, XGSLab performs the following checks for both horizontal and vertical conductors:

d2 d
s  and t
4 2

5.5.4 ELECTRODES FRAGMENTATION

This point is relevant if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

In order to set the wanted elements number, insert the value “Set Elements” in the “Electrodes Fragmentation” group box
(see Figure 5-46) and then click “Apply”.

The choice of the elements number can be set with criteria based on the Users experience.
In case of doubts or simply for a suggestion, use the option “Fragmentation Level”.
A level “medium” (the default level), corresponds to a fragmentation with the following elements length:
- Horizontal elements: 5 m
- Vertical elements: 2 m

A level “low” and “high” corresponds to a fragmentation with elements number halved or doubled respectively.
The suggested number of elements is automatically copied in the “Set Elements” box.

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Figure 5-46: “Electrodes Fragmentation” window

In general increasing the number of elements may result in higher accuracy. This is usually what happen in a fist stage
but after that, accuracy does not grows more while computational burden increases considerably.
Anyway, insert 1 to obtain the minimum possible elements number which meets the requirements.

Wanted elements means that at this stage it is not sure that the set elements number is suitable for the calculation,
because the elements features have to respect some simple but important rules. Then it is possible that in a subsequent
stage (after the import and/or debug process), the User has to insert a different (upper or lower) value of elements
number. In this case, XGSLab repeats the span division and debug procedure as in the following described trying to get
a total elements number as close as possible to the new target. All this will be more clear in the following.

The main rules for the electrodes fragmentation can be resumed as in the following.

Thin elements condition

Each element has to be thin and then its diameter has to be small if compared to its length.
In general, the following conditions have to be fulfilled:

l  max 8d ;4d  2tc  suggested

l  max 4d ;2d  2tc  mandatory

where:

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- l (m) = element length

- d (m) = element diameter
- tc (m) = covering thickness

The conditions for covered elements are less burdensome than the equivalent conditions for bare elements in order to
allow to consider elements with an high thickness covering as usual with GEM or concrete, with an acceptable
calculation precision.

Important notice: as already said, with system of conductors partly under and partly over ground, XGSA_*, in very
particular circumstances, could be affected by the low frequency breakdown problem. In order to limit this problem, at low
frequency it should avoid overhead insulated elements or overhead elements with a length less than a few tens of
meters.

Short elements condition

Each element has to be short enough to allow the leakage current distribution over its length to be assumed uniform and
short compared to the wavelength of the electromagnetic field in the propagation media (at the frequencies of interest,
both conditions are usually significant only for buried elements).
The wavelength of the electromagnetic field can be calculated as following:

1

  
2
 1  
f  1  
 
  1
2 
  2f  

where:
- λ (m) = wavelength
- f (Hz) = frequency
- μ (H/m) = soil permeability
- ε (F/m) = soil permittivity
- ρ (Ωm) = soil resistivity

In case of multilayer soil model an equivalent resistivity is used.

Current distribution can vary greatly in the case of vertical and underground conductors, while in other cases is rather
uniform. For this reason, it is generally important to distinguish horizontal and vertical conductors.
Anyway, the distinction between horizontal and vertical is not so strict.
The User should select Tilt = Vertical when the span must have the properties and must be partitioned as specified in the
“Electrode Data Settings” group box for vertical spans, and in practical cases, when the span is strongly angled relative
to the horizontal (e.g. more than 30 deg as usual for vertical reinforced bars or rods).
In the other cases the User should select Tilt = Horizontal (as usual for wires and pipes).

Given the above, experience shows that excellent accuracy is obtained when the element length matches the following
conditions.
For horizontal buried conductors, the following condition in compact form has to be taken into account:

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
lh  min( f D ; )
6

D
f  if D  1
2

D
f  if 1  D  10
5

D
f  if 10  D  100
10

f  10  45log 10 D  2 if 100  D  10000

f  100 if D  10000

where:
- lh (m) = element length
- D (m) = maximum dimension of the electrode (3D diagonal)
- λ (m) = wavelength of the electromagnetic field in the earth

If these conditions are not satisfied, the accuracy of the calculation of the currents distributions in the elements could be
not good. If for instance the calculation of the leakage current distribution is not correct, the calculation of the earth
potential and then touch and step voltages will be wrong.
If an underground electrode includes portions with different depth, each portion should be partitioned in a different way
taking into account the specific conditions. Alternatively and with more hardware resource consuming, the whole
electrode may be partitioned using an element length which satisfies all conditions.

For vertical buried conductors, the following condition in compact form has to be taken into account:

Lv 
lv  min( Lv ;1  ;4; )
2 6

where:
- lv (m) = element length
- Lv (m) = maximum vertical dimension of the electrode (usually maximum rods length)
- λ (m) = wavelength of the electromagnetic field

The elements length for vertical or very tilted conductors should be generally lower than the horizontal ones (and anyway
not more than 3 or 4 m) because in this cases the leakage current distribution varies more also at low frequency.

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In any case, the smaller the elements length, the more accurate the results will be. Computer time and memory capacity
introduces practical limitation to the partition, but when a minimum number of elements is attained, further subdivision of
the system of conductors is useless and becomes an unnecessary refinement. There is an optimum partition using
unequal elements which leads to a minimum number of elements but this approach requires a great experience to the
User.

With a multilayer soil model, when a conductor lies across the interface between layers, XGSLab automatically divides
the conductor at the cross points and then makes the partitioning of the parts of the conductor.
Moreover, in order to avoid too short elements in case of the division of spans which across the interface between
horizontal layers, in some cases the span ends can be joined to parts in different layers.
As already mentioned, no elements can lie across the interface between layers. In this case XGSLab automatically
moves the elements far enough from the separation surfaces.
With XGSA_*, the same happened when a conductor lies across the soil surface.
With *.FD and multizone soil model, a conductor can belong to more zones but each element will be awarded to the zone
to which it belongs its centre.

Thin and short elements condition

The thin and short conditions requirements may be represented in graphical way as in the following figures.

lh
f(D)

λ/6

Correct values

8d or 4(d+2*tc)
Acceptable values 4d or 2(d+2*tc)

Figure 5-47: Permissible values for “lh”

lv λ/6
4

1+Lv/2

Correct values

8d or 4(d+2*tc)
Lv Acceptable values
4d or 2(d+2*tc)

Lv

Figure 5-48: Permissible values for “lv”

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lv
lh
Lv

Figure 5-49: Required data for the optimized elements length calculation for an underground electrode

5.5.5 DRAW

This point is relevant for all modules, in particular with the module NETS this tool represents the only way to enter data.

Select “Project  Data  Draw” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 5-50).

Figure 5-50: “Data – Draw” window

The “Draw” tool depends on the selected module.

With the modules *GSA*, the “Draw” tool allows to draw a system of conductors directly and without the use of auxiliary
external tools.

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The “Draw” option opens a window with a default volume visualization (see 5.5.8) where the User can directly draw.
The User can draw in both 2D and 3D mode.
It is possible to change draw mode by using “View 2D” and “View 3D” options in the “Display” group box.

This tool allows the use of the keyboard buttons adopted by the main diffused CAD tools.
The icons in the “Draw” group box allow:
- Draw an horizontal line: draw a new horizontal span in the x-y plane at the specified “z” coordinate and with a
specified “Lh” horizontal length
- Ortho on: draw a new span in the x-y plane and parallel to the “x” or “y” axes
- Draw a vertical line: draw a new vertical span starting from the specified “z” coordinate and with a specified “Lv”
vertical length
- Draw a circle: draw a new circle parallel to the x-y plane, with a given center in the x-y plane with a specified “z”
coordinate and with a specified “R” radius
- Draw an arc: draw a new arc parallel to the x-y plane, with a given center in the x-y plane with a specified “z”
coordinate, with a specified “R” radius and with specified initial and final angles
- Undo: erases the last changes done to the drawing reverting it to an older state
- Help: gives instructions about the use of the keyboard buttons:
- Shift (kept pressed) activates the endpoint snap option
- Control (kept pressed) activates the midpoint snap option
- Del deletes the selected span
- Esc disables the active tools or selections
- Enter opens the “Edit Span” window related to the selected span (see 5.5.7.1 for details)

The following parameters may be used:

- z (m): indicates the reference depth coordinate for both horizontal and vertical lines. Positive and negative values
indicate points below and above the soil surface respectively
- Lv (m): indicates the length of new vertical lines. New vertical lines are oriented downward
- Lh (m): indicates the length of new horizontal lines. Enter zero to keep the length free

The following features are included:

- Initial point and end point of horizontal lines or rods can be dialled manually in the form “x,y,z” (in case of lines the
second point have to be specified)
- Initial point, length and tilt of horizontal lines can be set manually in the form “x,y,z,L,alpha”
- Initial and final points of horizontal lines can be set manually in the form “x1,y1,z1,x2,y2,z2”

The new spans will be created with the properties set in the “Electrode Data Settings” group box for horizontal and
vertical conductors respectively (see 5.5.3 for details).

Opening the “Edit Span” window related to the selected span (with Enter button), is possible to complete the drawing with
electrical information, so it is possible to add injected currents, impressed EMF, impedances or to modify cross section,
properties division.

At the end of the layout drawing click “Debug” in the “Debug” group box to run the debug process (see 5.7.1 for details).

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Select the flag BACKGROUND “Draw” in order to draw plants of buildings, fences, roads or other reference object used
as background directly and without the use of auxiliary external tools.
This option uses the same commands above described.
Select the flag BACKGROUND “Snap” in order to use the snap option in background drawing.

With the module NETS, the “Draw” tool allows to draw a network directly and without the use of auxiliary external tools.

The “Draw” option opens a window with a default volume visualization (see 5.5.8) where the User can directly draw.
The User can draw in both 2D and 3D mode.
It is possible to change draw mode by using “View 2D” and “View 3D” options in the “Display” group box.

This tool allows the use of the keyboard buttons adopted by the main diffused CAD tools.

The icons in the “Draw” group box allow:

- Draw a bus: draw a new horizontal or vertical bus span in the x-y plane. Ends points of the bus are bound to the
points in the default grid
- Cell 1: draw a new cell 1 in the x-y plane. Ends points of the cell are bound to the points in the default grid
- Cell 2: draw a new cell 2 in the x-y plane. Ends points of the cell are bound to the points in the default grid
- Undo: erases the last changes done to the drawing reverting it to an older state
- Help: gives instructions about the use of the keyboard buttons:
- Del deletes the selected bus or cell
- Esc disables the active tools or selections
- Enter opens the “Edit Bus” or “Edit Cell” window related to the selected bus or cell (see 5.5.7.1 for details)

Opening the “Edit Bus” or “Edit Cell” window related to the selected bus or cell (with Enter button), is possible to
complete the drawing with electrical information.

At the end of the layout drawing click “Debug” in the “Debug” group box to run the debug process (see 5.7.1 for details).

5.5.6 IMPORT AND EXPORT

This option is available if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

Select “Project  Data  Import and Export” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 5-51).

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Figure 5-51: “Data – Import and Export” window

The “Import and Export” tool allows to load a “dxf” file containing a system of conductors and to convert the layout data
into a numerical form, or to create a “dxf” file containing the layout data about the system of conductors.
This interface utility is integrated within XGSLab and allows to alternate easily between CAD tools and XGSLab.
In the following the capabilities of this interface are described. A working level of familiarity with CAD tools is assumed.

Using “Import” it is also possible to load “dxf” file containing the background to use in the representation of the system of
conductors. Background can include reference objects as, for example, buildings, fences … and can be useful to make
the graphics more representative.

Select the flag “ASDC” to enable the algorithm ASDC (Automatic Span Division and Conditioning) and set the “Gap”
value.
The “Gap” value represents the parameter used by ASDC to process loaded spans and usually may be set in the range
0.05 – 0.5 m (default Gap = 0.1 m).
The ASDC algorithm works as follows:

It performs a preliminary erasing of the spans with same geometry and same parameters (identical spans) that are
probably due to error in drawing.
Then, for the remaining spans proceed according to the following steps.

Check if incidence is possible:

- Incidence is not possible if distance between span centres is over the sum of their half length
- Incidence is not possible if spans are parallel
- Intentional incidence is not considered

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Check of incidence:
- It calculates the distance between each couple of spans (for example spans “SE” and “se”). The distance between
spans is the distance between the lines in the 3D space that contain the two spans. The calculated distance is taken
into account only if the nearest points of the lines under examination belong to the spans
- If:
- the distance is lower than “Gap” and
- the two spans belong to the same electrode or the two spans belong to different electrodes but for both spans the
nearest point is an end,
the two spans are assumed incident and the incident point “p” is set to be the midpoint between the nearest points of
the spans

X incidence (division):
- If “Sp”, “pE”, “sp” and “pe” are longer than “Gap” the two initial spans “SE” and “se” (“S” and “s” stand for “start point”;
“E” and “e” stand for “end point”) are divided into four spans “Sp”, “pE”, “sp” and “pe”

T incidence (division and conditioning):

- If “Sp” and “pE” are longer than “Gap” the initial span “SE” is divided into two spans “Sp” and “pE”
- If “sp” and “pe” are longer than “Gap” the initial span “se” is divided into two spans “sp” and “pe”
- It calculates the distance between the end points of each span and “p” and if this distance is lower than “Gap”, it
moves the end point to “p”

L incidence (conditioning):
- If “Sp” is shorter than “Gap” it moves “S” to “p” or if “pE” is shorter than “Gap” it moves “E” to “p”
- If “sp” is shorter than “Gap” it moves “s” to “p” or if “pe” is shorter than “Gap” it moves “e” to “p”

Post conditioning after changing with T or L incidences:

- It calculates the distance between the ends of the spans close to “p” and if this distance is lower than “Gap”, it moves
the end point to “p”. In this way, lost connection between spans because the previous conditioning are restored

At the end, the spans with length lower than “Gap” are deleted and lost connection between spans because the previous
deletion are restored.

After this procedure, the initial set of spans is generally replaced by a new set of suitable spans.
Note that the ASDC process is dynamic and then, after each cycle the total spans number may change.

The following “Options” are available in the “Import” group box:

- Append: by default, at each importation, all previous spans are deleted to create a new data base with the new spans
but using the option “Append”, it is possible to add the new spans to the existing ones
- Background only: with this option the importation procedure will deal only with background records and will not
influence the layout and/or the calculation saved. It is possible to perform (at any calculation step) an importation
limited to the background

Then enter the required data in the extended input area as described in 5.5.6.2.

At the end of the data input, click “Import”.

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The import procedure provides to the “dxf” loading and to the span division and conditioning according to the ASDC
algorithm (if selected) and can take several seconds or, seldom a few minutes.

It is important consider the following important notices.

Important notice:
About “dxf” loading procedure:
- In the “dxf” loading, the content of different layers is imported taking into account alphabetic or numeric layername
order. So the layername can be used to manage the span order
- In the same layer the spans are loaded following the chronological order in which they were drawn

About ASDC algorithm:

- The ASDC algorithm works after the “dxf” loading procedure
- If the ASDC algorithm does not produce new spans, their order is the one that comes from the “dxf” loading
procedure
- If the ASDC algorithm produces new spans, they will be queue to the ones that come from the “dxf” loading
procedure

At the end of the “dxf” loading procedure and ASDC algorithm (if selected), XGSLab divides the system of conductors
into several smaller segments (elements). The following spans division results (used in the calculations) are represented
in the “Electrodes Fragmentation” group box:
- Electrodes
- Elements Victim
- Elements Source (only XGSA_FD)

The new elements number will be overwritten to the old one in the “Electrodes Fragmentation” group box.
The User can accept or modify the elements number. In order to modify the elements number insert the new target “Set
Elements” in the “Electrodes Fragmentation” group box (see Figure 5-51) and then click “Apply”.

Finally, the “List” window will appear (see Figure 5-54).

In the following some important additional information about:

- “dxf” file creating
- “dxf” file loading

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Images Button Description

Toolbar panel used for moving through the records

Add new record. The detail area becomes ready to insert new field values.

Remove current record.

Duplicate selected record

Export records in file format like .xls, .pdf, .html, …

Export in .xml format the import table

Import a .xml file to fill in the import table

Table 5-1: “Import Form” command buttons

5.5.6.1 DXF FILE CREATING

The “dxf” file has to be create with a CAD application platform or adapt an existing drawing with the following criteria:
- Represent the system of conductors in some specific graphical layers, distinct from the layers used for other graphic
elements (e.g. buildings, text…). Use one or more graphical layer for each electrode and identify them with a
meaningful name (e.g. electrode a: substation, electrode b: factory, electrode c…)
- Represent the conductors using the following CAD entities in the 3D space:
- Lines: linear polylines (curves polylines will be rectified)
- Arcs: circles (lying on a plane parallel to the soil surface)
- Splines: (splines will be approximated with a series of lines)
Do not use other CAD entities because these will not be imported. All CAD entities will be converted into spans by
the software. A span is a segment oriented from its start and its end
- It is not essential to use a predefined scale factor in the drawing, because correlation between drawing units and the
actual dimensions is set when the importation into XGSLab is performed
- The spans may be drawn already divided or not divided (distinct or connected to each other in nodes). In the second
case, the use of the algorithm ASDC (see 5.5.6.2) allows to obtain suitable span from a generic set of not divided
span
- Insert the additional electrical information using the following CAD blocks:
- INJECTED CURRENT
- REFERENCE (for touch voltages reference points)
- IMPRESSED ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
- ADDITIONAL IMPEDANCE
- CATENARY CONSTANT (for overhead spans)
- POTENTIAL or LEAKAGE CURRENT DISTRIBUTION and/or LONGITUDINAL CURRENT (for sources span)

Important notice: in case of sources, if both POTENTIAL and LEAKAGE CURRENT DISTRIBUTION are set, only
POTENTIAL will be considered.
If both POTENTIAL and LEAKAGE CURRENT DISTRIBUTION are set null, only POTENTIAL will be set null.
If all POTENTIAL, LEAKAGE CURRENT DISTRIBUTION and LONGITUDINAL CURRENT are set null, the span will be
considered as a victim.

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The CAD blocks usable with XGSLab may be found in the directory CAD created with the program installation (see
3.4.4). All CAD blocks have to be drawn by positioning their pick point in the corresponding span centre (see Figure
5-52). The information contained in the CAD block will be assigned or to the starting either to the ending element of the
span as specified by the user in the block. Only the catenary constant is referred to the whole span.
When additional information in the CAD blocks requires complex number, it is necessary to insert the data in both real
and imaginary parts because of CAD requirements. Also in XGSLab the used input data format for complex number is
composed by both real and imaginary parts.

BLOCK

end

centre

start

Figure 5-52: CAD block positioning

When completed, the drawing must be saved in “dxf” format.

Drawings may be created by using AutoCAD®. XGSLab has been tested with file created by AutoCAD® up to release
2013 (probably, more recent release may be loaded but at the moment this has not been tested).
In place of AutoCAD® it is also possible to consider free CAD software available online.
The following free software have been tested successfully:
- QCAD® (only 2D)
- DRAFTSIGHT® (both 2D and 3D)

For additional information regarding the specific CAD used, please refer to its specific “User’s Guide”.

5.5.6.2 IMPORT A DXF FILE

In the following some additional information useful to enter the data required in the “Import” extended input data area.
XGSLab can load “dxf” files created using many CAD application.
Before starting the loading procedure, it is necessary to close the created “dxf” file in the CAD application.

Important notice: it is important pay attention when georeferenced files are loaded. In these cases, the large numbers
used in the coordinates can introduce errors (related to approximations or truncations) in the import procedure.

Important notice: the “z” coordinates are imported with the opposite sign (as known XGSLab consider “z” axis oriented
downwards).

Click “Open” to choose the “dxf” file location in your system drive (see arrow A in Figure 5-53).
The file path will be shown in the specific text box.

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Set the “Scale” value.

The “Scale” value represents the size factor between the CAD application units and the XGSLab units (meters).
The meaning of this value is the number of CAD units corresponding to one meter in the XGSLab modules.

Figure 5-53: “Edit Import Data” window

Click on “Add” (see arrow B in Figure 5-53) and “Edit Import Data” window will open.
In “Edit Import Data” input manually, the following information for the imported systems of conductors.
Layer:
- Background = select this flag if the imported data are related to background object (e.g. a building). In this case the
only “Layer” box remains enabled
- Layer = CAD layer to be chosen among those used in the CAD drawing

General ((*) Mandatory data / Optional data):

- (*) Electrode = number of electrode assigned to data imported under a certain CAD layer (a single electrode may be
required more row of data)
- (*) Tilt = set the kind horizontal or vertical of the elements we are going to import
- Tag = optional name the User can set for groups of elements
- Δz (m) = vertical shifting of the imported elements (this value can be positive or negative and will be added to the
vertical coordinate in the CAD drawing)
- d (mm) = diameter or equivalent diameter of the elements to be imported
2
- s (mm ) = cross section of the elements to be imported
- tc (mm) = covering thickness
- (*) nsc = sub conductors number (default nsc = 1 and then single conductor)
- (*) Dbc (mm) = bundle conductor diameter
- Conductor = conductor material (combo from Libraries  Material Properties)

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- Covering = covering material (combo from Libraries  Material Properties)

The optional data will be automatically loaded from the “Electrode Data Settings” group box in editable format.

If the User chooses “Rod” as type of the element, two more boxes will enable:
- Block Name = name of the CAD block used for rods
- Lv (m) = length of the rods corresponding to the block

These two boxes are to be used in case the rods we are going to import are drawn using CAD blocks.
Otherwise, if the rod we want to import it is drawn with a CAD line, we have to leave these boxes blank.

Reduction Factors:
- ksi = screening factor for inductive coupling (default ksi = 1)
- ksr = screening factor for resistive and capacitive coupling (default ksr = 1)
- kui = urban factor for inductive coupling (default kui = 1)
- kur = urban factor for resistive and capacitive coupling (default kur = 1)

Important notice: reduction factors are used in the calculation of the coefficient of the inductive resistive and capacitive
coupling but not in the calculation of potentials, electric and magnetic fields. So, reduction factors has to be used only in
the calculation of currents and potentials along the conductors network.

5.5.6.3 EXPORT TO A DXF FILE

Using “Export” the layout data can be exported in a “dxf” file.

Click “Export” in the “Import and Export” group box.
This will open the file selection dialog box.
Set the file path, the file name (the file extension is “dxf” by default) and save.

The exported data are related to the only geometrical aspects of the conductors network (which however normally make
up most of the data). Geometrical aspects include in particular the span ends in the space and the span “tag”.
All spans in the list will be saved in specific layers “tag name”.
The off spans will be saved in specific layers “OFF tag name”.
All spans in the list related to background will be saved in a specific layer “background”.
The use of distinct layers is crucial in order to separate layout entities with different properties.
The used scale factor is 1 by default (1 CAD unit = 1 m).

Important notice: the “z” coordinates are exported with the opposite sign (as known XGSLab consider “z” axis oriented
downwards).

5.5.7 LIST

Select “Project  Data  List” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 5-54).

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C
A

Figure 5-54: “Data - List” window

The “List” tool depends on the selected module.

With the modules *GSA*, the “List” tool is useful to verify the loaded data and occasionally, to modify them.
In the List the columns color code is the following:
- Yellow: editable value directly in the table
- White: not editable value
- Azure: editable value by means of Edit Span window

With the modules *GSA* the loaded data include spans and electrodes.

With the module NETS, the “List” tool is useful to only verify the loaded data.
In the List the columns color code is the following:
- White: not editable value
- Azure: editable value by means of Edit Span window

With the module NETS the loaded data include buses and cells.

5.5.7.1 SPANS

This point is relevant if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

Select the tab “Spans” (see Figure 5-54).
Each span may represent a conductor (straight or catenary).
If necessary, modify the data in the extended input data area (Figure 5-54) by using “Edit Span” window.

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In calculations of electric and magnetic fields, the distance between sources and observer is generally comparable to the
height of sources above the soil surface and therefore, it is important to know the exact location of conductors, and then,
their disposal according to a catenary.
In the calculation of electromagnetic interference, the distance between sources and observer is generally such that the
sources position can be obtained by placing them at an average height equal to the sum of their minimum distance from
the ground and 1/3 of the maximum sag. It is not necessary in these cases consider their disposal according to a
catenary.

The partition of each span in several elements is done by the program according to the “lh” and “lv“ values specified by
the User in the “Electrode Data Settings” group box. The number of elements is an integer number as obtained from this
partition, with a round-off at the upper unity. The partition value may be changed by the User, anyway, the software
always provides a first approximation of the number of elements.
Moreover, in all cases, the outer diameter of each element is assigned by the program according to the “dh” and “dv”
specified by the User in the “Electrode Data Settings” group box. The diameter value may be changed by the User.

The flag “On” in the column “Selected” in the extended input data area of the Figure 5-54 is normally selected. Changing
the flag state to “Off”, the data in the row will not be taken into account in the systems of conductors layout. This option is
very useful because it allows the User not to take into account some portions of the systems of conductors without
deleting their data. It is also possible to select multiple data rows and to swap their state on or off by clicking the right
mouse button.

Data with “Selected” state “Off” are distinguished by a different color.

PROPERTIES

Each span requires a set of data as in the following.

General (((*) Mandatory data / Optional data):
- (*) Selected
- (*) Electrode = electrode owner identification number
- (*) Tilt (Horizontal or Vertical)
- (*) Type (Source or Victim)
- (*) No = progressive span number
- Tag
Layout:
- (*) Xs (m) = span start
- (*) Ys (m) = span start
- (*) Zs (m) = span start
- (*) Xe (m) = span end
- (*) Ye (m) = span end
- (*) Ze (m) = span end
- (*) L (m) = calculated span length
- a (m) = catenary constant (default a = infinite and then straight span)
Cross Section:
- (*) d (mm) = conductor outer diameter
- (*) tm (mm) = conductor thickness
- tc (mm) = covering thickness

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- nsc = sub conductors number (default nsc = 1 and then single conductor)
- Dbc (mm) = bundle conductor diameter
Division:
- (*) Elements = elements number per span
Property:
- (*) ρm (Ωm) = conductor or metal resistivity
- (*) µrm = conductor or metal relative permeability
- ρc (Ωm) = covering resistivity
- εrc = covering relative permittivity
Victim:
- Z (Ω/m) = longitudinal impedance
- Yc (S/m) = transversal admittance of covering
- Jes (A) = impressed current start
- Jee (A) = impressed current end
- Ees (V) = impressed electromotive force start
- Eee (V) = impressed electromotive force end
- Zels (Ω) = additional longitudinal impedance start
- Zele (Ω) = additional longitudinal impedance end
- Zets (Ω) = additional transverse impedance start
- Zete (Ω) = additional transverse impedance end
- Ref. Start: the central point of the first element (start) of the span is assumed as reference point
- Ref. End: the central point of the last element (end) of the span is assumed as reference point
Reduction Factor:
- ksi = screening factor for inductive coupling (default ksi = 1)
- ksr = screening factor for resistive and capacitive coupling (default ksr = 1)
- kui = urban factor for inductive coupling (default kui = 1)
- kur = urban factor for resistive and capacitive coupling (default kur = 1)
Source:
- U (V) = known potential
- j (A/m) = known leakage current density
- I (A) = known current

GSA uses the electrode number to identify the spans belonging to an electrode.
The modules *_FD use the electrode number only to obtain the total earthing current of each electrode in the calculation
of the earthing impedance.

Parameters of conductor and covering material are loaded from the “Libraries  Material Properties”.

GSA uses the material description only for the “List of Items”.

For the complex number data, both real and imaginary parts or modulus and argument have to be entered depending on
the selected notation (Cartesian or polar respectively).

Conductor covering may be an insulators or semiconductors like GEM (or backfill) or concrete shell.

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The soil treatment to lower resistivity using a GEM is sometime used to reduce the earth resistance of the grounding
system when soil resistivity is quite high (over 1000 Ωm). The most used GEM are bentonite, marconite and gypsum.
Other materials like sand, coke-breeze, cinders should not be used as GEM because they result acid and corrosive. The
treatment of the soil surrounding the grounding system corresponds to an increment of the diameter of conductors. As
written, the change in diameter of conductors has negligible effects on the earth resistance value when dealing with
commercial sections, but when the “apparent” diameter is increased with the soil treatment, this is so large that the earth
resistance will be reduced.

A concrete block buried in soil behaves as a semiconducting medium with a resistivity of 30 – 60 Ωm (this resistivity
values are referred to the wet concrete that is the normal condition for concrete buried for a long time while the resistivity
of dry concrete is about 10 kΩm). This is of particular interest in medium and highly resistive soils because a conductor
encased in concrete has a lower resistance than a similar electrode buried directly in the earth. This encasement
reduces the resistivity of the most critical portion of material surrounding the metal element and it is equivalent to a
chemical treatment of the soil.

The User can modify each single data or a set of data. To change a set of data select the records to modify in the
extended input data area of the Figure 5-54 and then click the right mouse button.
It is then possible:
- Delete selected records
- Select all the records
- Swap the state of the flag “Selected” in selected records
- Modify properties of selected records by using “Edit Span” window

EDIT

The “Edit Span” window is shown in the Figure 5-55.

Modified properties will be applied to all spans in the selected records.

The data in the “+/- x, y, z (m)” cells may be useful to shift the selected conductors in the “x, y, z” direction respectively.

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Figure 5-55: “Edit Span” window

The “Edit Span” window may also be used to input groups of spans.
To do it the User has to click on “Add” (see Figure 5-54, Arrow C) and “Edit Span” window will open.
Then, the User has to set the properties of the spans. To input arrays of parallel spans it is necessary to fill in the boxes
in the “Layout” group box (see arrow in Figure 5-55). Here the user has to set the total number of spans and the distance
between one span and the following.
The array is generated taking into account the span direction as in Figure 5-56.

It is important to take into account that:

- Only arrays on an horizontal surface can be generated
- Blank “No” and “Offset” boxes mean a single span

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- Arrays of vertical elements are generated only in axis “x” direction

n=4

end
offset

“mother span”
start

Figure 5-56: Spans array

The data list can be checked also in a graphical mode by clicking “View 2D” or “View 3D” in the “Display Settings” group
box.

At the end of the layout data check (or as said during the data changing), click “Debug” in the “Debug” group box to run
the debug process (see Figure 5-54 for details).

5.5.7.2 ELECTRODES

This point is relevant if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

Select the tab “Electrodes” (see Figure 5-54).

The following summary data are shown (in read only mode):
- Electrode number
- Modulus of the total injected current in the electrode
- Argument of the total injected current in the electrode

5.5.7.3 BUSES

This point is relevant if “Project  Module  NETS is selected.

Select the tab “Buses”.

The following summary data are shown (in read only mode):
- Selected (state off means the bus won’t be considered in calculations)
- Bus description
- Bus tag
- Bus number (sequential)
- Bus ends coordinates

5.5.7.4 CELLS

This point is relevant if “Project  Module  NETS is selected.

Select the tab “Cells”.

The following summary data are shown (in read only mode):
- Selected (state off means the cell won’t be considered in calculations)

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- Cell class (1 or 2)
- Cell type (feeder, ideal voltage source, …)
- Cell number (sequential)
- Bus In (bus number connected to the cell input side)
- Bus Out (bus number connected to the cell output side)
- Cell ends and center coordinates

5.5.8 DISPLAY

The “Display” group box includes some important features for displaying.

The icons “Tools” in the “Display” group box allow some typical CAD operations:
- PAN
- Zoom Windows
- Zoom in/out
- Zoom Extends
- Rotate

5.5.8.1 VOLUME VILUALIZATION

The “Volume Visualization” is the reference volume for the graphic representation of the system of conductors and is
defined by origin and size of a parallelepiped.

Important notice: the coordinates may be referred to a generic coordinate system where the plane z = 0 corresponds to
the earth surface and the “z” axis is downwards

The volume visualization parameters may be introduced both in graphical or numerical mode. With numerical mode,
insert the required data in the “Display” group box (in brackets the limits) (see Figure 5-54):
9 9
- x origin (m) = volume origin (from -10 to 10 m)
9 9
- y origin (m) = volume origin (from -10 to 10 m)
3
- z origin (m) = volume origin (from -10 to 0 m) (so at or above the soil surface)
6
- Length (m) = volume length (from 0 to 10 m)
6
- Width (m) = volume width (from 0 to 10 m)
3
- Height (m) = volume height (from 0 to 10 m)

Important notice: with modules GSA and GSA_FD “z origin” is fixed to “z ground = 0 m”

With graphical mode it is possible to select the volume visualization parameters “x,y origin” and opposite corner in a
graphical way. Click “Draw” in the “Display” group box (see Figure 5-54) and use the cursor to set the first corner of the
volume projection on the soil surface (origin) and then move the cursor to individuate the second corner (the opposite
corner). Usually the first corner is the lower left corner and the second corner is the upper right corner but the same
rectangular area may be selected starting from any of its four corners.
In any case, the parameters of the selected volume visualization will be displayed in the “Display” group box.

The volume visualization data may be changed by the User at any time.
Click “Restore” in the “Display” group box to restore the initial volume visualization data.

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For more details see also Figure 5-57.

x,y,z origin

x,y origin, z ground = 0

Width
Height

Length

Figure 5-57: Volume visualization coordinates and size

5.5.8.2 DISPLAY OPTIONS

The check buttons “Options” in the “Display” group box allow:

- Grid: unselect “Grid” to disable the representation of the grid in all the 2D and 3D representations
- Background: select “Background” if the imported background has to be shown in all the 2D and 3D representations
- Elements: select “Elements” to represent the orientated elements in all the 2D and 3D representations. This option
can be useful in particular in order to check the orientation of the source spans
- Text: unselect “Text” to disable the representation of many of the text information in all the 2D and 3D
representations. This option can be useful in particular when there are many text information and their superposition
is then unavoidable

Set “Color By” in the “Display” group box in order to fix the elements coloring criteria.
The following options are available: Default, Electrode, Tag, Material. The elements colors are set based on the ID order
as in “File  Settings  Colors and Graphics – Groups Colors” (see 4.1.7.2) and can be customized by the User.

Set “Tag Filter” in the “Display” group box in order to set the displayed tags (the combo flags allow to set one or more
tags).

Select the flag “Debug Info” to show the debug results in all the 2D and 3D representations.
With this selection, 2D and 3D representations include warning or errors debug messages. The spans are coloured
according to the debug results and also the doubtful separations between span ends are highlighted. The doubtful
separations corresponds to the span ends at a distance in the range between “Gap – DSR” (see 5.5.6.2) to other span
ends.

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Select the flag “Off Spans” to show the spans with the state off in all the 2D and 3D representations. This option can be
useful in particular when the User needs to change the state of a span with state off (and so not visible).

At the end of data input and settings, click “View 2D” or “View 3D” in the “Display” group box. XGSLab produces
respectively a graphical 2D (orthographic projection) or 3D (isometric projection) output that represent the layout of the
system of conductors with the selected additional information (see Figure 5-58 and Figure 5-59).

Figure 5-58: Orthographic projection of the system of conductors (with “Debug Info”)

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Figure 5-59: Isometric projection of the system of conductors (with “Debug Info”)

Orthographic projection represents the system of conductors as shown in the Figure 5-60. Sky, soil and soil surface are
colored in order to give to the representation a realistic and intuitive look.

y
TOP VIEW
y

SIDE VIEW Width TOP VIEW

x,y,z origin
upper
SIDE VIEW

Heigth x,y,z origin Length

z upper
x
FRONT VIEW x

Heigth FRONT VIEW

z
z

Figure 5-60: Orthographic projection

5.5.8.3 GRAPHICAL SELECTION EDITING

The orthographic projections and the isometric projection of the layout of the system of conductors (see Figure 5-58) may
be used in order to display elements properties and display or modify single span data.

Span selection
Single or multiple spans selection is allowed. Single click on a span to add/remove it to/from the selection.

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- Press “Esc” in order to cancel the selection

- Press “Enter” in order to edit the properties of the selected spans
- Press “Del” to delete the selected spans

To select a span click once as close as possible to the span (and to select a vertical conductor as for instance a rod with
the orthographic projections, click once as close as possible to the conductor head). The selected span will become red
and the main span properties of the selected element will be shown (Figure 5-61).

Figure 5-61: “Graphical Selection Editing” – Main span properties

With *_FD, the main properties include the characteristic impedance and the propagation constant of the selected
element calculated with the following formulas:

z
Z0 
y

  zy

yoc yc
y
yoc  yc

where:

- Z0 (Ω) = characteristic impedance

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-  (1/m) = propagation constant

- z (Ω/m) = self-impedance
- y (S/m) = total admittance
- yoc (S/m) = admittance to the propagation media outside the covering or of the bare conductor

- yc (S/m) = covering admittance

Important notice: characteristic impedance and the propagation constant are related to an infinite long conductor
parallel to the soil surface and with parameters corresponding to the selected element.

The physical meaning of characteristic impedance and propagation constant is well described in literature. In a few
words, the characteristic impedance of a transmission line is the ratio between the voltage and current of the wave
travelling along the line in the absence of reflections in the other direction (line with infinite length) and is the same
everywhere on the line. The characteristic impedance can be useful in order to simulate an infinite long conductor.
The propagation constant of a transmission line represents the change in phase per unit length of voltage or current
along the line. The propagation constant is generally complex and is usually written as:

    j

where:
-  (1/m) = propagation constant

-  (1/m) = attenuation constant

-  (1/m) = phase constant

The characteristic length of a conductor is defined as:

1 1
 
Re   

The decay of the voltage modulus along the transmission line can be written with the formula:

V  V0 e l

This simple formula provides the following criterion in order to establish when a conductor if infinite long:

ln 
e l   and then l   ln 


For instance, if ε = 0.1 it follows l > 2.3/α.

Span state
To change the span state, select a span and click with the right button of the mouse.

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A short menu is then displayed and in it many options can be selected (Figure 5-62).

Figure 5-62: “Graphical Selection Editing” – Span state options

With the option “Delete” the selected span can be deleted while with “Swap On / Off” the span state can be swapped
from on to off or vice versa and with “Split” the span cab be divided in two equal spans.
With the option “Rotate” is possible to rotate a selected span or group of spans. The User has to specify the rotation
center and the rotation angle (positive angles are considered counter clockwise).
With the option “Copy” is possible to copy a selected span or group of spans. The User has to specify the copy base
point and the destination.
With the option “Move” is possible to move a selected span or group of spans. The User has to specify the move base
point and the destination.
The option “Edit Properties” opens the “Edit Span” windows (see below).

Span edit
To edit a span click twice as close as possible to the span (and to edit a vertical conductor with the orthographic
projections, click twice as close as possible to the conductor head).
The selected span will become red and the “Edit Span” window shown in the Figure 5-55 will be opened (Figure 5-63).
The data in the “Edit Span” window may be changed by the User (see 5.5.7.1 for detail).
Then click “Apply” in the “Edit Span” window to accept the new data.
The modified data are automatically updated also on the “Data”.

Before continuing, click “Debug” in the “Debug” group box to run the debug process.

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Figure 5-63: “Graphical Selection Editing” – Edit span window

Division at intersection, Extend, Chamfer

The option “Division at Intersection” allows to modify the spans division.
The “Extend” and “Chamfer” options work as more diffused CAD tools.
The “Extend” option extends one or more spans to the objective span. This command works with two or more spans and
consider the first selected span as objective. The subsequent spans will be extended if their extension met the objective
span.
The “Chamfer” option extends and connects two spans. This command works as “Extends” if the extension of the
subsequent span met the objective span.

5.5.9 EXPERT USER'S TIPS

With the modules *GSA*, the most critical aspects are usually related to the layout data.
It is essential that the layout and electrical data are well designed and properly loaded.
It is important to follow the step by step procedure above described and especially creating “dxf” files correctly.
In particular, to avoid numerical instability:
- Avoid overlapping or too close lines
- Avoid too short conductors or too small meshes
- Ensure that all the elements have similar lengths

Moreover:
- Ensure that the connections or intersection between conductors are accurate
- Use the “osnap” option in the CAD file drawing
- In general, simplify as possible the electrodes.

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- When need to import complex electrodes as, for example, the iron reinforcement of underground structure and the
debug procedure does not allow to load the layout data, the following alternative procedure can be used:
- Use the GSA module
- Disable the ASDC algorithm in the “dxf” file loading

This last procedure is not recommended and the obtained results (in particular the leakage current distributions) have to
be carefully evaluated.
In the presence of overhead conductors, when frequency is very low, calculations can be unstable and this in particular
with very short overhead elements (length lower than 0.5 m). In these cases, the elongation of the overhead elements
usually solves the problem.

5.6 LIMITS

This option is available if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

5.6.1 TOUCH AND STEP VOLTAGES

This option is available if “Project  Module  GSA or *_FD” is selected.

Select “Project  Limits  Touch and Step Voltages” command from “Menu option bar”.

Figure 5-64: “Touch and Step Voltages” group box

The reference standard is indicated in the box “Standard”.

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Click “Calculate” in the “Touch and Step Voltages” group box to calculate the touch and step permissible voltages using
the selected reference standard.
The “Touch and Step Voltages” extended input data area is dependent on the selected reference standard.
The reference standard is indicated also in the extended input data area.
Click “Edit” in the “Touch and Step Voltages” group box to enter the touch and step permissible voltages.
The User may impose specific and particular touch and step permissible voltages values for each zone. In this way, it is
possible to take into account permissible values from different and special standard conditions or provisions.
The User can also modify the calculated touch and step permissible voltage values for each zone: the modified value will
be used in the next calculation.

Touch voltages are related to contact with exposed conductive parts of electrical equipment or extraneous conductive
parts while step voltages are related to the contact of the feet with two points in the soil surface with different voltage and
do not depend on conductive parts.
The following considerations are important.

In general, touch and step permissible voltages depend on permissible body currents, body impedance, clearance time
and frequency. In all cases, the most important physiological threshold is that which causes fibrillation of the heart. The
magnitude and duration of the current flowing through the human body must be less than the value that can cause
ventricular fibrillation. Safety criteria have been developed in the standards which for a maximum tolerable body current
define the tolerable total effective voltage.

European and American standards are primarily concerned with safe grounding practices for power frequencies in the
range of 15 Hz to 100 Hz for EN and 50 Hz to 60 Hz for IEEE.
International standard IEC considers mainly frequencies in the range of 15 Hz to 100 Hz and gives information about the
effects of direct current and about the influence of frequency on the total body impedance.
The range of 15 Hz to 100 Hz is the most dangerous for fibrillation of the heart.
In general, in comparison with the frequency range 15 Hz to 100 Hz, if the frequency is lower than 15 Hz including DC
touch and step permissible voltages increase if the frequency decreases because:
- Permissible body current increases if the frequency decreases (because ventricular fibrillation is less probably)
- Body impedance increases if the frequency decreases

while, if the frequency is greater than 100 Hz touch and step permissible voltages increase if the frequency increases
because:
- Permissible body current increases if the frequency increases (because ventricular fibrillation is less probably and
current across the heart decreases for skin effect). The changes are significant from 1 kHz
- Body impedance decreases if the frequency increases but less than body current increase so their product tends to
increase

In brief, power frequencies may be considered the most dangerous for people and permissible touch and step voltages in
the IEC and EN standards (in the range of 15 Hz to 100 Hz) and in the IEEE standard (in the range of 50 Hz to 60 Hz)
are prudential if adopted at lower and higher frequencies.

Safety criteria used in the IEEE standard are based on the studies undertaken by Dalziel in the 1946.
Safety criteria used in the EN standard are based on IEC standard and then on more recent studies.

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In some cases EN and IEC standards are more conservative than IEEE standard and vice versa but in general when
accepted, IEC is the preferred standard.

5.6.1.1 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD

The first three editions of the international standard IEC 60479 were written in the 1974, 1984 and 1994 respectively.
The fourth and last edition was written in the 2005.
The rapid succession of reviews clearly shows the evolution of knowledge of the effects of current on the human body.

IEC/TS 60479-1:2005

If the IEC/TS 60479-1:2005 standard is selected, the extended input data area to calculate the permissible “Touch and
Step Voltages” is as represented in the Figure 5-65.

Figure 5-65: “Touch and Step Voltages” extended input data area for International standard

Insert the clearance time “tf” (corresponding to the earthing current duration for the selected Faulted Electrode).

XGSLab proposes a default value of additional foot resistance Rshoe = 2000 Ω corresponding to the resistance of a
single old and wet shoe, and proposes moreover a default value of additional hand resistance Rglove = 0 Ω and then
neglects the contribution of insulating gloves. As will be clear in the following, this resistances are used to obtain the
prospective (or source) permissible touch and step voltages and may be modified by the user.

The resistance of a single shoe is usually in the range 500 – 3000 Ω. In many standards for earthing design, in general
conditions the resistance of a single shoe is 2000 Ω but in particular circumstances, for instance inside a substation plant
this value can be higher, for instance 4000 Ω (insulating shoes).

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Resistance of two shoes in parallel (touch condition) is half of a single shoe resistance.
Resistance of two shoes in series (step condition) is double of a single shoe resistance.

Set the fibrillation current curves:

- c1 safety curve (unnecessarily conservative)
- c2 5% probability (default and recommended curve for earthing design)
- c3 50% probability (less conservative)

Set the reference conditions:

- Saltwater-wet (most conservative because it corresponds to a lower body resistance)
- Water-wet (default and usual)
- Dry (less conservative)

Set the reference percentiles body impedances or “body resistance curve”:

- 5% probability (most conservative because it corresponds to a lower body resistance)
- 50% probability (default and usual)
- 95% probability (less conservative)

By default the large surface areas of contact is assumed (most conservative option).

Then click “Calculate” in the extended input data area.

XGSLab calculates the following results (also represented in graphical way).

The tolerable body current taking into account clearance time and fibrillation curve and a path corresponding to left hand
to feet, is obtained as in the Figure 5-66 (IEC TS 60579-1:2005 – Fig. 20).
Note a strong reduction in tolerable currents at around 400 ms.

Figure 5-66: “Tolerable Body Current”

The tolerable body current with a path corresponding to left foot to right foot, is obtained by applying a heart-current
factor 0.04 (IEC TS 60579-1:2005 – Table 12):

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I Bhand feet
I B foot foot   25I Bhand feet
0.04

The body impedances are calculated by interpolating the tables that give the nonlinear dependence of body impedances
to the voltage in the IEC TS 60579-1:2005 standard:

V  V  V
Z Bhand feet    0.786 Z Bhandhand   with  I Bhand feet
Z  Z Z

V  V  V
Z Bfoot foot    1.074 Z Bhandhand   with  I Bfoot foot
Z Z Z

Important notice: regarding on previous equations, other programs use approximate coefficient 0.750 instead 0.786 and
1.000 instead 1.074 (according to the simplified diagram in the IEC TS 60579-1:2005 – Figure 3). Results will be of
course slightly different. XGSLab adopts more accurate coefficients, according to the diagram in the IEC TS 60579-
1:2005 – Figure 2.

The permissible touch and step voltages are calculated by using the following equations:

U TP  Z Bhand feet I Bhand feet

U SP  Z Bfoot foot I Bfoot foot

The prospective permissible touch and step voltages without and with soil covering layer (SCL) are calculated by using
the following equations:

U STP  U TP  R f 2  Rshoe 2  Rglove I Bhand feet

U SSP  U SP  2 R f  2 Rshoe I Bfoot foot

e e
Rf    3.125 e without SCL
4b 4  0.08

Cs  s C
Rf   s s  3.125Cs  s with SCL
4b 4  0.08

where:

- Rf (Ω) = ground resistance of one foot

- Rshoe (Ω) = additional resistance of a shoe

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- R glove (Ω) = additional resistance of an insulating glove

- IB (A) = tolerable body current

- e (Ωm) =
E or
1 for uniform or multilayer soil model respectively

- s (Ωm) = soil covering layer resistivity

- Cs = reduction factor related to the soil covering layer (see 5.6.1.3)

- b (m) = equivalent radius (0.08 m)

Important notice: the IEC standard does not provide any method for calculating foot resistance and soil covering layer
effects. This values have been calculated as per IEEE standard as below described.

If a multizone soil model is used, the touch and step permissible voltages are calculated for each different zone.

Then click “Apply” in the extended input data area to transfer the calculated values to the “Touch and Step Voltages”
group box.

5.6.1.2 EUROPEAN STANDARD

HD 637 S1:1999

If the HD 637 S1:1999 standard is selected, the extended input data area to calculate the permissible “Touch and Step
Voltages” is as represented in the Figure 5-67.

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Figure 5-67: “Touch and Step Voltages” extended input data area for European standard

Insert the clearance time “tf” (corresponding to the earthing current duration for the selected Faulted Electrode).

XGSLab proposes a default value of additional foot resistance Rshoe = 2000 Ω corresponding to the resistance of a
single old and wet shoe, and proposes moreover a default value of additional hand resistance Rglove = 0 Ω and then
neglects the contribution of insulating gloves. As will be clear in the following, this resistances are used to obtain the
prospective permissible touch and step voltage and may be modified by the user. See 5.6.1.1 for more details.

Insert the reference value of the ratio “k” between step and touch permissible voltages.
As known, the step voltage is not taken into account by the HD 637 S1:1999 standard which argues that, if a grounding
system satisfies touch voltages requirements, no dangerous step voltages will occur.
Anyway, since XGSLab allows to consider also step voltages.
The “Usp” reference value is obtained from the “Utp” value as follows:

U SP  kUTP

Taking into account national standards used in the past, a very conservative value k = 3 has been chosen as default
value. The User can modify the default value if deemed necessary.
The IEC TS 60479-1:2005 - Table 12 indicates an “heart current factor” 0.04 for the step voltage path (left foot to right
foot). It means that the “Usp” value is much larger than the “Utp” (about 20 times with tf = 0.5 s).

Then click “Calculate” in the extended input data area.

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XGSLab calculates the following results (also represented in graphical way).

The permissible touch voltage “Utp” is calculated using the scheduled values as a function of “tf” (see Table 5-2). The HD
637 S1:1999 standard directly provides the “Utp” values assuming a current path left hand to both feet, a probability of
body impedance 50% with dry conditions, a probability of ventricular fibrillation 5% (from IEC/TR2 60479-1:1994) and no
additional resistances.
The permissible step voltage “Usp” is calculated as above described.

tF UTP
(s) (V)
0.00 1000
0.04 800
0.08 700
0.14 600
0.20 500
0.29 400
0.39 300
0.49 220
0.64 150
0.72 125
1.10 100
2.00 85
5.00 80
10.00 80
Table 5-2: Touch permissible voltages HD 637 S1:1999 (in italics value derived from the curve given in the standard)

The touch and step permissible voltages “Usp” and “Utp” have to be compared with the “Ut” and “Us” values calculated
taking into account the presence of human body. This is the usual approach adopted by the European standard and as
anticipated, the comparison between “Usp” and “Us” is optional.

XGSLab also calculates the prospective “Ustp” and “Ussp” values (with soil covering layer if existing) as follows.
The tolerable body current is calculated using the scheduled values as a function of “tf” (see Table 5-3). The HD 637
S1:1999 standard directly provides the current assuming a path left hand to both feet and a probability of ventricular
fibrillation 5%.

tF I Bhand feet
(s) (mA)
0.05 900
0.10 750
0.20 600
0.50 200
1.00 80
2.00 60
5.00 51
10.00 50
Table 5-3: 5% probability fibrillation current assuming a current path left hand to both feet

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The tolerable body current assuming a path corresponding to left foot to right foot, taking into account a fixed ratio 0.75
between body impedances in touch and step conditions (conservative assumption) is:

I B foot foot  0.75kIBhand feet

The prospective permissible touch and step voltages without and with soil covering layer (SCL) are calculated by using
the following equations:

U STP  U TP  R f 2  Rshoe 2  Rglove I Bhand feet

U SSP  U SP  2 R f  2 Rshoe I Bfoot foot

e e
Rf    3.125 e without SCL
4b 4  0.08

Cs  s C
Rf   s s  3.125Cs  s with SCL
4b 4  0.08

where:

- Rf (Ω) = ground resistance of one foot

- Rshoe (Ω) = additional resistance of a shoe

- R glove (Ω) = additional resistance of an insulating glove

- IB (A) = tolerable body current

- e (Ωm) =
E or
1 for uniform or multilayer soil model respectively

- s (Ωm) = soil covering layer resistivity

- Cs = reduction factor related to the soil covering layer (see 5.6.1.3)

- b (m) = equivalent radius (0.08 m)

Important notice: the EN standard does not provide any method for calculating foot resistance and soil covering layer
effects. This values have been calculated as per IEEE standard as below described.

The touch and step permissible voltages “Ussp” and “Ustp” have to be compared with the “Ust” and “Uss” values
calculated without presence of human body. This is not the usual approach adopted by the European standard but it is
an alternative approach. Again, the comparison between “Ussp” and “Uss” is optional.

If a multizone soil model is used, the touch and step permissible voltages are calculated for each different zone.

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Then click “Apply” in the extended input data area to transfer the calculated values to the “Touch and Step Voltages”
group box.

Important notice: some countries have preserved special national conditions and national provision as specified in the
HD 637 S1 Annex T.

EN 50522:2010

The EN 50522:2010 standard is based on:

- The body currents curves provided by IEC/TR2 60479-1:1994
- The impedances tables provided by the IEC/TS 60479-1:2005 standard
- A type of contact with different path conditions weighted

As a consequence, the touch permissible voltages by the EN 50522:2010 are different from the previous ones by the HD
637 S1:1999 but also different from those calculated according to the only IEC/TS 60479-1:2005 standard in the same
conditions. In the following the only differences between the EN 50522:2010 standard and the HD 637 S1:1999 standard
are described.

The permissible touch voltage “Utp” is calculated using the scheduled values as a function of “tf” (see Table 5-4). The EN
50522:2010 standard directly provides the “Utp” values as weighted average assuming a current path corresponding to
four different touch conditions (left hand to feet, right hand to feet, both hand to feet and hand to hand), a probability of
body impedance 50% with dry conditions (from IEC/TS 60479-1:2005), a probability of ventricular fibrillation 5% (from
IEC/TR2 60479-1:1994) and no additional resistances.
The “Utp” values scheduled by the EN 50522:2010 standards are quite different from the corresponding HD 637 S1:1999
values, and in particular, in the range between 0.5 - 1.0 s the new “Utp” values are higher than the previous ones.

tF UTP
(s) (V)
0.00 800
0.05 716
0.10 654
0.20 537
0.30 415
0.40 312
0.50 220
0.60 176
0.70 150
0.80 132
0.90 121
1.00 117
2.00 96
5.00 86
10.00 85
 80
Table 5-4: Touch permissible voltages according to the EN 50522:2010 (in italics value derived from the curve given in
the standard)

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As for the HD 637 S1:1999 standard, the EN 50522:2010 standard, does not take into account the step permissible
voltages. Anyway, also in this case the “Usp” reference values are obtained from the “Utp” values as follows (read the
important notice related to this aspect in the previous subsection):

U SP  kUTP

Regarding on the “Ustp” and “Ussp” values, the calculation process does not change.
The body currents curves in the EN 50522:2010 standard are as for the HD 637 S1:1999 standard.

Important notice: some countries have preserved special national deviation as specified in the EN 50522:2010 Annex
Q.

5.6.1.3 USA STANDARD

IEEE Std 80-2000

If the IEEE Std 80-2000 standard is selected, the extended input data area to calculate the permissible “Touch and Step
Voltages” is as represented in the Figure 5-68.

Figure 5-68: “Touch and Step Voltages” extended input data area for USA standard

Insert the clearance time “tf” (corresponding to the earthing current duration for the selected Faulted Electrode).

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The body impedance (resistance) is set by default equal to 1000 Ω for both paths corresponding to left hand to feet and
left foot to right foot.

Set the body weight:

- 50 kg for general purposes (most conservative)
- 70 kg for restricted access areas as for instance substations (less conservative)

XGSLab proposes a default value of additional foot resistance Rshoe = 0 Ω and hand resistance Rglove = 0 Ω because
IEEE standard neglects hand and foot contact resistances. The User can modify these values.

Then click “Calculate” in the extended input data area.

XGSLab calculates the following results (also represented in graphical way).

The tolerable body current which can be survived by 99.5% of people for both paths corresponding to left hand to feet
and left foot to right foot is calculated using this simple formula (Dalziel 1946):

K
IB 
tF

where:
- K = 0.116 for 50 kg body weight
- K = 0.157 for 70 kg body weight

The prospective permissible touch and step voltages without and with soil covering layer (SCL) are calculated by using
the following equations:

U STP  RB  R f 2  Rshoe 2  Rglove I B

U SSP  RB  2 R f  2 Rshoe I B

e e
Rf    3.125 e without SCL
4b 4  0.08

Cs  s C
Rf   s s  3.125Cs  s with SCL
4b 4  0.08

where:

- RB (Ω) = body resistance

- Rf (Ω) = ground resistance of one foot

- Rshoe (Ω) = additional resistance of a shoe

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- R glove (Ω) = additional resistance of an insulating glove

- IB (A) = tolerable body current

- e (Ωm) =
E or
1 for uniform or multilayer soil model respectively

- s (Ωm) = soil covering layer resistivity

- Cs = reduction factor related to the soil covering layer

- b (m) = equivalent radius (0.08 m)

The touch and step permissible voltages “Ussp” and “Ustp” calculated as for USA standard equations have to be
compared with the “Ust” and “”Uss” values calculated without presence of human body.

XGSLab calculates the reduction factor related to the soil covering layer by using the following equation:

0.091    s 
CS  1 
2hS  0.09

where:

-
 (Ωm) =
E or
1 for uniform or multilayer soil model respectively
- s (Ωm) = soil covering layer resistivity

- hs (m) = soil covering layer thickness

The previous empirical equation gives the value of the reduction factor within 5% of the value obtained with the analytical
method if the following conditions are met:

hs  0.3m and    s  99

This accuracy is acceptable for all practical purposes.

Usually the thickness of the soil covering layer is between 0.05 and 0.10 m for asphalt and between 0.10 and 0.15 m for
gravel (however XGSLab also accepts greater values).
The soil covering layer resistivity is of course usually much greater than the resistivity of the ground below (to be
effective, the soil covering layer resistivity should be at least 5 times the soil resistivity of the ground below). If the
resistivity of the soil covering layer is very high (how it happen for instance using asphalt), the empirical formula may not
be applicable, but in this case, the reduction factor is so low that in practice, the touch and step voltages are certainly
below the limits and high precision is not required.

If a multizone soil model is used, the touch and step permissible voltages are calculated for each different zone.

Then click “Apply” in the extended input data area to transfer the calculated values to the “Touch and Step Voltages”
group box.

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Important notice: touch and step permissible voltages are calculated taking into account a decrement factor equal to 1.
The decrement factor represents an adjustment factor used to determine the root-mean-squared equivalent of the
asymmetrical current wave for a given fault duration, accounting for the effect of initial DC offset and its attenuation
during the fault and can be so applied to the current to earth.

IEEE Std 80-2013

There is no difference between permissible touch and step voltages in the IEEE Std 80-2000 and the IEEE Std 80-2013
standards.
The new formulas without a soil covering layer IEEE Std 80-2013 Equations 17, 18 are the same of the old formulas
IEEE Std 80-2000 Equations 17, 18 and the new formulas with a soil covering layer IEEE Std 80-2013 Equations 29, 30,
32, 33 are the same of the old formulas IEEE Std 80-2000 Equations 29, 30, 32, 33.
Also the formula used for the calculation of the reduction factor has not be changed.

5.6.2 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

This option is available if “Project  Module  *_FD” is selected.

Select “Project  Limits  Electric and Magnetic Fields” command from “Menu option bar”.

Insert the following data in the “Magnetic Field” group box (see Figure 5-69):
- B warning (µT) = attention value magnetic field (e.g. 1, 3 or 10 µT)
- B danger (µT) = maximum permissible magnetic field (e.g. 100 µT)

Insert the following data in the “Electric Field” group box (see Figure 5-69):
- E warning (kV/m) = attention value electric field (e.g. 3 kV/m)
- E danger (kV/m) = maximum permissible electric field (e.g. 5 kV/m)

The danger values have to be greater than the warning ones.

The permissible values vary with the countries and depend mainly on:
- Presence of people and children
- Presence of workers
- Exposure time

The permissible values can be also related with the electromagnetic immunity of electric and electronic devices.

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Figure 5-69: “Electric and Magnetic Fields” group box

5.7 STUDY

5.7.1 DEBUG

Select “Project  Study  Debug” command from “Menu option bar” to run the calculation.

With the modules *GSA* the debug procedure performs the following checks.

Checks for single elements:

- Check for too short elements: XGSLab checks the ratio between the length and the diameter of each element. When
XGSLab finds an element having a ratio length / diameter lower than 8 but greater than 4, it produces the warning
message “Too short element found in Span number … (l/d should be greater than 8)”. When XGSLab finds an
element having a ratio length / diameter lower than 4, it produces the error message “Too short element found in
Span number … (l/d must be greater than 4)”. Before continuing the calculation, the User has to solve the problem,
either increasing the length of the elements (e.g. reducing the number of partition elements) or grouping the too short
elements in a unique long element (e.g. when the conductor is made by small elements each one with a changing
direction a unique straight conductor might be assumed)
- Check for too short elements: XGSLab checks the length of each element. When using the module XGSA_TD and
XGSLab finds an element having a length lower than 1 m, it produces the warning message “Aerial elements length
should be higher than 1 m”. In some conditions, short aerial elements can produce ill conditioning (“Low Frequency
Breakdown” phenomenon”) and a consequent offset in results

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- Check for too short covered elements: XGSLab checks the ratio between the length and the external diameter of
each element (including the covering thickness). When XGSLab finds an element having a ratio length / diameter
lower than 4 but greater than 2, it produces the warning message “Too short covered element found in Span number
… (l/(d+2*tc) should be greater than 4)”. When XGSLab finds an element having a ratio length / diameter lower than
2, it produces the error message “Too short covered element found in Span number … (l/(d+2*tc) must be greater
than 2)”. Before continuing the calculation, the User has to solve the problem as above described
- Check for too long elements (1/2): XGSLab calculates the reference wavelength of the electromagnetic field “λ” and
moreover calculates for each electrode the maximum horizontal size “D” (3D diagonal) and as consequence the
value “lh” and for each span the maximum vertical dimensions “Lv” and as consequence the value “lv” (see 0). When
XGSLab finds an element having horizontal component greater than “lh” or vertical component greater than “lv”, it
produces the warning message “Too long elements found in Span number …”. Before continuing the calculation, the
User should solve the problem, reducing the length of the elements (e.g. increasing the number of partition elements)
- Check for too long elements (2/2): When XGSLab finds an element having a horizontal or vertical component greater
1.5*f(D) (see 0), it produces the error message “Too long elements found in Span number …”. Before continuing the
calculation, the User must solve the problem, reducing the length of the elements (e.g. increasing the number of
partition elements)
- Check for elements on or too close to the soil surface: XGSLab calculates for each element the distances of its ends
from the soil surface and when both them are lower than a set limit it produces the error message “Spans number …
lie on or too close to the soil surface”. Before continuing the calculation, the User has to solve the problem
- Check for elements on or too close to the surface between soil layers: XGSLab calculates for each element the
distances of its ends from the surface between soil layers and when both of them are lower than a set limit it
produces the error message “Spans number … lie on or too close to the separation surface between the two soil
layers”. Before continuing the calculation, the User has to solve the problem
- Check for maximum elements victim number: if the elements victim number is greater than 16384, XGSLab produces
the error message “Elements Victim number must be lower than 16384”. Before continuing the calculation, the User
has to solve the problem
- Check for maximum elements source number: when modules XGSA_FD is selected, if the elements source number
is greater than 16384, XGSLab produces the error message “Elements Source number must be lower than 16384”.
Before continuing the calculation, the User has to solve the problem
- Check for elements above the soil surface: when modules GSA or GSA_FD are selected, XGSLab controls for each
element if its ends are both underground and when one of them is not, it produces the error message “Spans number
… above the soil surface”. Before continuing the calculation, the User has to solve the problem
- Check for elements crossing the soil surface: when module XGSA_* is selected, XGSLab controls for each span if its
ends are both underground or both overhead and when one of them does not respect this rule, it produces the error
message “Spans number … cross the soil surface”. Before continuing the calculation, the User has to solve the
problem
- Check for underground elements of catenary spans: when module XGSA_* is selected, XGSLab controls for each
catenary span if its elements are overhead and when one of them does not respect this rule, it produces the error
message “Spans number … (catenary) are buried”. Before continuing the calculation, the User has to solve the
problem
- Check for underground elements of bundle conductors span: when module XGSA_* is selected, XGSLab controls for
each bundle conductor span if its elements are overhead and when one of them does not respect this rule, it
produces the error message “Spans number … (bundle conductor) are buried”. Before continuing the calculation, the
User has to solve the problem

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- Check for elements both source and victim: when module XGSA_* is selected, XGSLab controls for each span its
contemporary set as victim and source, if it is true it produces the error message “Spans number … both victim and
source”. Before continuing the calculation, the User has to solve the problem
- Check for additional longitudinal impedance: XGSLab controls the value of eventual additional impedance for each
span ends and if the modulus of the entered additional longitudinal impedance exceed 10 MΩ it produces the error
message “Zl must be < 10 MΩ in spans number …”. Before continuing the calculation, the User has to solve the
problem
- Check for additional transverse impedance: XGSLab controls the value of eventual additional impedance for each
span ends and if the modulus of the entered additional transverse impedance lower than 0.1 mΩ it produces the error
message “Zt must be > 0.1 mΩ in spans number …”. Before continuing the calculation, the User has to solve the
problem
- Check for non realistic soil parameters: XGSLab controls the soil resistivity and thickness of the layer where the
elements lies and if the parameters are not realistic (see 5.4.2) it produces the error message “Unrealistic soil model
at layers …”. Before continuing the calculation, the User has to solve the problem

Checks between couple of elements:

- Check for coincident elements: XGSLab calculates the minimum distance between the ends of each couple of
elements and checks if these distances are both lower than a tolerance. When XGSLab finds this condition, it
produces the error message “Coincident elements found in Spans number … and …”. Before continuing the
calculation, the User has to solve the problem
- Check for intentional incident elements: XGSLab calculates the distance between the ends of each couple of
elements and checks if one of this distances is lower than a tolerance. When XGSLab finds this condition the
elements are considered intentional incident and no other checks are provided, otherwise the following checks will be
performed
- Check for too close, overlapped or non-intentional incident elements: XGSLab calculates the minimum distance
between each couple of elements and checks if this distance is lower than a minimum value. When XGSLab finds
this condition, it produces the error message “Too close or overlapped or non-intentional incident elements found in
Spans number … and …”. Before continuing the calculation, the User has to solve the problem
- Check for too close electrode: XGSLab calculates the distance between the ends of each couple of elements
belonging to different electrodes and checks if this distance is lower than a minimum value. When XGSLab finds this
condition, it produces the error message “Too close electrodes found in Spans number … and …”. Before continuing
the calculation, the User has to solve the problem. This check is performed only with the GSA module

If in the “Import” procedure the ASDC algorithm was disabled, the “Check for too close or overlapped or non-intentional
incident elements” is conducted with less restrictive criteria.

The User has to click “Debug” anyway, even in cases of old projects.

At the end of the debug procedure, if the debug procedure is not passed, and in particular when there are error
messages, the User has to be solve the problems (for instance by changing the elements number).
If the debug procedure is passed the compute icon will be enabled.

Before running the debug procedure set the DSR (Doubtful Separation Reference) value.
The separations between span ends in the range “Gap – DSR” (see 5.5.6.2) will be represented as doubtful using the
display option “Debug Info” (see arrow B in Figure 5-54).

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By default DSR = 0.5 m. The default value may be changed by the User at any time but at each changing the debug
procedure has to be repeated.

With the module NETS the debug procedure performs the following checks.

Checks for single cells:

- Check for in / out ports connection: XGSLab checks the buses where ports “in” and “out” of cell 2 are connected.
When XGSLab finds a cell 2 where ports “in” and “out” are connected to the same bus, it produces the error message
“Ports in/out connected to the same bus found in Cell number …”. Before continuing, the User has to solve the
problem

5.7.2 COMPUTE

Select “Project  Study  Compute” command from “Menu option bar” to run the calculation.

The calculation process depends on the selected module as follows.

5.7.2.1 GSA

The GSA module needs the following data:

- Soil model parameters
- Layout and electrical data

Before the compute session, GSA divides the grounding system into a suitable number “n” of elements.
Then GSA calculates the self and mutual coefficient of potential of and between elements. It is then possible to obtain a
first set of equations describing the resistive coupling between elements through the earth:

W J   U 
where:

- W  (n x n) (Ω) = matrix of coefficient of potential

- J  (n x 1) (A) = array of leakage currents
- U  (n x 1) (V) = array of potentials
- n = number of elements

Generally the grounding system can include “m” distinct electrodes and each single electrode is assumed equipotential
but in general with a different potential from others electrodes. Then, previous linear system contains “n” equations and
“n+m” unknowns (“n” leakage currents and “m” potentials). It is possible to obtain a second set of “m” equations by
applying the following conditions to each distinct electrode:

J e  IE

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Then GSA solves the linear system and calculates the leakage current for each element and the potential (GPR) for each
distinct electrode. From the GPR values and total leakage currents, it is possible to calculate the resistance to earth of
each electrode:

UE
RE 
IE

where:

- RE (Ω) = earthing resistance

- UE (V) = GPR

- IE (A) = total leakage current

The earth potential distribution is then obtained from the leakage currents distribution as superposition effect of all
elements. It is so possible to calculate the corresponding touch voltages distribution (taking into account the GPR value)
and the step voltages distribution.
The calculation of earth potential and touch and step voltages distribution may be carried out both along a straight line
and upon a defined area.

5.7.2.2 GSA_FD

The GSA_FD module needs the following data:

- Frequency
- Soil model parameters
- Layout and electrical data

Before the compute session, GSA_FD divides the grounding system into a suitable number “n” of elements.
Then GSA_FD calculates the self and mutual coefficient of potential of and between elements. It is then possible to
obtain a first set of equations describing the resistive and capacitive coupling between elements through the earth:

W J   U 
where:

- W  (n x n) (Ω) = matrix of coefficient of potential

- J  (n x 1) (A) = array of leakage currents
- U  (n x 1) (V) = array of potentials
- n = number of elements

In AC condition, the coefficients of potential are complex number because they are calculated taking into account the soil
complex resistivity.

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Previous linear system contains “n” equations and “2n” unknowns (“n” leakage currents and “n” potentials). It is possible
to obtain a second set of “n” equations taking into account the self and mutual impedances and describing the elements
connectivity by using the incident matrix as follows:

E Ee   Z   M I 

J  J e   AI 

where:

- E (n x 1) (V) = array of induced electromotive force

- Ee  (n x 1) (V) = array of impressed electromotive force
- Z  (n x n) (Ω) = matrix of self-impedances
- M  (n x n) (Ω) = matrix of mutual impedances
- I  (n x 1) (A) = array of longitudinal currents
- J e  (n x 1) (A) = array of injected currents
- A (n x n) = incidence matrix

Then GSA_FD solves the linear system and calculates leakage currents, potentials, longitudinal currents and
electromotive force for each element. From the potentials distribution and total leakage current, it is then possible to
calculate the earth impedance of each point of each electrode.
Note that, if the electrode is non-equipotential, it is not possible to define a single earth impedance value.
It is possible to define the earth impedance referring to a specific point “p” of an electrode as follows:

U Ep
Z Ep 
J e

where:

- Z Ep (Ω) = earthing impedance of the electrode referring to the point “p”

- U Ep (V) = potential of the electrode in the point “p”

- J e (A) = total leakage current of the electrode

The earth potential distribution is then obtained from the leakage currents distribution as superposition effect of all
elements. By defining a reference electrode point “p”, taking into account its voltage and the earth potential distribution, it
is possible to calculate the corresponding touch voltages distribution.
It is moreover possible to calculate the corresponding step voltages distribution.
The calculation of earth potential and touch and step voltages distribution may be carried out both along a straight line
and upon a defined area.

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The magnetic field distribution is then obtained from the longitudinal currents distribution as superposition effect of all
elements.

5.7.2.3 XGSA_FD

The XGSA_FD module needs the same data of GSA_FD and eventually also:
- Potential or leakage current and/or longitudinal current of the sources conductors

Unlike GSA_FD, XGSA_FD can also take into account the effects of source conductors where potential or leakage
current and/or longitudinal current are known and independent by other conditions.

The XGSA_FD calculation procedure is similar to which ones used by GSA_FD.

Also XGSA_FD calculates leakage currents, potentials, longitudinal currents and electromotive force for each element.
Also XGSA_FD calculates earth potential, touch and step voltages and magnetic field distribution as for GSA_FD.

Moreover, XGSA_FD can calculate the electric field distribution from the leakage currents (stationary component) and
the longitudinal current (inductive component) as superposition effect of all elements.

5.7.2.4 XGSA_TD

The XGSA_TD module needs about the same data of XGSA_FD.

Unlike XGSA_FD, XGSA_TD does not take into account the effects of source conductors.

XGSA_TD adopts the “frequency domain approach” and uses the module XGSA_FD in the calculation process use for
each single frequency of the frequency spectrum of the input transient and obtains the same results of XGSA_FD in the
time domain.

5.7.2.5 NETS

The NETS module needs the following data:

- Network topology (buses)
- Components parameters (cells)

Before the compute session, NETS calculate the matrix of the linear system including all information of network topology
and components parameters:

 Al   Ar   I     N 

 Bl   Br  U   0 
where:

-  Al  ,  Ar  (N/2 x N/2) = sub matrices of the linear systems including the component parameters
-  Bl  ,  Br  (N/2 x N/2) = sub matrices of the linear systems including the network topology
- I  (N/2 x 1) (A) = array of currents
- U  (N/2 x 1) (V) = array of potentials

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- N = number of unknown (N/2 currents and N/2 potentials)

- N 2 = total number of cell ports

Then NETS solves the linear system and calculates currents and potentials for all ports of each cell.

5.7.3 CALCULATION TIME

With the modules *GSA* the different calculations should take different time, depending on the used module, the used
computer, the number of elements “n”, the soil model and in the time domain calculations on the samples number “N”.

In general, the operation count for the different matrix “n x n” operations are the following:
2
- matrix construction: O(n ) (resistance, admittance and mutual impedance)
2
- matrix multiplication: O(n )
3
- linear system solution: O(n /3)
3
- matrix inversion: O(n )

If “p” is representative of the computer performance, without the option “RAM Saving” (see 4.1.7.1), and with a uniform
soil model the total CPU time may be estimated as follows:
2 3
- GSA: p(n +(1/3)n )
2 2 3 3
- GSA_FD: p(n +n +4n +(1/3)(2n) )
2 2 3 3 3
- XGSA_FD: p((2n) +2n +n +10n +(1/3)(2n) )
- XGSA_TD: N/2*XGSA_FD

With XGSA_FD “n” indicates both the number of “n” victim elements and “n” source elements.

2
In the same condition, with a multillayer soil model, taking into account the operation count O(cn ) for the calculation of
the matrix of self and mutual coefficient of potential of and between elements, the total CPU time may be estimated as
follows:
2 3
- GSA: p(cn +(1/3)n )
2 2 3 3
- GSA_FD: p(cn +n +4n +(1/3)(2n) )
2 2 3 3 3
- XGSA_FD: p(c(2n) +2n +n +10n +(2n) /3)
- XGSA_TD: N/2*XGSA_FD

The coefficient “c” grows with the layers number and with the difference between resistivity of adjacent layers.

With the module NETS the calculation time depends essentially to the number of unknowns “N” and then to total number
of cell ports but also to the linear matrix sparsity. In fact, in this case, the matrix of the linear system is strongly sparse, so
the operation count can be estimated as following:
2
- matrix construction: << O(n )
3
- linear system solution: << O(n /3)

If “p” is representative of the computer performance, the total CPU time may be estimated as follows:
2 3
- NETS: <<p(n +(1/3)n )

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5.7.4 ILL CONDITIONING

In the calculation process XGSLab uses specific libraries for the matrices inversion and for the solution of linear systems.
During this calculation the following message can appear “The matrix may be poorly conditioned or even singular”.
In these cases the results of the calculation could be not correct.

-1
As known, matrix inversion A or linear equation solution Ax = b are well or ill conditioned problems depending on their
condition number K(A):

 ( A)  A  A 1

n
A  A 1  max j  aij
i 1

A problem with a low condition number is said to be well-conditioned, while a problem with a high condition number is
said to be ill-conditioned. The condition number is a property of the matrix, not the algorithm or floating point accuracy of
the computer used to solve the corresponding system. For a problem with condition number K(A), expect a loss of
decimal places in the accuracy of the solution of roughly:

1  log 10  ( A)

The reciprocal of the condition number is always in the range between 0 and 1.
-1
If K(A) tends to 0 the linear system is ill-conditioned.
-1
If K(A) tends to 1 the linear system is well-conditioned.

XGSLab consider a problem ill-conditioned if:

1 1
 
 ( A) A  A1

With:
-16
- ε = 10 for linear system solution
-10
- ε = 10 for matrix inversion

This limit has been set on the base of many tests.

With the modules *GSA*, the reciprocal of the condition number tends to decrease when the difference between self
coefficients of potential grows and them for instance in these cases:
- Part of the system is above the soil surface and part is below
- Part of the system is insulated and part is bare
- The elements length is too different

Problems are usually more evident at low frequency.

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Often the User may solve the ill conditioning avoiding insulated overhead conductors and using overhead or insulated
elements not too short and, when possible, of uniform length.

With the module NETS, the reciprocal of the condition number tends to decrease when the transverse admittances in
cells like lines, cables and transformers are very low.

Moreover is useful to know that NETS has been implemented using actual values and not per-unit quantities.
The computer codes based on per-unit quantities were diffused in the past because this approach offered some
advantages with digital computers with fixed-point arithmetic. Modern computers work with floating-point arithmetic and
so, today there is no reasons to use per-unit quantities. Moreover actual-values offered some important advantages.

5.8 TOOLS

This option is available if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

5.8.1 EARTHING CURRENT

Select “Project  Tools  Earthing Current” command from “Menu option bar”.

The “Earthing Current” extended input data area is dependent on the selected reference standard.
The reference standard is indicated also in the extended input data area.

The “Earthing Current” tool may be useful to calculate the currents to earth for a generic faulted electrode.
The required data to calculate the earthing current depend on the selected reference standard as here explained.

5.8.1.1 EUROPEAN STANDARD

The current to earth calculation procedure is the same for the European standards HD 637 S1:1999 or EN 50522:2010.

If the European standards are selected, the group box of input data to calculate the currents to earth is represented in
the Figure 5-70.

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B
C
D

Figure 5-70: “Earthing Current calculation” tool for European standard

Insert the required data for the faulted electrode.

These data have to be related with the cable lines or overhead lines which feed or do not feed the fault (the latter are
needed in the in the following illustrated formulas).
The lines that do not feed the fault are characterized by a fault current equal to zero.
At the end of the data input, click “Calculate” in the extended input data area.

To better understand the required data, it is important to see the Figure 5-71 (EN 50522:2010 Figure 2) where the
specific case, that is the case of low impedance neutral earthing, is represented.

Referring to the Figure 5-71, in the general situation the current to earth in the faulted electrode may be calculated using
this equation:

n
ZE Z
I RS 
RES
IE  E
RES
r
i 1
Ei 3I 0i

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Figure 5-71: Currents to earth in case of low impedance neutral earthing

It follows the following formula adopted by XGSLab:

ZE n
IE   ri I Fi
RE i 1

where:

- IE (A) = current to earth of the faulted electrode

- ZE (Ω) = total earthing impedance from the fault point

- RE (Ω) = resistance to earth of the faulted electrode

- n = total number of lines that feed the fault

- ri = reduction factor

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- I Fi (A) = three times zero sequence current

The ZE value is obtained as follows:

1
ZE  m
1 1

RE i 1 Z pi

where:
- m = total number of lines connected to the grounding system, including those which do not feed the fault

- Zp (Ω) = equivalent impedance of overhead line earth wires or shielded cables

The resistance to earth of the faulted electrode may be calculated by XGSLab with a preliminary calculation (using an
arbitrary current, for instance 1 A). At low frequency “Re” may be assumed equal to the magnitude of the earthing
impedance. If the grounding systems is composed by more than one electrode, “Re” is related to the faulted electrode
assuming that all the other electrodes are not energized (floating).

For an earth wire line with identical spans, Zp may be obtained as:

ZW Z2
Zp   ZW RET  W
2 4

where:

- ZW (Ω/span) = earth wire self-impedance per span

- RET (Ω) = transmission tower footing earth resistance

The ZW value must be known or calculated using the standard IEC 60909-3.

For a cable line the Zp value may be obtained as follows:

Z0
Zp   R1E
2

where:

- Z0 (Ω) = self-impedance of the shield of each cable

- R E1 (Ω) = earth resistance of the terminal station grounding system connected to the cable

The reduction factor should be known or calculated using the standard IEC 60909-3.
In general the reduction factor is a complex number but often in literature only its modulus is given.
As a fist approximation the following assumption can adopted:

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- Earth wire of overhead line: the argument of the reduction factor may be assumed 0 deg and then the reduction
factor may be assumed real
- Screen of insulated cables: the argument of the reduction factor may be assumed -90 deg and then the reduction
factor may be assumed imaginary

Some typical values for the reduction factor are here indicated (HD 637 S1:1999 standard – Annex J).
Earth wire for 110 kV Overhead line:
- r = 0.98
Steel 50 - 70 mm²:
- ACSR 44/32 mm²: r = 0.77 (ACSR x/y = Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced SAl/SSteel)
- ACSR 300/50 mm²: r = 0.61

Paper insulated cables (10 and 20 kV)

- Cu 95 mm²/ lead shield 1.2 mm r = 0.20 - 0.60
- Al 95 mm²/ aluminium shield1.2 mm r = 0.20 - 0.30

Single core XLPE insulated cables (10 and 20 kV)

- Cu 95 mm²/ copper screen 16 mm²: r = 0.50 - 0.60

Single core Oil insulated cables (10 and 20 kV)

- Cu 300 mm²/ aluminium sheath 2.2 mm: r = 0.37

Gas insulated cables included in steel pipes (110 kV)

- Cu 300 mm²/ steel 1.7 mm: r = 0.01 - 0.03

Single core XLPE insulated cables (110 kV)

- Cu 300 mm²/ copper screen 35 mm²: r = 0.32

Single core Oil insulated cables (400 kV)

- Cu 1200 mm²/ aluminium sheath 1200 mm²: r = 0.01

Other values are available in the literature.

The single phase to earth fault current must be calculated according to either IEC or ANSI standards.

The calculated current to earth is then displayed in modulus and argument (see arrows A in Figure 5-70).
Finally, it is possible to apply (arrow D) the calculated current in a specific electrode (arrow B) in case of GSA or in the
start/end point (arrow C) of a specific span (arrow B) in case of GSA_FD and XGSA_FD.

5.8.1.2 USA STANDARD

The current to earth calculation procedure is the same for the USA standards IEEE Std 80-2000 and IEEE Std 80-2013.

If the USA standards are selected, the group box of input data to calculate the currents to earth is represented in the
Figure 5-72.

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A
B
C
D

Figure 5-72: “Earthing Current” group box for USA standard

Insert the required data for the faulted electrode.

The required data have to be related with the equivalent circuit that feeds the fault.
At the end of the data input, click “Calculate” in the extended input data area.
XGSLab calculates the earthing current using this formula:

IE  Df S f IF

where:

- IE (A) = current to earth

- Df = decrement factor

- Sf = fault current division factor or split factor

- IF (A) = three times zero sequence current

The decrement factor is calculated using the following IEEE Std 80-2000 Equation 79 and IEEE Std 80-2013 Equation
84:

T  2t
 F 
Df  1 a 1  e Ta 
tF  
 

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where:

- Ta  X / R (s) = DC offset time constant

- X /R = ratio of the system inductive reactance to resistance

- tF (s) = time duration of fault

XGSLab requires the X /R, f and tF values and calculates the decrement factor according to the formula above.

The split factor represents the ratio between the current through the resistance to earth “Re” and the total current through
the parallel between “Re” and the equivalent impedance of the overhead line shield wire and feeder neutral

Z eq  Req  jX eq . The split factor is calculated by means of the following formula:

1
RE Z eq
Sf  
1 Z eq  RE
1 1

RE Z eq

The resistance to earth of the faulted electrode may be calculated by XGSLab with a preliminary calculation (using an
arbitrary current, for instance 1 A). At low frequency “Re” may be assumed equal to the magnitude of the earthing
impedance. If the grounding systems is composed by more than one electrode, “Re” is related to the faulted electrode
assuming that all the other electrodes are not energized (floating).

The Z eq approximate value may be obtained using the IEEE Std 80-2000 Annex C and IEEE Std 80-2013 Annex C

Table C1.

The Z eq value may be also calculated using formulas as in literature but the rigorous calculation requires many data

and some data as for instance the pole footing resistance of transmission and distribution lines often can only be
hypothesized.
The split factor value can be also derived directly by one of the many graphs in the IEEE Std 80-2000 Annex C and IEEE
Std 80-2013 Annex C.

XGSLab requires either the Z eq value or the Sf value straightforward.

The single phase to earth fault current must be calculated according to either IEC or ANSI standards.

The calculated current to earth value is then displayed (see arrow A in Figure 5-72).
Finally, it is possible to apply (arrow D) the calculated current in a specific electrode (arrow B) in case of GSA or in the
start/end point (arrow C) of a specific span (arrow B) in case of GSA_FD and XGSA_FD.

5.8.2 CONDUCTOR SIZING

Select “Project  Tools  Conductor Sizing” command from “Menu option bar” (see Errore. L'origine riferimento
non è stata trovata.).

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The “Conductor Sizing” extended input data area is dependent on the selected reference standard.
The reference standard is indicated also in the extended input data area.

The “Conductor Sizing” tool is useful for the thermal sizing conductors and then to calculate the minimum conductor
section.

In all cases (European or USA standard), XGSLab requires the current to earth (or conservatively the fault current), the
phase to phase to earth short circuit current and their corresponding clearance time values and the conductor material of
the faulted electrode.

The phase to phase to earth short circuit current can be calculated according to either IEC or ANSI standards (a
maximum value 85% of the initial symmetrical short circuit current may be used).

The material has to be related with wire conductors (the rod size is not dependent on the fault current).

In order to obtain the minimum size of the wire conductor, it should be noted that normally the earth conductor is
connected to the earth grid either at a side or at a mesh node and then the fault current is shared at least between two
different paths on the grid (see Figure 5-73).

2 paths 3 paths 4 paths

1 path

Figure 5-73: Earthing current path

The current to use for conductor sizing may be then assumed as:

I m  kI

where for instance one of the following indicative grid split factors k may be chosen:
- k = 1.0 for 1 path or for conservative calculation

- k = 0.5 - 0.7 for 2 paths

- k = 0.35 - 0.5 for 3 paths

- k = 0.25 - 0.35 for 4 or more paths

The User has then to choose the conductor commercial section greater than the calculated conductor size.

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The selected conductor commercial section must also meet the minimum standard requirements to ensure mechanical
strength and corrosion resistance. Regarding on the conductor section it is recommended to verify the minimum
permissible values in the specific national standard.
Furthermore, some countries (e.g. Sweden) do not allow to use aluminium for the electrode conductors.

Select “Libraries  Wires and Rods” command from “Menu option bar” to search a suitable commercial section for
wire and rods components.

The above formulas are suitable for circular cross section conductors, whereas a rectangular cross section could be
used. For thermal purposes a circular cross section conductor is equivalent to a rectangular conductor if the following
condition holds:

AR p  4AC3

where:

- AR (mm²) = rectangular conductor cross section

- p (mm) = rectangular conductor perimeter

- AC (mm²) = circular conductor cross section

5.8.2.1 EUROPEAN STANDARD

The conductor sizing design procedure is the same for the European standards HD 637 S1:1999 or EN 50522:2010.

If the European standards are selected, the group box to size the conductor section is represented as in Figure 5-74.

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Figure 5-74: “Conductor Sizing” group box for European standard

Insert the required data for the faulted electrode.

At the end of the data input, click “Calculate” in the extended input data area.
XGSLab calculates the minimum size of the wire conductors applying the following IEC 60724 Equation F1:

I tc
A
K f 
ln
i  

where:

- A (mm²) = cross section

- I (A) = RMS value of the current

1/2
- K (As / mm²) = constant of the specific material of the conductor used

- tc (s) = duration of fault current

-  (°C) = reciprocal of the temperature coefficient of resistance of the specific material of the conductor used at 0 °C

- i (°C) = ambient temperature or initial conductor temperature (see 11.1)

- f (°C) = maximum allowable temperature or final conductor temperature (overhead conductors: in normal condition

a temperature 250 - 300 °C may be assumed. A final conductor temperature < 200 - 250 °C is recommended for
insulated conductor or conductor imbedded in concrete. A lower temperature is recommended for conductors near
flammable materials. Underground conductors: it may be prudent not to exceed a final conductor temperature 250 -

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300 °C. BS 7430 recommends a maximum temperature of 250 °C for bolted connection, 450 °C for brazed
connection and 700 °C for welded connection)

The material constant are automatically assigned by XGSLab when the User chooses the used material.

Select “Libraries  Material Constants EN” command from “Menu option bar” to display the constants of the most
commonly used material.

XGSLab checks two different conditions:

- Single phase to earth fault conditions: the minimum size conductor is calculated according to the current to earth (or
fault current for a conservative sizing) and its clearance time “tf”
- Phase to phase to earth fault conditions: the minimum size conductor is calculated according to the phase to phase
to earth short circuit current and its clearance time “tc”

XGSLab then provides the minimum conductor section which matches both conditions.

The calculated minimum size conductor is then displayed in the extended input data area (see arrow A in Figure 5-74).

The User must then verify that the wire diameter used in the “Data” for the selected faulted electrode is correct. The
conductor diameter and the section are not strictly related by mathematical equations and the User must choose a
commercial section value or the minimum permissible section.

In the same way, XGSLab can calculate the minimum section value of the earth conductors.
For this purpose select a grid split factor k = 1, an ambient temperature 40 °C and a maximum allowable temperature
200 °C or lower for insulated conductors and for conductors located near flammable materials.

Example
Sizing of a copper wire conductor in case of earthing current flowing in two distinct paths from the injection point

Single phase to earth fault current condition

- IE = 10000 A

- k = 0.6
1/2
- K = 226 As / mm²

- tF = 1.0 s

-  = 234.5 °C

- i = 30 °C

- f = 250 °C

0.6  10000 1.0

A  34.1 (mm²)
226 250  234.5
ln
30  234.5

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Phase to phase to earth short circuit current condition

- I k'' 2 = 20000 A

- k = 0.6
1/2
- K = 226 As / mm²

- tc = 0.5 s

-  = 234.5 °C

- i = 30 °C

- f = 250 °C

0.6  20000 0.5

A  48.3 (mm²)
226 250  234.5
ln
30  234.5

Minimum section A = 48.3 mm²

Minimum commercial section A = 50 mm²

5.8.2.2 USA STANDARD

The conductor sizing design procedure is the same for the USA standards IEEE Std 80-2000 and IEEE Std 80-2013.

If the USA standard ib selected, the group box to size the conductor section is represented as in Figure 5-75.

Figure 5-75: “Conductor Sizing” group box for USA standard

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Insert the required data for the faulted electrode.

At the end of the data input, click “Calculate” in the extended input data area.
XGSLab calculates the minimum size of the wire conductors applying the following IEEE Std 80-2000 Equation 37 and
IEEE Std 80-2013 Equation 37:

I
A
4
TCAP10 K 0  Tm
ln
t c r  r K 0  Ta

where:

- A (mm²) = cross section

- I (kA) = RMS value of the current

- Tm (°C) = maximum allowable temperature

- Ta (°C) = ambient temperature or initial conductor temperature (see 11.1)

- Tr (°C) = reference temperature for material constants (usually 20 or 40 °C respectively for underground or

overhead conductors)

- 0 (1/°C) = thermal coefficient of resistivity at 0 °C

- r (1/°C) = thermal coefficient of resistivity at reference temperature Tr

- r (μΩ cm) = resistivity of the ground conductor at reference temperature Tr
- K 0  1/  0 or 1/  r  Tr (°C)

- tc (s) = duration of fault current

3
- TCAP (J/cm °C) = is the thermal capacity per unit volume

The constants are automatically assigned by XGSLab when the User chooses the material.
The main material constant are given in the IEEE Std 80-2000 Table 1 and IEEE Std 80-2013 Table 1.
The values in the two tables are slightly different.

The IEEE Std 80-2000 and IEEE Std 80-2013 give also some formulas for calculation of TCAP for materials not listed in
Table 1.

The maximum allowable temperature depends on the conductor material.

For instance, IEEE Std 80 – 2000 and IEEE Std 80 – 2013 suggest a maximum allowable temperature 250 °C for hard
drawn copper. As general rule a maximum allowable temperature 250 - 300 °C should be used but lower temperature
has to be used for conductors insulated or close to flammable materials (see also suggestions for European standards).

Select “Libraries  Material Constants IEEE” command from “Menu option bar” to display the constants of the most
commonly used materials.

XGSLab checks two different conditions:

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- Single phase to earth fault conditions: the minimum size conductor is calculated according to the current to earth (or
fault current for a conservative sizing) and its clearance time “tf”
- Phase to phase to earth fault conditions: the minimum size conductor is calculated according to the phase to phase
to earth short circuit current and its clearance time “tc”

XGSLab then provides the minimum conductor section which matches both conditions.

The calculated minimum size conductor is then displayed in the extended input data area (see arrow A in Figure 5-75).

The User must then verify that the wires diameter used in the “Data” for the selected faulted electrode is correct. The
conductors diameter and the section are not strictly related by mathematical equations and the User has to choose a
commercial section value or the minimum permissible section.

In the same way, XGSLab can calculate the minimum section value of the earth conductors.
For this purpose select a grid split factor k = 1, an ambient temperature 40 °C and a maximum allowable temperature
250 °C.

Example
Sizing of a copper, commercial hard-drawn wire conductor in case of earthing current flowing in two distinct paths from
the injection point referring to the IEEE Std 80 – 2013.

Single phase to earth fault current condition

- IE = 10 kA

- k = 0.6
3
- TCAP = 3.4 J/cm °C

- tc = 1.0 s

- r = 0.00381 1/°C

- r = 1.78 μΩ cm

- K0 = 242 °C

- Tm = 250 °C

- Ta = 30 °C

0.6  10
A  34.8 (mm²)
3.4  10  4 242  250
ln
1.0  0.00381  1.78 242  30

Phase to phase to earth short circuit current condition

- I k'' 2 = 20 kA

- k = 0.6
3
- TCAP = 3.4 J/cm °C

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- tc = 0.5 s

- r = 0.00381 1/°C

- r = 1.78 μΩ cm

- K0 = 242 °C

- Tm = 250 °C

- Ta = 30 °C

0.6  20
A  49.2 (mm²)
3.4  10  4 242  250
ln
0.5  0.00381  1.78 242  30

Minimum section A = 49.2 mm²

Minimum commercial section A = 50 mm²

5.8.3 CATENARY

This option is available if “Project  Module  XGSA_*” is selected.

Select “Project  Tools  Catenary” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 5-76).

Figure 5-76: “Catenary” tool

The “Catenary” tool is useful to obtain the catenary parameters “a, b, k” starting from three known point of the curve.
The catenary equation in a vertical plane “w, z” with the “z” axes oriented in depth direction is the following:

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 wk 
 z  a cosh  b
 a 

The parameter “a” is usually called catenary constant and can also be calculated with:

TH
a (m)
p

where:
- TH (N) = horizontal component of tension
- p (N/m) = conductor weight per unit length

The catenary parameters “b, k” are related respectively to the horizontal and vertical shifting of the catenary curves in the
plane “w, z”.

The three points (starting, intermediate and ending) coordinates “w, z” are usually known from on-site measures (see
Figure 5-77).

y
catenary span
ze

catenary trace
zi
zs we

wi

ws

Figure 5-77: Catenary curve through three points

Insert the required data in the extended input data area (pay attention to the sign of the “z” coordinates taking into
account that in XGSLab convention the “z” axes is oriented in depth direction).
At the end of the data input, click “Calculate” in the extended input data area.
XGSLab solves the nonlinear system associated to the problem calculating the catenary parameters “a, b, k” and then
draws the catenary curves (see Figure 5-78).

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Figure 5-78: “Catenary” results

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6. ANALYSIS
Some results like GPR and current and potential distributions are immediately available and may be directly shown.
Other results like touch and step voltages or magnetic and electric fields require a posprocessing.

6.1 RESULTS
The main results can be available in numerical form in the following files:
- “data1.xml” contains all main data referred to the elements including leakage currents, potentials, longitudinal
currents and electromotive forces
- “data2.xml” contains the GPR and earhing impedance

The files data may be found in the project directory using the following path “projectname\calculations\dateand
time\datax.xml”.

6.1.1 GROUND POTENTIAL RISE AND EARTHING IMPEDANCE

This option is available if “Project  Module  GSA or *_FD” is selected.

Select “Analysis  Results  GPR and Earthing Impedance” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 6-1).

Figure 6-1: “GPR and Earthing Impedance” results

In “GPR and Earthing Impedance” results, the frequency is given as general information about the calculation just
performed.

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If GSA is selected, frequency value is not available and there are no information about coordinates since the only thing
we must know about the reference is which electrode it is.

For each “Injection / Reference Point”, the following data are given:
- Electrode number
- Injection / Reference Point number
- X, Y, Z coordinates of the Injection / Reference Point

- J Ep (A) = injected current

- U Ep (V) = potential (GPR)

- U Ep J E (Ω) = earthing impedance

As known, for non-equipotential electrodes, the earthing impedance is not a parameter of the electrode but depends on
the specific point of the considered electrode. In general it is preferable to refer to the only GPR because the concept of
impedance may be meaningless.
Anyway, the earthing impedance with reference to a specific point may be calculated as follows:

Z Ep 
U Ep
 J  0
J
e
e

where:

- Z Ep (Ω) = earthing impedance with reference to a specific point “p”

- U Ep (V) = potential of the specific point “p”

- J e (A) = total leakage current of the electrode

The reference potentials are calculated by XGSLab as in 5.7.

The mutual impedance between two electrodes (for conductive or resistive coupling) may be calculated as follows:

U EpI  
Z EpI , J    Je  0
J
J
e  J 

where:

- Z EpI , J (Ω) = mutual impedance between inductor “J” and induced “I” in the point “p”

- U EpI (V) = potential of the induced “I” in the point “p” (transferred potential)

- J
J
e (A) = total leakage current of the inductor “J”

If GSA is selected, the earthing impedance and the mutual impedance are real numbers (and then resistances) and they
do not depend on the specific point on the electrode takes into account.

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For floating electrodes (with zero injected current), only the transferred potentials may be calculated but not the mutual
impedance (a division by zero is not possible).

As a first approximation, the grounding system resistance in a uniform soil may be assessed by means of the following
IEEE Std 80-2013 Equation 56:

E  E
RE  
4 A L

or taking into account the effect of the grid depth the following IEEE Std 80-2013 Equation 57:

1 1  1 
RE   E   1 
  
 L 20 A  1 h 20 A 

where:

- E (Ωm) = earth resistivity in case of uniform soil

2
- A (m ) = area occupied by the grounding system

- L (m) = total length of buried conductors

- h (m) = depth of the grid

With a multilayer soil model, using previous formulas, the following conditions have to be fulfilled:

RE  min   RE  RE  max 

where:

-  min (Ωm) = min  i 

-  max (Ωm) = max i 

6.1.2 ADDITIONAL IMPEDANCE

This option is available if “Project  Module  *_FD” is selected.

Select “Analysis  Results  Additional Impedance” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 6-2).

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Figure 6-2: “Additional Impedance” results

In “Additional Impedance” results, for each additional impedance, the following data are given:
- Impedance identification (reference span ends by default)
- Impedance Type (Transverse or Longitudinal)
- X, Y, Z (m) = coordinates of the centre of the impedance reference element

- Z (Ω) = impedance value

- V (V) = voltage drop across a transverse impedance

- I (A) = current through the impedance

The current through a transverse impedance is calculated on the basis of the voltage drop across the impedance (and so
the potential of the centre of the reference element) as follows:

V
I
Z

The current through a longitudinal impedance is calculated as average of the input and output current in the reference
element:

I in  I out
I
2

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The voltage drop across a longitudinal impedance is calculated on the basis of the average current through the reference
element:

V  ZI

The longitudinal impedances are often useful to simulate insulating joint along pipelines. In these cases, the longitudinal
impedance can be set about 1 MΩ. The voltage drop across the longitudinal impedance represents the voltage applied to
the insulating joint and shall be lower than its breakdown voltage that is in the range of 3 kV (NACE SP0177- 2007).
Anyway, insulating joint are usually protected by surge arresters.

6.1.3 DISTRIBUTIONS

Select “Analysis  Results  Distributions” command from “Menu option bar”.

Select “Factor” in the “Scale” group box in order to apply a scale factor to results.
The default value for scale factor is 1. The User may change the value.
6
The scale factor must be a real and positive number in the range 0 – 10 .
The scale factor acts on the following distributions (of both, victims and sources):
- Leakage Current – Linear
- Leakage Current – Superficial
- Potential
- Current
- Electromotive Force

If scale factor is different to 1, scaled results in numerical form will be highlighted in green and scaled results in graphical
form will include the scale factor in the legend.
The scale factor can be useful in order to check quickly the effects of data input magnitude.
The scale factor effects are temporary and project files will be saved with scale factor 1.

Select “Type” in the “Distributions” group box in order to select the distribution to be represented (see Figure 6-1).
Type includes:
- Leakage Current – Linear (available for all modules)
- Leakage Current – Superficial (available for all modules)
- Potential (available for *_FD and XGSA_TD)
- Current (available for *_FD and XGSA_TD)
- Electromotive Force (available for *_FD and XGSA_TD)
- Covering Stress Voltage (available for *_FD)
- Complex Power (available for *_FD)

Before displaying a distribution, the User may select the spans to take into account using the box “From Span” and “To
Span” or “Tag” (see Figure 6-1). The spans are sorted according to the sequence of drawing (with loading from “dxf” file).
The “Tag” are assigned to spans in the “List” (see 5.5.7.1). If no span range or no “Tag” are selected, all span are
represented.

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The minimum and maximum represented values are automatically selected by XGSLab but may be modified by the User
in the specific group box. Click again “View” to represent the new distribution.

The selected limits (1 and 2) are displayed with the “View 1D” output and may be useful for general purpose as a
reference for the calculated values (e.g. as maximum or minimum permissible values).

Results can be represented as modulus, real and imaginary parts.

In 1D representations, modulus, real and imaginary parts can be included in the same figure.
In 2D and 3D representations, modulus, real and imaginary parts can considered separately.

Click “View 1D”, “View 2D” or “View 3D” in the “Distributions” group box (see Figure 6-1).
Using “View 1D”, “View 2D” or “View 3D”, XGSLab produces respectively a graphical 1D, 2D or 3D output that
represents the distribution of the selected “Type” per unit length of the selected spans (see Figure 6-3, Figure 6-4 and
Figure 6-5 for the case Type = Leakage Current - Linear).

In 1D distributions, click “↕” in the “Distributions” group box to reset the axis “y” extent in order to represent all the values
related to filtered elements.
In 1D distribution it is possible to read the values plotted just moving the cursor over the picture (box on the right in
Figure 6-3) and it is also possible to fix this box for particularly interesting locations just by clicking with the right button of
the mouse (box on the left in Figure 6-3).

In 2D and 3D distributions it is possible to read the values by clicking close to the interesting element with the left button
of the mouse (see box in Figure 6-4). To fix this box, after clicking with the left button of the mouse, the User has to click
with the right button of the mouse (see box in Figure 6-5).
This tool has got a particular feature for the distribution of Potential. In fact, in the box, there are not only the values
related to the clicked element but also the values related to the previously clicked element. Moreover the box also
contains the difference between these values.

If XGSA_TD is selected, minimum, maximum and limits boxes and “View 1D” option are not available.
Moreover, using Set Element “View 2D” or “View 3D”, XGSLab produces respectively a graphical 2D or 3D output that
represents the only layout of the system of conductors.
Double click an element to show the results in the time domain. This command executes the inverse Fourier transform of
the selected distribution “Type” referred to the selected element. The resulting time domain distribution will be
represented in an 1D output (see Figure 6-6 for the case Type = Potential).
Set the maximum value to resize the time axis of the time domain distributions.

Important notice: in some conditions, due to the approximations in calculations, results in time domain could be affected
by an offset at the initial time t = 0.
In some circumstances, this offset can be related to the “Low Frequency Breakdown” phenomenon and can be avoided
or limited by using sufficiently long elements in air (for instance with a length not less to about 1 m).
In other cases, it is possible to reduce or remove the offset using an increasing number of critical frequencies (see 5.3.2).
However, a moderate offset does not go to significantly alter the peak values of results, that is, the values of greater
interest.

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About grounding systems, in literature, the distribution in the time domain of the potential at the injection point is also
called Transient Ground (or Earth) Potential Rise (TGPR or TEPR).

Click “Export” Elements Data in the “Distribution” group box (see for instance Figure 6-3) in order to save the data
(including calculation results) related to each single element in numerical form (results in the frequency and time
domain).

Figure 6-3: Leakage current distribution - Linear density – 1D representation

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Figure 6-4: Leakage current distribution - Linear density – 2D representation

Figure 6-5: Leakage current distribution - Superficial density – 3D representation

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Figure 6-6: Potential distribution in the time domain

Click “Export” All Points data in the “Distribution” group box (see for instance Figure 6-3) in order to save the data related
to each reference point in numerical form.
For each reference point, the following data will be saved:
- Frequency (Hz) (only critical frequencies)
- Magnitude of potential (V)
- Real part of potential (V)
- Imaginary part of potential (V)
- Magnitude of the injected current (A)
- Real part of the injected current (A)
- Imaginary part of the injected current (A)

Previous data are useful to obtain self and mutual harmonic impedances to incorporate into the software EMTP®.
As known, for “N” reference points (or feeding points), the impact of the grounding system on the electrical network can
be described in the frequency domain by the following equation:

 U1  f    Z11  f  Z12  f  L Z1N  f    J e1  f  

    
 U1  f    Z 21  f  Z 22  f  L Z2N  f   Je2  f  
   
 M   M M O M  M 

U N  f    Z N 1  f  Z N 2  f 
   L Z NN  f    J e N  f  

where:

- Zij  f  (Ω) = harmonic impedance between reference points “i and j” (self if “i = j”, mutual otherwise)

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- Ui  f  (V) = potential at the reference point “i”

- Je j  f  (A) = injected current in the reference point “j”

In order to calculate the row “k” of previous matrix, the current must be injected only in the reference point “k”. For each
frequency and each couple of reference points, the harmonic impedance can be calculated with the formula:

Uj  f 
Z kj  f   (j = 1 to N)
Jek  f 

In the following some important notes about the calculations performed with GSA and *_FD in the frequency domain but
useful also in case of time domain calculations.

Note to Leakage Current - Linear

The leakage currents are related to the only currents flowing among conductors and the surrounding earth and excluded
eventual injected currents and the current flowing across additional transverse impedances.
In the legend box is indicated the maximum modulus of the electric field in the earth close to the electrodes surface (see
Figure 6-4 and Figure 6-5).
This information may be useful to verify if soil ionization phenomena are possible close to the electrode.
Ionization can modify the soil characteristics and in particular the resistivity value (the residual resistivity value of a
ionized soil is about 7% of the resistivity in normal conditions). Then, when the soil ionization phenomenon occurs, the
XGSLab calculated values may be wrong.
The electric field close to the electrodes surface depends on the current density and resistivity soil values:

E j

where:

- E (V/m) = electric field

-  (Ωm) = soil complex resistivity
2
- j (A/m ) = current density

On the surface of a generic cylindrical element, the electric field may be calculated as follow:

J J
E 
s  dl

where:
- E (V/m) = electric field
-  (Ωm) = earth complex resistivity

- J (A) = leakage current of the element

2
- s (m ) = element surface

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- d (m) = element diameter

- l (m) = element length

Far away from the electrode surface, the current density and then the electric field values decrease quickly.

If the electric field magnitude is greater than the critical value, soil ionization phenomenon can occur.
From literature, critical value of the electric field is depending on the soil characteristics and may vary in the range 100 -
2000 kV/m. The most common values are in the range 300 - 400 kV/m. The value 400 kV/m is used by CIGRE. When
the electric field magnitude value indicated in the legend box is greater than 400 kV/m, ionization soil phenomenon can
occur.
In any cases, in power grounding systems, the soil ionization is not a common event. For instance, assuming a soil
resistivity 100 Ωm, and an electric field critical value 400 kV/m, soil ionization occurs when the current density in the
2
ground is greater than 4 kA/m as for instance on the surface of a wire having an external diameter 10 mm with a
leakage current density greater 126 A/m.
With lightning currents, the effects of soil ionization can be significant in case of little grounding systems (as single rods)
but can be usually ignored for grounding grids in high voltage substations.

Note to Leakage Current - Superficial

The leakage currents are related to the only currents flowing among conductors and the surrounding earth and excluded
eventual injected currents and the current flowing across additional transverse impedances.
The leakage surface current density distribution may be useful because some regional standard and technical guide give
a limit to the current density per surface unit in order to avoid excessive soil temperatures and then changes to its
properties. Usually, this limit is indicated using the following formula:

k
j
t

where:
2
- j (A/m ) = current density per surface unit
- k = coefficient
- ρ (Ωm) = soil resistivity
- t (s) = fault duration

For instance, the ENA Technical Specification 41-24 1992 (Addendum, Section 15, incorporated November 2009) gives
the following limit:

57.7
j  10 3 2
(A/mm )
t
2
Assuming a soil resistivity 100 Ωm, and a fault duration 1 s, the surface current density limit is 0.000760 A/mm (760
2
A/m ).

Note to Potential

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The potentials are related to the remote earth.

Using the 2D or 3D representation and selecting the elements with the mouse, it is possible to display also the difference
between the potentials of the selected element and of the element previously selected. This option can be useful in order
to appreciate the potential difference between specific points of the system of conductors.

Note to Electromotive Force

The electromotive forces are related to the only inductive coupling with all the elements of the system of conductors
(sources and victims) and excluded possible impressed electromotive forces.

Note to Covering Stress Voltage

The covering stress voltage distribution may be useful in order to verifying if the voltage on the covering of a pipeline or a
conductor is lower than certain limits in order to avoid damage.
The covering stress voltage is calculated by using the following formula:

J
CSV  (V)
Yc

where:

- CSV (V) = covering stress voltage

- J (A) = leakage current of the element

- Yc (S) = covering admittance

The leakage currents of the elements are related to the only currents flowing among conductors and the surrounding
earth and excluded eventual injected currents and the current flowing across additional transverse impedances.
It is useful to note that when the covering admittance is very low (e.g. when a polyethylene coating is used), covering
stress voltage distribution it is very close to the potential distribution and conservatively can represent the touch voltages
distribution).
Of course, the covering stress voltage of bare conductors is zero.
The maximum covering stress voltage is generally in the range of up to 2 kV for tape wraps and coal tar enamels and 3
to 5 kV for fusion bonded epoxy and polyaniline coatings for a short duration fault (NACE SP0177- 2007).

Note to Complex Power

The complex power along the system of conductors can be defined as:

s  p  jq  rI 2  jxI 2

where:
- s (VA/m) = apparent power per unit length (modulus of the complex power)
- p (W/m) = active power per unit length
- q (var/m) = reactive power per unit length
- r (Ω/m) = resistance per unit length
- x (Ω/m) = reactance (inductive or capacitive) per unit length
- I (A) = modulus of current

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The complex power are related to the only impedance of conductors and excluded the contribution of eventual additional
longitudinal impedances. The active (or real) power per unit length can be useful in order to investigate the power loss
along the conductors.

6.1.4 SOLUTIONS

This point is relevant if “Project  Module  NETS is selected.

Select polar or Cartesian, set “Type”, use the filter “Tag” if useful and click “View” in the “Solutions” group box in order to
display the results in numerical form (see Figure 6-7).
Type includes (one or more types can be selected):
- Potential (in and out)
- Current (in and out)
- Complex Power (in and out)

Figure 6-7: Network solutions

Select “Cells and Sides” (cell name_in, cell name_out for one or more cells) and click “View” in the “Solutions” group box
in order to display the phasor diagram of the greatness set with “Type” for cells and sides selected (see Figure 6-8).

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Figure 6-8: Phasor diagram of potentials and currents at a cell side

Select “Lines or Cables” (cell name), “Port”, “Type” and click “View” in the “Solutions” group box in order to display the
profile of the greatness set (see Figure 6-9).

Figure 6-9: Current or potential profile along a conductor of a line or a cable

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Results can be represented as modulus, real and imaginary parts.

The minimum and maximum represented values are automatically selected by XGSLab but the User may modified these
data in the specific group box. Click again “View” to represent the new distribution.

6.2 TOUCH AND STEP VOLTAGES

This option is available if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

This option is mainly oriented to investigate grounding systems safety conditions.

XGSLab calculates the prospective values of touch and step voltages “Ust” and Uss” starting from potentials on soil and
on conductors. In order to obtain the corresponding touch and step voltages “Ut” and “Us” considered by the IEC and EN
standards, the following nonlinear equations have to be solved for each single calculation point:

 R f 2  Rshoe 2  Rglove 
U ST  U T 1  0

 Z Bhand feet U T  


 2 R f  2 Rshoe 
U SS  U S 1  0
 Z
 Bfoot foot U 
S 


e e
Rf    3.125 e without SCL
4b 4  0.08

Cs  s C
Rf   s s  3.125Cs  s with SCL
4b 4  0.08

where:

- Rf (Ω) = ground resistance of one foot

- Rshoe (Ω) = additional resistance of a shoe

- R glove (Ω) = additional resistance of an insulating glove

- e (Ωm) =
E or
1 for uniform or multilayer soil model respectively

- s (Ωm) = soil covering layer resistivity

- Cs = reduction factor related to the soil covering layer (see 5.6.1.3)

- b (m) = equivalent radius (0.08 m)

Important notice: touch voltage is referred to the potential difference between a reference point of the grounding system
(a point that can be touch by a person because electrically connected to metallic parts) and a point on the soil surface (or
in XGSLab, also under the soil surface). This is usual for grounding software because calculation can be done without

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specific reference to the metallic elements location. Touch voltage is then not referred to a point in the earth 1 m away to
the metallic element as for the standard definitions.

6.2.1 LINE CALCULATION

Select “Analysis  Touch and Step Voltages  Line Calculation” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure
6-10) to calculate the earth potential and the touch and step voltages along a straight line.

Figure 6-10: Line calculation

The line calculation is horizontal and lies on or below the soil surface.
When a multizone soil model with more than two zones is used, the line calculation should stay within a single zone.
The line calculation parameters may be introduced both in graphical or numerical mode.
With numerical mode, insert the required data in the “Line Calculation” group box (see Figure 6-11):
- x origin (m) = line origin
- y origin (m) = line origin
- z origin (m) = line origin
- αx (deg) = angle between line and x axis (from position 1 and 2 as in Figure 6-11)
- Length (m) = line length
- Step (m) = calculation step

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1
αx
x,y z origin
L
2

Figure 6-11: Line calculation parameters

Click “View” in the “Line Calculation” group box (see Figure 6-10).
XGSLab shows the line calculation superposed to the system of conductors in an orthogonal projections representation.

With graphical mode, click “Draw” in the “Line Calculation” group box (see Figure 6-10) and use the cursor to set the line
calculation start point in the soil surface and then move the cursor to individuate the line calculation end point in the soil
surface. Normally the start point (origin) is left of the end point but the same calculation line may be selected starting
from the right and in this case the angle between line and x axis is increased of 180 deg and the point of view of the 2D
representation will be different.
In any case, the parameters of the selected line calculation will be displayed in the “Line Calculation” group box.

These parameters may be modified by the User at any time before the calculation. Click again “View” to represent the
new line calculation.

Important notice: the coordinate “z origin” must be a real positive value in the range between 0 and 250 m and by
default is 0 m. When the calculation line is below the soil surface, it should be avoid no point along the line lies too close
the buried conductors, in particular too close nodes between conductors. A distance 0.1 – 0.2 m is usually enough to
ensure accuracy in results.
The coordinate “z origin” is 0 and cannot be change if a multizone soil model is used.

The number of calculation points must match the following condition (an error message appear if not satisfied):

Lenght
 10000
Step

To investigate if the touch and step voltages are lower than the permissible values, the calculation step the calculation
steps can be greater than 1 m for preliminary calculations but lower than 1 m for accurate calculations. Moreover, for
meshed electrodes, the calculation step should be always much smaller than the minimum mesh dimension otherwise,
the distribution of the results could be incorrect.

At the end of the data input, click “Calculate” in the “Line Calculation” group box.
XGSLab calculates the earth potential and the touch and step voltages along the calculation line.

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When a multizone soil model with more than two zones is used, the precision of the calculation improves:
- Close to the system of conductors
- Far from the zone borders

At the end of the calculation, choice the option “Ut_Us” or “Ust_Uss” the “Results” group box (see Figure 6-12).
If the International standards are selected, but both the option “Ut_Us” and “Ust_Uss” may be chosen (alternatively or
contemporary).
If the European standards are selected, the option “Ut_Us” is the default, and usually the only used, but both the option
“Ut_Us” and “Ust_Uss” may be chosen (alternatively or contemporary).
If the USA standards are selected, only the option “Ust_Uss” is available.

Then choice the option SCL in order to take into account the soil covering layer (if existing).

Important notice: when the calculation line is below the soil surface, the effective touch and step voltages are calculated
by applying to the prospective values a reduction factor calculated on the base of the soil resistivity of the layer where the
line lies and taking into account the SCL effects.

Figure 6-12: Line calculation - Results

Set the reference mode for touch voltages in the “Results” group box as in the following:
- Electrode (if GSA is selected) = electrode assumed as touch voltages reference
- Pivot Point (if *_FD or XGSA_TD are selected) = injection / reference point assumed as touch voltages reference
- Value = arbitrary potential used as reference (modulus and phase)
- All Points: all “Injection or Reference Point” will be used as reference. For each point along the line calculation the
closest “Injection or Reference Point” will be used as reference

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- All Elements: all elements will be used as reference. For each point along the line calculation the closest element will
be used as reference. The elements assumed as reference can be limited by using the “All Elements Tag Filter” (the
combo flags allow to set one or more tags). The option “All Elements Tag Filter” is enabled only when “All Elements”
is selected

Of course step voltages distributions are not affected by the reference mode.

Results can be represented as modulus, real and imaginary parts.

Click “View” in the “Result” group box.

XGSLab produces a graphical output of the results (see Figure 6-13 and Figure 6-14).
The minimum and maximum represented voltages are automatically selected by XGSLab but they may be modified by
the User in the “Result” group box (see Figure 6-13 and Figure 6-14). Click again “View” to represent the new
distribution.
If the *.FD modules are selected, it is important to note that touch voltages cannot be easily obtained starting on touch
voltage reference and earth potential distributions because in the Figure 6-13 and Figure 6-14 no information about
phase is given.
As known, the difference between complex numbers depends on their modulus but also their phase.
Move the cursor over the 1D representation to display the numerical values of the shown greatness and the associated
soil surface coordinates.

Figure 6-13: Line calculation results with option “Ut_Us”

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Figure 6-14: Line calculation results with both options “Ut_Us” and “Ust_Uss”

With the option “All Points” the line calculation is partitioned into portions (see Figure 6-15). Each portion contains the
points of the line calculation closest to a specific “Injection or Reference Point”. Inside each portion, the safe conditions
are represented as already described and touch voltages are related to the “Point” of the portion.

Figure 6-15: Line calculation results with option “All Points”

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With the option “All Elements” the line calculation is partitioned into portions (see Figure 6-16). Each portion contains the
points of the line calculation closest to a specific element. Inside each portion, the safe conditions are represented as
already described and touch voltages are related to the reference element of the part. The User must bear in mind that
with this option only buried victim elements are included in elements considered as reference.
The option “All Elements” can be useful when the possible reference points for touch voltages are not clearly identified.

Figure 6-16: Line calculation results with option “All Elements”

Click “Export” in the “Result” group box (see Figure 6-10) in order to save the results in numerical form.

If XGSA_TD is selected two display mode are available.

“Time Domain – Line” displays results in the time domain of the entire line calculation.
It is possible to specify a single time or display an animation.
Set a “Time” in the “Result” group box (see Figure 6-17) and click again “View” to show results along the entire line with a
specific time.
Click “Play”, “Pause” or “Restart” in the “Result” group box (see Figure 6-17) in order to show, stop or view again an
animation of results along the entire line vs. time. Select a “Speed” from 1x to 16x in order to set up the animation speed.

“Time Domain – Point” displays results in the time domain for specific points along the line calculation.
Using “Set Point” “View” in the “Result” group box (see Figure 6-17), XGSLab represents the line calculation. Then
double click a point along the line calculation to show the results in the time domain. This command executes the inverse
Fourier transform of the results referred to the selected point. The resulting time domain distribution will be represented
in an 1D output (see Figure 6-19).
Set the maximum value to resize the time axis of the time domain distributions.

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Figure 6-17: Line calculation results with option “Time Domain – Line, entire line and specific time”

Figure 6-18: Line calculation with option “Time Domain – Point, all times and specific point”

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Figure 6-19: Line calculation results with option “Time Domain – Point, all times and specific point”

6.2.2 AREA CALCULATION

This option is available if “Project  Module  GSA or *_FD” is selected.

Select “Analysis  Touch and Step Voltages  Area Calculation” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure
6-20) to calculate the earth potential and the touch and step voltages on a rectangular area.

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Figure 6-20: Area calculation

The area calculation is horizontal and lies on or below the soil surface.
When a multizone soil model with more than two zones is used, the area calculation should stay within a single zone.
The area calculation parameters may be introduced both in graphical or numerical mode.
With numerical mode, insert the required data in the “Area Calculation” group box (see Figure 6-21):
- x origin (m) = area origin
- y origin (m) = area origin
- z origin (m) = line origin
- αx (deg) = angle between area and x axis (from position 1 and 2 as in Figure 6-21)
- Length (m) = area length
- Width (m) = area width
- Step Length (m) = calculation step along area length direction
- Step Width (m) = calculation step along area width direction

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1
x,y, z origin W
αx
L
2

Figure 6-21: Area calculation parameters

Click “View” in the “Area Calculation” group box (see Figure 6-20).
XGSLab shows the area calculation superposed to the system of conductors in an orthogonal projections representation.
Consider that it is also possible to import an area calculation previously saved by clicking on “Load” in the “Area
Calculation” group box. The only constraint to do it successfully is that the Area Calculation to be imported has been
saved with the same calculation (the one triggered by “Compute”) existing when loading. This means that if, between the
saving of the Area Calculation and its loading, there has been, for any reasons, a new calculation triggered by
“Compute”, then the stored Area Calculation cannot be opened any more.

With graphical mode, click “Draw” in the “Area Calculation” group box (see Figure 6-20) and use the cursor to set the first
area calculation corner in the soil surface (origin) and then move the cursor to individuate the second area calculation
corner in the soil surface (the opposite corner). Normally the first corner is the lower left area calculation corner and the
second corner is the upper right area calculation corner but the same rectangular area may be selected starting from any
of its four corners. Changing the first corner selection, the “αx” value in the “Area Calculation” group box and the point of
view of the 3D representation will be different as indicated by the 3D reference axes in the legend area.
In any case, the parameters of the selected area calculation will be displayed in the “Area Calculation” group box.

These parameters may be modified by the User at any time before the calculation. Click again “View” to represent the
new calculation area.

Important notice: the coordinate “z origin” must be a real positive value in the range between 0 and 250 m and by
default is 0 m. When the calculation area is below the soil surface, it should be avoid no point on the area lies too close
the buried conductors, in particular too close nodes between conductors. A distance 0.1 – 0.2 m is usually enough to
ensure accuracy in results.
The coordinate “z origin” is 0 and cannot be change if a multizone soil model is used.

The number of calculation points should match the following conditions (a warning message appear if not satisfied):

Length Width
 200 and  200
StepLength StepWidth

and must match the following conditions (an error message appear if not satisfied):

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Length Width
 2000 and  2000
StepLength StepWidth

The minimum calculation step is 0.5 m because reasons related to the interpolation algorithms used in the calculation.
To investigate if the touch and step voltages are lower than the permissible values, the calculation steps can be greater
than 2 m for preliminary calculations but lower than 2 m for accurate calculations. Moreover, for meshed electrodes, the
calculation steps should be always much smaller than the minimum mesh dimension otherwise, the distribution of the
results could be incorrect.

At the end of the data input, click “Calculate” in the “Area Calculation” group box.
XGSLab calculates the earth potential and the touch and step voltages upon the calculation area.

When a multizone soil model with more than two zones is used, the precision of the calculation improves close to the
system of conductors and far from the zone borders as described for the line calculation.

Figure 6-22: Earth potential distribution – Style Contours, 2D distribution – Hidden snap grid

Results can be represented as modulus, real and imaginary parts.

Results may be graphically represented in several ways.

Set the “Style” in the “Earth Potential” group box for graphical representations as in the following (see Figure 6-22):
- Contours: the graphics will be represented using level curves
- Colors: the graphics will be represented using a color scale

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Click “View 2D” or “View 3D”.

XGSLab produces respectively a graphical 2D or 3D output that represents the distribution of the earth potential
superposed to the system of conductors (see Figure 6-24 and Figure 6-23).
The minimum and maximum represented potentials are automatically selected by XGSLab but may be modified by the
User in the “Earth Potential” group box. Click again “View 2D” or “View 3D” to represent the new distribution.

Click “+” in the “Earth Potential” group box to enlarge the 2D representation if too small (close the window or click “View
2D” to come back to the previous representation).
Move the cursor over the area calculation of the 2D representation to display the earth potential and the associated soil
surface coordinates.
Click “<” or “>” in the “Earth Potential” group box to rotate the 3D representation (rotation of 90° for each click).

In the “Earth Potential” group box click:

- “Export” in order to save the results in numerical form (.csv format).
- “Save” in order to save the area calculation

Figure 6-23: Earth potential distribution – Style Color, 2D distribution

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Figure 6-24: Earth potential distribution – Style Color, 3D distribution

Choice the option “Ut_Us” or “Ust_Uss” in the “Touch and Step Voltages” group box (see Figure 6-25).
If the International standards are selected, but both the option “Ut_Us” and “Ust_Uss” may be chosen (alternatively or
contemporary).
If the European standards are selected, the option “Ut_Us” is the default, and usually the only used, but both the option
“Ut_Us” and “Ust_Uss” may be chosen (not contemporary).
If the USA standards are selected, only the option “Ust_Uss” is available.

Then choice the option SCL in order to take into account the soil covering layer (if existing).

Important notice: when the calculation area is below the soil surface, the effective touch and step voltages are
calculated by applying to the prospective values a reduction factor calculated on the base of the soil resistivity of the
layer where the area lies and taking into account the SCL effects.

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Figure 6-25: Area calculation – Touch and Step Voltages - Safe areas

Set the reference mode for touch voltages in the “Touch and Step Voltages” group box as in the following:
- Electrode (if GSA is selected) = electrode assumed as touch voltages reference
- Pivot Point (if *_FD or XGSA_TD are selected) = injection / reference point assumed as touch voltages reference
- Value = arbitrary potential used as reference (modulus and phase)
- All Points: all “Injection or Reference Point” will be used as reference. For each point on the area calculation the
closest “Injection or Reference Point” will be used as reference
- All Elements: all elements will be used as reference. For each point on the area calculation the closest element will
be used as reference. The elements assumed as reference can be limited by using the “All Elements Tag Filter” (the
combo flags allow to set one or more tags). The option “All Elements Tag Filter” is enabled only when “All Elements”
is selected

Of course step voltages distributions are not affected by the reference mode.

Click “Safe Areas - View 2D” in the “Touch and Step Voltages” group box.
XGSLab produces a graphical 2D output that shows the safe (and hazardous) areas related to the touch and step
permissible voltages superposed to the system of conductors (see Figure 6-26).
Safe and hazardous areas are represented using the following color code.
When the option “Ut_Us” is chosen:
- Green: safe areas (Ut < Utp and Us < Usp)
- Yellow: warning areas (Ut > Utp and Us < Usp)
- Red: hazardous area (Ut > Utp and Us > Usp)

When the option “Ust_Uss” is chosen:

- Green: safe areas (Ust < Ustp and Uss < Ussp)

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- Yellow: warning areas (Ust > Ustp and Uss < Ussp)
- Red: hazardous area (Ust > Ustp and Uss > Ussp)

Click “+” in the “Touch and Step Voltages” group box to enlarge the obtained representation if too small (close the
window or click “View 2D” to come back to the previous representation).
Move the cursor over the area calculation of the representation to display the touch and step voltages and the associated
soil surface coordinates.
Click “<” or “>” in the “Touch and Step Voltages” group box to rotate the 3D representation (rotation of 90° for each click).

Figure 6-26: Touch Voltages - Style Colors, 2D distribution – Shown snap grid

With the option “All Points” the area calculation is partitioned into regions (see Figure 6-27). Each region contains the
points of the area calculation closest to a specific “Injection or Reference Point”. Inside each region, the safe conditions
are represented as already described and touch voltages are related to the “Point” of the region.

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Figure 6-27: Safe Areas with “All Points” option

With the option “All Elements” the area calculation is partitioned into small regions (see Figure 6-28). Each region
contains the points of the area calculation closest to a specific element. Inside each region, the safe conditions are
represented as already described and touch voltages are related to the reference element of the region. The User must
bear in mind that with this option only buried victim elements are included in elements considered as reference.
The option “All Elements” can require a long calculation time but can be useful when the possible reference points for
touch voltages are not clearly identified.

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Figure 6-28: Safe Areas with “All Elements” option

After using the “Safe Areas” option, set the “Style” in the “Touch and Step Voltages” group box for graphical
representations as in the following:
- Safe Areas: the graphics will be represented using yellow and green colors
- Contours: the graphics will be represented using level curves
- Colors: the graphics will be represented using a color scale

Once set the required parameters, it is possible to represent several 2D and 3D distributions of touch and step voltages
superposed to the system of conductors.
The minimum and maximum represented potentials are automatically selected by XGSLab but may be modified by the
User in the “Touch and Step Voltages” group box. Click again “View 2D” or “View 3D” to represent the new distribution.

If the style “Safe Areas” is selected, XGSLab produces a graphical output where safe and hazardous areas are
represented using the following color code.
Touch Voltages when the option “Ut_Us” is chosen:
- Green: safe areas (Ut < Utp)
- Yellow: warning areas (Ut > Utp)

Touch Voltages when the option “Ust_Uss” is chosen:

- Green: safe areas (Ust < Ustp)
- Yellow: warning areas (Ust > Ustp)

Step Voltages when the option “Ut_Us” is chosen:

- Green: safe areas (Us < Usp)
- Red: hazardous area (Us > Usp)

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Step Voltages when the option “Ust_Uss” is chosen:

- Green: safe areas (Uss < Ussp)
- Red: hazardous area (Uss > Ussp)

In the following only some possible representations.

Figure 6-29: Touch Voltages – “Pivot Point” option, Style Contours, 2D representation – 7 levels chosen – Hidden snap
grid

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Figure 6-30: Touch Voltages – “Pivot Point” option, Style Safe Areas, 3D representation

Figure 6-31: Step Voltages – Any reference option, Style Contours, 2D representation – 14 levels chosen – Hidden snap
grid

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Figure 6-32: Step Voltages – Any reference option, Style Colors, 3D representation

6.3 MAGNETIC FIELD

This option is available if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

The calculation of the magnetic field associates to system of conductors can be useful for electromagnetic compatibility
investigations of sensitive equipment, for protectionist purposes or environmental impact analysis.
Moreover, *_FD allows to investigate the effectiveness of mitigation system for magnetic fields with passive loops.

The magnetic field associates to horizontal conductors of grounding systems varies significantly following the broken of a
conductor or a joint. Conversely, this event has negligible effects on the total impedance to earth. The magnetic field
measures may be then useful to detect grounding system damages. This investigation is effective if the conductor is
horizontal or tilted at an angle between 0 deg and 30 deg.

The magnetic field can be calculate in any point in the air but on the condition that it does not belong to a conductor
(source or victim).

6.3.1 LINE CALCULATION

This option is available if “Project  Module  *_FD or XGSA_TD” is selected and is disabled if a multizone soil model
is used.
Select “Analysis  Magnetic Field  Line Calculation” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 6-33) to
calculate the magnetic field along a straight line.

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Figure 6-33: Line calculation

The line calculation can be arbitrarily oriented in the space but it must be completely in the air.
The line calculation parameters may be introduced both in graphical or numerical mode.
With numerical mode, insert the required data in the “Line Calculation” group box (see Figure 6-34):
- x origin (m) = line origin
- y origin (m) = line origin
- z origin (m) = line origin
- αx (deg) = angle between line and “x” axis (from position 1 and 2 as in Figure 6-34)
- βxy (deg) = angle between line and “xy” plane (from position 2 and 3 as in Figure 6-34)
- Length (m) = line length
- Step (m) = calculation step

The insert value “z origin” has to be negative because the magnetic field can be calculated only in the air.
The insert value “βxy” has to include in the range 0 – 180 deg.

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L
βxy

1
x,y,z
αx

Figure 6-34: Line calculation parameters

Click “View” in the “Line Calculation” group box (see Figure 6-33).
XGSLab shows the line calculation superposed to the system of conductors in an orthogonal projections representation.

The line calculation parameters may be introduced also with graphical mode as described in “Analysis  Touch and
Step Voltages  Line Calculation” (read 6.2.1 for details).
The value “βxy” must still be introduced numerically.

At the end of the data input, click “Calculate” in the “Line Calculation” group box.
XGSLab calculates the magnetic field along the calculation line.

Results can be represented as modulus, real and imaginary parts separately for all components along the reference axis.

Click “View” in the “Result” group box (see Figure 6-33).

XGSLab produces a graphical output of the results (see Figure 6-35).
The minimum and maximum represented fields are automatically selected by XGSLab but they may be modified by the
User in the “Result” group box (see Figure 6-35). Click again “View” to represent the new distribution.
Move the cursor over the 1D representation to display the numerical values of the displayed greatness and the
associated soil surface coordinates.

Click “Export” in the “Result” group box (see Figure 6-33) in order to save the results in numerical form.

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Figure 6-35: Line calculation results

If XGSA_TD is selected two display mode are available (read 6.2.1 for details).
“Time Domain – Line” displays results in the time domain of the entire line calculation.
“Time Domain – Point” displays results in the time domain for specific points along the line calculation.

6.3.2 AREA CALCULATION

This option is available if “Project  Module  *_FD” is selected and is disabled if a multizone soil model is used.
Select “Analysis  Magnetic Field  Area Calculation” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 6-36) to
calculate the magnetic field on a rectangular area.

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Figure 6-36: Area calculation

The area calculation can be horizontal or vertical but it must be completely in the air.
The area calculation parameters may be introduced both in graphical or numerical mode.
With numerical mode, insert the required data in the “Area Calculation” group box (see Figure 6-37):
- x origin (m) = area origin
- y origin (m) = area origin
- z origin (m) = area origin
- αx (deg) = angle between area and “x” axis (from position 1 and 2 as in Figure 6-37)
- βxy (deg) = angle between area and “xy” plane (from position 2 and 3 as in Figure 6-37)
- Length (m) = area length
- Width (m) = area width
- Step Length (m) = calculation step along area length direction
- Step Width (m) = calculation step along area width direction

The insert value “z origin” has to be negative because the magnetic field can be calculated only in the air.
The insert value “βxy” can be set 0 deg (horizontal area) or 90 deg (vertical area). This assure a good visualization of the
results.
Unlike touch and step voltages area calculation, in this case step length and step width can be lower than 0.5 m.

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βxy

y
L

1
x,y,z αx

Figure 6-37: Area calculation parameters

Click “View” in the “Area Calculation” group box (see Figure 6-36).
XGSLab shows the area calculation superposed to the system of conductors in an orthogonal projections representation.

The area calculation parameters may be introduced also with graphical mode as described in “Analysis  Touch and
Step Voltages  Area Calculation” (read 6.2.2 for details).

At the end of the data input, click “Calculate” in the “Area Calculation” group box.
XGSLab calculates the magnetic field upon the calculation area.

Results can be represented as modulus, real and imaginary parts separately for all components along the reference axis.

At the end of the calculation in the “Area Calculation” group box will be displayed the magnetic flux through the area
calculation and of the induced electromotive force around its perimeter.
The calculation of magnetic flux and induced electromotive force can be affected by numerical instability if the area of
calculation is close or includes magnetic field sources. As a general tips, the area calculation does not includes magnetic
field sources and calculation steps have to be reduced when the area of calculation is close to magnetic field sources. In
all cases, magnetic flux and induced electromotive force calculation may be more precise if the calculation steps are
submultiples of the area calculation size.

At the end of the calculation, the results may be graphically represented in several ways.

Select the flag “Normal Only” in the “Results” group box in order to represents the only normal component of the
magnetic field.

Set the “Style” in the “Results” group box for graphical representations as in the following (see Figure 6-36):
- Contours: the graphics will be represented using level curves

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- Colors: the graphics will be represented using a color scale

Click “View 2D” or “View 3D” in the “Results” group box.

XGSLab produces respectively a graphical 2D or 3D output that represents the distribution of the magnetic field
superposed to the system of conductors (see Figure 6-38 and Figure 6-39).
The minimum and maximum represented fields are automatically selected by XGSLab but may be modified by the User
in the “Results” group box (see Figure 6-38 and Figure 6-39). Click again “View 2D” or “View 3D” to represent the new
distribution.

Click “+” in the “Results” group box to enlarge the 2D representation if too small (close the window or click “View 2D” to
come back to the previous representation).
Move the cursor over the area calculation of the 2D representation to display the magnetic field and the associated soil
surface coordinates.
Click “<” or “>” in the “Results” group box to rotate the 3D representation (rotation of 90° for each click).

Click “Export” in the “Results” group box (see Figure 6-36) in order to save the results in numerical form.

Figure 6-38: Magnetic field distribution – Style Color, 2D representation

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Figure 6-39: Magnetic field distribution - Style Color, 3D representation

Click “Safe Areas – View” in the “Results” group box (see Figure 6-36).
XGSLab produces a graphical 2D output that shows the safe (and hazardous) areas related to the magnetic field
superposed to the system of conductors (see Figure 6-40).
Safe and hazardous areas are represented using the following color code:
- Green: safe areas (Magnetic Field < B warning)
- Yellow: warning areas (B warning < Magnetic Field < B danger)
- Red: hazardous area (Magnetic Field > B danger)

Click “+” in the “Results” group box to enlarge the obtained representation if too small (close the window or click “View” to
come back to the previous representation).
Move the cursor over the area calculation of the representation to display the magnetic field and the associated soil
surface coordinates.
Click “<” or “>” in the “Results” group box to rotate the 3D representation (rotation of 90° for each click).

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Figure 6-40: Magnetic field distribution - Safe areas

6.4 ELECTRIC FIELD

This option is available if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

This option can be used for both overhead or underground systems but is mainly oriented to investigate electric field due
to overhead systems. Underground systems, if insulated do not produce a perceptible electric field in the air, while, if not
insulated, usually produce an electric field in the air rather small.
The calculation of the electric field associates to system of conductors can be useful for electromagnetic compatibility
investigations of sensitive equipment, for protectionist purposes or environmental impact analysis.

It is important to remember that electric field (unlike the magnetic field) may be strongly affected by the presence of
buildings, trees or other objects.

The electric field can be calculate in any point in the air but on the condition that it does not belong to a conductor
(source or victim).

6.4.1 LINE CALCULATION

This option is available if “Project  Module  XGSA_*” is selected and is disabled if a multizone soil model is used.
Select “Analysis  Electric Field  Line Calculation” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 6-33) to calculate
the electric field along a straight line.

The line calculation can be arbitrarily oriented in the space but it must be completely in the air as for the line calculation
of the magnetic field. See 6.3.1 for more details.

At the end of the data input, click “Calculate” in the “Line Calculation” group box.
XGSLab calculates the electric field along the calculation line.

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Results can be represented as modulus, real and imaginary parts separately for all components along the reference axis.

Click “View” in the “Result” group box.

XGSLab produces a graphical output of the results (see Figure 6-41).
The minimum and maximum represented fields are automatically selected by XGSLab but they may be modified by the
User in the “Result” group box (see Figure 6-41). Click again “View” to represent the new distribution.
Move the cursor over the 1D representation to display the numerical values of the shown greatness and the associated
soil surface coordinates.

Click “Export” in the “Result” group box (see Figure 6-33) in order to save the results in numerical form.

Figure 6-41: Line calculation results

If XGSA_TD is selected two display mode are available (read 6.2.1 for details).
“Time Domain – Line” displays results in the time domain of the entire line calculation.
“Time Domain – Point” displays results in the time domain for specific points along the line calculation.

6.4.2 AREA CALCULATION

This option is available if “Project  Module  XGSA_FD” is selected and is disabled if a multizone soil model is used.
Select “Analysis  Electric Field  Area Calculation” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 6-36) to
calculate the electric field on a rectangular area.

The area calculation can be horizontal or vertical but it must be completely in the air as for the calculation of the magnetic
field. See 6.3.2 for more details.

At the end of the data input, click “Calculate” in the “Area Calculation” group box.

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XGSLab calculates the electric field upon the calculation area.

Results can be represented as modulus, real and imaginary parts separately for all components along the reference axis.

At the end of the calculation, the results may be graphically represented in several ways.

Select the flag “Normal Only” in the “Results” group box in order to represents the only normal component of the electric
field.

Set the “Style” in the “Results” group box for graphical representations as in the following (see Figure 6-36):
- Contours: the graphics will be represented using level curves
- Colors: the graphics will be represented using a color scale

The contour lines can be exported in a “dxf” file using the command button “DXF” in the toolbar column.

Click “View 2D” or “View 3D” in the “Results” group box.

XGSLab produces respectively a graphical 2D or 3D output that represents the distribution of the electric field
superposed to the system of conductors (see Figure 6-42 and Figure 6-43).
The minimum and maximum represented fields are automatically selected by XGSLab but may be modified by the User
in the “Results” group box (see Figure 6-42 and Figure 6-43). Click again “View 2D” or “View 3D” to represent the new
distribution.

Click “+” in the “Results” group box to enlarge the 2D representation if too small (close the window or click “View 2D” to
come back to the previous representation).
Move the cursor over the area calculation of the 2D representation to display the electric field and the associated soil
surface coordinates.
Click “<” or “>” in the “Results” group box to rotate the 3D representation (rotation of 90° for each click).

Click “Export” in the “Results” group box (see Figure 6-36) in order to save the results in numerical form.

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Figure 6-42: Electric field distribution - Style Color, 2D representation

Figure 6-43: Electric field distribution - Style Color, 3D representation

Click “Safe Areas – View” in the “Results” group box (see Figure 6-36).
XGSLab produces a graphical 2D output that shows the safe (and hazardous) areas related to the electric field
superposed to the system of conductors (see Figure 6-44).
Safe and hazardous areas are represented using the following color code:
- Green: safe areas (Electric Field < E warning)

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- Yellow: warning areas (E warning < Electric Field < E danger)

- Red: hazardous area (Electric Field > E danger)

Click “+” in the “Results” group box to enlarge the obtained representation if too small (close the window or click “View” to
come back to the previous representation).
Move the cursor over the area calculation of the representation to display the electric field and the associated soil surface
coordinates.
Click “<” or “>” in the “Results” group box to rotate the 3D representation (rotation of 90° for each click).

Figure 6-44: Electric field distribution - Safe areas

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7. SUMMARY

7.1 IMAGES

7.1.1 GALLERY

This option is available if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

Select “Summary  Images  Gallery” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 7-1) to access to the list of the
images captured clicking the “Keep Image” button during the various design stages.

Figure 7-1: “Gallery” window

The following images are available:

- Volume Visualization
- Soil Model
- Leakage Current
- Potential
- Current
- Electromotive Force
- Covering Stress Voltage
- Complex Power
- Touch and Step Voltage - Line Calculation
- Touch and Step Voltage - Area Calculation

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- Magnetic Field - Line Calculation

- Magnetic Field - Area Calculation
- Electric Field - Line Calculation
- Electric Field - Area Calculation

Potential, Current, Electromotive Force, Covering Stress Voltage, Complex Power, and Magnetic Field are available only
if *_FD or XGSA_TD are selected.
Electric Field is available only if XGSA_* is selected.

The lists of the available images is presented as in Figure 7-1.

Each image is displayed with the captured time and the caption added with the “Keep Image” procedure.
Select an image to display it with more details and options (copy, remove or zoom image).
The captured date is also used by the “Daily Filter” in order to select the images captured in a specific day.
All the available images are used for the “Summary – Documents - Report” (see 7.2.1).

Use the filters (see arrows in Figure 7-1) to represent only images belonging to a specific group.

The images filename are assigned using the four components in Table 7-1.
The four filename components are separated by the underscore “_” (example: Prefix_n1_n2_number).

Soil Model, Leakage Current, Potential, Current, Electromotive Force, Covering Stress Voltage, Complex Power:
Description Prefix n1 n2 number
Volume Visualization LY 1 or 2 XX 01 - 99
Soil Model SM 1 XX 01 - 99
Leakage Current – Linear Density LL 0, 1, 2 or 3 XX 01 - 99
Leakage Current – Superficial Density LS 0, 1, 2 or 3 XX 01 - 99
Potential PT 0, 1, 2 or 3 XX 01 - 99
Current CR 0, 1, 2 or 3 XX 01 - 99
Electromotive Force EF 0, 1, 2 or 3 XX 01 - 99
Covering Stress Voltage CS 0, 1, 2 or 3 XX 01 - 99
Complex Power CP 0, 1, 2 or 3 XX 01 - 99

Touch and Step Voltages:

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Description Prefix n1 n2 number

Line Calculation LN 0 XX 01 - 99
Line Calculation LN 1 XX 01 - 99
Line Calculation - Touch and Step Voltages and LN number
LN 2 01 - 99
Earth Potential 01 - 99
Line Calculation - Touch and Step Voltages and LN number
LN 3 01 - 99
Earth Potential - TD 01 - 99
Area Calculation AR 1 XX 01 - 99
AR AR number
Area Calculation - 3D Earth Potential 2 01 - 99
01 - 99
AR AR number
Area Calculation – 2D Earth Potential 3 01 - 99
01 - 99
AR AR number
Area Calculation - Safe Areas 4 01 - 99
01 - 99
AR AR number
Area Calculation – 3D Touch Voltages 5 01 - 99
01 - 99
AR AR number
Area Calculation – 3D Step Voltages 6 01 - 99
01 - 99
AR AR number
Area Calculation – 2D Touch Voltages 7 01 - 99
01 - 99
AR AR number
Area Calculation – 2D Step Voltages 8 01 - 99
01 - 99

Magnetic Field:
Description Prefix n1 n2 number
Line Calculation LM 0 XX 01 - 99
Line Calculation LM 1 XX 01 - 99
LM number
Line Calculation – Magnetic Field LM 2 01 - 99
01 - 99
LM number
Line Calculation – Magnetic Field - TD LM 3 01 - 99
01 - 99
Area Calculation AM 1 XX 01 - 99
AM AM number
Area Calculation – 2D Magnetic Field 2 01 - 99
01 - 99
AM AM number
Area Calculation - 3D Magnetic Field 3 01 - 99
01 - 99
AM AM number
Area Calculation - 2D Safe Areas 4 01 - 99
01 - 99

Electric Field:
Description Prefix n1 n2 number
Line Calculation LE 0 XX 01 - 99
Line Calculation LE 1 XX 01 - 99
LM number
Line Calculation – Electric Field LE 2 01 - 99
01 - 99
LM number
Line Calculation – Electric Field LE 3 01 - 99
01 - 99
Area Calculation AE 1 XX 01 - 99
AE AM number
Area Calculation – 2D Electric Field 2 01 - 99
01 - 99
AE AM number
Area Calculation - 3D Electric Field 3 01 - 99
01 - 99
AE AM number
Area Calculation - 2D Safe Areas 4 01 - 99
01 - 99
Table 7-1: Images filename

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7.2 DOCUMENTS

7.2.1 REPORT

This option is available if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

Select “Summary  Documents  Report” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 7-2) to obtain a concise
report with data and results.

Figure 7-2: “Report” window

Report includes the main data used in the project and the images captured clicking the “Keep Image” button during the
various design stages.
Each image is displayed with the caption and description added with the “Keep Image” procedure.
The report header corresponds to the customer logo posted in the “Project  General  Project Information”.

Select “Export To” (see Figure 7-2) to create a document with the specified format.
The document created can be customized by the User.

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7.2.2 LIST OF ITEMS

This option is available if “Project  Module  *GSA* is selected.

Select “Summary  Documents  List of Items” command from “Menu option bar” to obtain a list of the components
(wires, pipes, rods …) for the whole system of conductors.

In the list of items, the components are divided according to electrode, type, material, tag and diameter.
This list is available in XGSLab format as shown in Figure 7-3. In this window the User can arrange the items according
to column headers. This customized arrangement may be obtained by dragging column headers to the stripe above the
first row (see arrow A in Figure 7-4).
Finally, there is also the possibility to export the list of items, arranged as the User prefers, in “xls, xlsx, pdf, html, txt, mht,
csv” and as an image. This is possible by using the specific button (see arrow B in Figure 7-4).

Figure 7-3: “List of Items” example

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A
B

Figure 7-4: “List of Items” example of customized arrangement

8. LIBRARIES
Selecting the “Libraries” command from “Menu option bar”, the User can display and modify the following database.

General:
- Material Properties
- Material Constants (EN and IEEE)
- Soil Properties
- Soil Covering Layer Properties
- Wires and Rods

NETS:
- Cables
- Lines
- Transformers

8.1 GENERAL

8.1.1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Select “Libraries  General  Material Properties” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 8-2).

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This database contains the main properties (resistivity, permittivity and permeability) of the most common material
(conductors, insulator, and semiconductor) used in electrical engineering.
Conductor materials have low resistivity and essentially include metals.
On the opposite, insulator materials have high resistivity and include solid, liquid and gas.
Semiconductor materials are no conductors and no insulators, are often uses as conductors covering and include for
instance GEM and concrete.

Resistivity of metals depends on temperature as follows:

  0 1    t  t0  

where:
-  (Ωm) = resistivity

- 0 (Ωm) = resistivity at the reference temperature

- t (°C) = temperature

- t0 (°C) = reference temperature (usually 20 °C)

-  (1/°C) = temperature coefficient of resistivity (about 0.004 for copper and aluminium)

Important notice: the resistivity in the library should be always referred to the temperature 20 °C.
The modules GSA_FD, XGSA_FD and XGSA_TD use the resistivity in the library without changings.
The module NETS assumes the temperature in the library at 20 °C and convert it to the specified operative temperature.

2
Note that the conductor resistivity is often specified in Ω*mm /m. To convert the value in Ωm (the unit used in the library
“Material Properties”), the following formulas may be used.

mm 2
1  10 6 m
m

2
Note also that the insulating covering of pipelines is typically specified as a covering resistance in Ωm . To convert
2
resistances Ωm in resistivities Ωm (the values in the library “Material Properties”), the following formulas may be used.
In general:

2r
c 
d  2t c
d  2t c ln
d

where:
2
- r (Ωm ) = covering resistance
- d (m) = pipe outer diameter (metal part)
- tc (m) = covering thickness

If the covering thickness is thin if compared to the pipe outer diameter (simplified approximate expression):

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r
c 
tc

The Table 8-1 indicates the typical covering resistance of polyethylene for pipeline in different conditions.

2
Quality of Work Covering Resistance (Ωm )

Long pipeline with Few Fittings

Excellent >10000
Good 2000 to 10000
Fair 1000 to 2000
Poor <1000
Bare pipe (outer diameter 50 to 300 mm) 5 to 10
Gas or Water Distribution pipeline with Many Fittings
Excellent >2000
Good 1000 to 2000
Fair 200 to 1000
Poor <200
Bare pipe (outer diameter 50 to 300 mm) 5 to 25
Table 8-1: Typical covering resistance for pipeline protective coating (soil resistivity 10 Ωm)

Using the data in Table 8-1 related to fair or poor quality of work, the insulating resistivity can be much lower than the
value indicated in library “Material Properties”.

Figure 8-1: “Material Properties” library

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8.1.2 MATERIAL CONSTANTS

Select “Libraries  General  Material Constants EN” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 8-2).

This database contains the main material constant for EN standards.

Figure 8-2: “Material Constants” library for EN standard

Select “Libraries  Material Constants IEEE” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 8-3).

This database contains the main material constant for IEEE standards.

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Figure 8-3: “Material Constants” library for IEEE standard

8.1.3 SOIL PROPERTIES

Select “Libraries  General  Soil Properties” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 8-2).

This database contains the main properties of the most common soils.

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Figure 8-4: “Soil Properties” library

8.1.4 SOIL COVERING LAYER PROPERTIES

Select “Libraries  General  Soil Covering Layer Properties” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 8-5).

This database contains the main properties of the most common soil covering layers.

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Figure 8-5: “Soil Covering Layer Properties” library

8.1.5 WIRES AND RODS

Select “Libraries  General  Wires and Rods” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 8-6).

This database contains the main commercial data for wires and rods used for grounding systems.

Figure 8-6: “Wires and Rods” library

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8.2 NETS

8.2.1 CABLES

Select “Libraries  NETS  Cables” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 8-6).

This database contains the main commercial data for cables.

Figure 8-7: “Cables” library

The following notes must be considered in the data entry of the cables library:
- Each cable must has a core while screen and armor are optional
- All values (r, l and c), if set, will be used in calculations without any correction. If not set, these parameters will be
calculated taking into account the entered data
- The resistance “r” has to be referred to the operative temperature (usually 90 °C)

As known, there are a large variety of cables on the market and is difficult or not possible to consider all different cables.
The model used for cables is related to single core cables including in general the following 6 parts, 3 conductors and 3
insulators:
- Core: made with a conductive material like stranded or segmented copper or aluminium conductor
- Core insulation: made with a good insulating material like XLPE
- Screen: made with a conductive material like helical copper or aluminium wires or tapes
- Screen sheath: made with an insulating material
- Armor: made with a conductive material like helical steel wires or steel tapes
- Armor sheath: made with an insulating material like polyethylene or PVC

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The model has been extended to the pipe type cables.

In such case, all cables can be include in a steel pipe, the part 7.

Important notice: there is no general consensus in terminology used for high voltage electric cables. Sometimes
screens are also called shields or also sheaths. The used terminology is a good compromise taking into account
literature and manufacturers data sheets.

In the reality, the scenario can be much more complex.

The following figure represents a possible cross section of a single core cable.

Figure 8-8: “Cables” cross section

The core insulation can includes two semiconducting layers towards respectively core and screen.
The semiconducting layer thickness depends on the rated voltage of the cable.
If unknown, the semiconducting layer thickness can be set 0.3 mm for 11 kV cables, 0.7 for 33 kV cables, 1.2 mm for 132
kV cables and greater values for higher rated voltages.
Screen and armor can be composed of two layers of different materials (one of the two layers is usually made of lead).
In such cases, it is important to combine more layers in an equivalent single layer using the following conversion
procedures.

Equivalent Insulation Layer

The total thickness of the equivalent layer is the sum of the thicknesses of the distinct components.
If the capacitance is known from the manufacturer, the equivalent relative permittivity of the composite insulation is
greater than the relative permittivity of the main insulation and can be calculated with:

r 
ln  ext 
 c  int 
r
 r eq
2 0

while if the capacitance in unknown:

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r 
ln  ext 
 r eq   r ins  rint 
r 
ln  ins ext 
 rins int 
 

where:
- rext (m) = external radius of the composite insulation
- rint (m) = internal radius of the composite insulation
- rins ext (m) = external radius of the main insulation
- rins int (m) = internal radius of the composite insulation

In practice, the equivalent relative permittivity can be set 3 for XLPE, 3.2 for EPR and 2.4 for PE and PVC.

The equivalent resistivity of the composite insulation is lower than the resistivity of the main insulation and can be
calculated with:

r 
ln  ins ext 
 rins int 
 eq  ins  
(Ωm)
 rext 
ln  
 rint 

In practice, the resistivity can be set infinite or anyway very high.

Equivalent Conductive Layer

The outer diameter of the composite conductor is the outer diameter of the external layer.
The total cross section of the equivalent layer is the sum of the sections of the distinct components.
If the resistance is known from the manufacturer, the equivalent resistivity of the composite conductor can be calculated
with:

eq  r  s1  s2  (Ωm)

while if the resistance in unknown:

1s1   2 s2
eq  (Ωm)
s1  s2

where:
2
- s1 (m ) = cross section of material 1
2
- s2 (m ) = cross section of material 2

The temperature coefficient of resistivity, in unknown, can be set “α = 0.0040 (1/°C)”.

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8.2.2 OVERHEAD LINES

Select “Libraries  NETS  Overhead Lines” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 8-6).

This database contains the main commercial data for conductors used for lines or overhead earth wires.

Figure 8-9: “Overhead Lines” library

The following notes must be considered in the data entry of the lines library:
- If a conductor includes only a material, this must be understood as internal
- All values (r, l, c and g), if set, will be used in calculations without any correction. If not set, these parameters will be
calculated taking into account the entered data
- All values (r, l, c and g), if set, have to be referred to the complete line (also in case of bundled conductors)
- The resistance “r” has to be referred to the operative temperature (usually 75 °C)
- The conductance “g”, if not set, it will be forced to zero
- The subconductors number by default is 1 (no bundled conductor)

8.2.3 TRANSFORMERS

Select “Libraries  NETS  Transformers” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 8-6).

This database contains the main commercial data for both three-phase and single-phase transformers.

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Figure 8-10: “Transformers” library

For three-phase transformers, voltages “V in” and V out” are phase to phase (or line) rated voltages.
When the data are loaded and confirmed, XGSLab provides the following checks:

vsc  psc  0 and i0  p0  0

where:
- vsc % = short circuit voltage
- psc % = short circuit losses
- i0 % = no load current
- p0 % = no load losses

When XGSLab finds one or both conditions are not satisfier, it produces the error message “Condition vsc >= psc > 0
must be satisfied” or “Condition i0 >= p0 > 0 must be satisfied”.

Connections and vector group have to be set according to the IEC 60076-1 Standard.
The most common connections and vector group are the following (in bold the implemented models):
- Group 0: Yy0, Dd0, Dz0
- Group 1: Yd1, Dy1, Yz1
- Group 5: Yd5, Dy5, Yz5
- Group 6: Yy6, Dd6, Dz6
- Group 11: Yd11, Dy11, Yz11

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8.3 UPDATINGS
It is important to take into account that the libraries may be handled as follows.
When a new project is created, a “Local Database” is created too.
This “Local Database” is a clone of the “Master Database”.
Every data about the new project is saved on this “Local Database” and the libraries of the new project are populated, as
default, like in the “Master Database”.
It is possible to add or update records in the libraries of the “Local Database”, but each new or modified value remains
only in the project in use.
This means that, in general, the libraries can be different between projects.
The User has the chance to export modifications from “Local Database” to “Master Database”. This is possible by using
the options "Commit" and "Update", in the main toolbar buttons as in the following (see arrows in Figure 8-11).

Figure 8-11: “Commit and Update” buttons

8.3.1 COMMIT

Select “Libraries  Updatings  Commit” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 8-6).

Use “Commit” to align the “Master Database” table records with the correspondent data in the “Local Database”.

8.3.2 UPDATE

Select “Libraries  Updatings  Update” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 8-6).

Use “Update” to align the “Local Database” table records with the correspondent data in the “Master Database”.

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9. WINDOWS

9.1 MESSAGES
Select “Windows  Windows  Messages” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 9-1) to select the window
mode with all the messages about calculation information and progress.

Figure 9-1: “Messages” window

9.2 CLOSE ALL

Select “Windows  Windows  Close All” command from “Menu option bar” to close all the opened windows.

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10. HELP

10.1 ABOUT XGSLAB

Select “Help  Help  About XGSLab” command from “Menu option bar” (see Figure 10-1) to display the main
XGSLab license and product information and in particular:
- XGSLab Version
- Licensee Organization
- License Number
- Modules Enabled
- Software Version and Release
- Database Version
- Automatic License Update

Figure 10-1: “About XGSLab” window

Click on “check for an updated license” to open the “Activate License” window (see Figure 10-2).
The panel “License Features” shows the current license properties.
Click “Activate” in order to align (update or upgrade) the hardlock key setup to the database of XGSLab licenses.
A short message will advise if the activation is successful or if there are no changing in license features.

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Figure 10-2: “Activate License” window

10.2 LICENSE
Select “Help  Help  License” command from “Menu option bar” to display the current XGSLab “General Licensing
Conditions”.

10.3 USER’S GUIDE

Select “Help  Help  User’s Guide” command from “Menu option bar” to display the XGSLab “User’s Guide”.

10.4 TUTORIAL
Select “Help  Help  Tutorial SRA” command from “Menu option bar” to display the “Tutorial SRA”.
Select “Help  Help  Tutorial GSA” command from “Menu option bar” to display the “Tutorial GSA”.
Select “Help  Help  Tutorial GSA_FD” command from “Menu option bar” to display the “Tutorial GSA_FD”.
Select “Help  Help  Tutorial XGSA_FD” command from “Menu option bar” to display the “Tutorial XGSA_FD”.
Select “Help  Help  Tutorial XGSA_TD” command from “Menu option bar” to display the “Tutorial XGSA_TD”.
Select “Help  Help  Tutorial NETS” command from “Menu option bar” to display the “Tutorial NETS”.

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APPENDIX

11. SOIL PROPERTIES

11.1 MOISTURE SALT AND TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE

Electrical conduction in soil is essentially electrolytic and for this reason the soil resistivity depends on:
- Moisture content
- Salt content
- Temperature (in particular above the freezing point)

The Figure 11-1 represents the effects of moisture, temperature, and salt upon soil resistivity.

Figure 11-1: Effects of moisture, temperature, and salt upon soil resistivity

Resistivity measure records should include temperature data and information on the moisture content of the soil at the
time of measure. Use the tab in 11.4 to record the soil resistivity measure values and the most important information
about to the measure conditions.

Especially in regions where the top layer soil can freeze during winter or dry out during summer, it is important to take
into account the resistivity variation of the ground below the soil surface, because they may have an impact on the
grounding performance. This is also required by the IEC Std 61936-1 “Power Installations Exceeding 1 kV ac – Part 1:
Common Rules” Section 10.3.1 General Clause b. For practical purpose, when there are no other available information,
in very cold regions, during the winter, a resistivity scale factor of 5 to 6 times the summer value would be an adequate
average.

To estimate the thickness of the frozen soil, may be useful remember the following conclusion of a publication from the
“National Research Council of Canada”.

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“Depth of freezing is largely determined by the rate of heat loss from the soil surface. Besides the thermal properties of
the soil, this heat loss depends upon such climatic variables as solar radiation, snow cover, wind, and air temperature,
which is the most significant.
Air temperature records may be used to gauge the severity of ground freezing by using the degree-day concept (if the
daily mean air temperature is -1 °C this will be one degree-day).
The "Freezing Index" is simply the accumulated total of degree-days of freezing for a given winter.
Correlations between frost depth and freezing index may be useful as guides for estimating total frost depth. That shown
in Figure 11-2 is based on both field records and theory, but it should be recognized that all measures were made in test
areas kept clear of snow and that differences in soil thermal properties were not distinguished. Both these factors
influence the depth of frost penetration.

Figure 11-2: Relation between freezing index and depth of frost penetration

For instance, in a site where the average daily air temperature is -1 °C in December (31 days), -2 °C in January (31
days), -1 °C in February (28 days) and > 0 °C in the other months, the freezing index is 121 °C day and the maximum
frost penetration is less than 0.5 m.

To estimate the soil temperature, may be useful remember the following notice from available literature.
Regarding on the temperature, the soil may be assumed as composed by two layers.
In the upper layer (having a thickness about 15 m depending on the specific region), the average annual ground
temperature (MAGT) is practically constant with depth and normally greater than the average air temperature of the site
(MAAT). The relation between MAGT and MAAT depends on the characteristics of the surface and on weather,
particularly the amount of solar radiation. In general, in temperate regions the MAGT may exceed the MAAT by not more
than 1 °C while in regions where there is a relatively deep and continuous winter snow cover, the difference may be 5 °C
or more.
In the upper layer, temperature changes with the season and the amplitude of the temperature variation at the surface is
normally about equal to that of the corresponding one for air and it decreases exponentially with distance from the
surface.

In the bottom layer soil temperature increases about 1 °C per 50 m (from MAGT) due to geothermal heat flow from the
centre of the earth to the surface and doesn’t change with the season.

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In the upper layer, the behaviour of the soil temperature is shown in Figure 11-3 for the annual temperature variation in
Ottawa (Canada). For depths below 5 to 6 m, ground temperatures are essentially constant throughout the year.

Figure 11-3: Depth dependence of the annual range of ground temperature -Ottawa (Canada)

The temperature of the ground surface remains almost in phase with that of the air. Below the surface, however, the
maximum or minimum occurs later than the corresponding values at the surface, the time lag increasing linearly with
depth.
Figure 11-4 illustrates this behaviour in Ottawa (Canada). At a depth of 5 to 6 m the maximum ground temperature
occurs about 6 months later than the average maximum temperature of the surface in summer.

Figure 11-4: Annual variation of soil temperature -Ottawa (Canada)

As general and practical rule, for an electrode at 1 m depth in temperate regions it may be said that:
- The average temperature corresponds substantially to the average air temperature
- The minimum temperature is reached at in late winter and is about 5 °C above the minimum air temperature
- The maximum temperature is reached in late summer and is about 5 °C under the maximum air temperature

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For instance, in a site where the average annual air temperature is +10 °C (than a temperate site) and the minimum and
maximum air temperature are respectively -5 °C and + 35 °C, at 1 m depth the minimum and maximum soil temperature
are about 0 °C and +30 °C.

The soil resistivity values is one of the main indicator in determining the corrosiveness property of the soil.
The soil corrosiveness is classified based on soil electrical resistivity by the British standard BS-1377 as follow:
- ρ > 100 Ωm: slightly corrosive
- 50 < ρ < 100 Ωm: moderately corrosive
- 10 < ρ < 50 Ωm: corrosive
- ρ < 10 Ωm: severe

11.2 FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE

As a fundamental condition the soil is supposed separated from the air by a flat surface.
The properties of the air may be assumed defined and constant.
The following air electromagnetic properties are assumed:

- Conductivity:   5 1014 (S/m) (value at 20 °C)

- Permittivity:   0 (F/m)

- Permeability   0 (H/m)

The properties of the soil instead can vary widely except the soil permeability which can normally be assumed as the free
space ones.
The following soil electromagnetic properties are assumed:

- Conductivity:    eff (S/m)

- Permittivity:    eff (F/m)

- Permeability   0 (H/m)

where:

-  eff (S/m) = effective conductivity

-  eff (F/m) = effective permittivity

The effective values of soil conductivity and permittivity may be obtained as follows.
The soil conductivity indicates the low frequency (or direct current) conductivity and is a real number and then:

   lf

where:

-  lf (S/m) = low frequency (or direct current) conductivity

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The soil permittivity is in general a complex number and may be written as:

   ' j ' '

where:
-  (F/m) = complex permittivity
-  ' (F/m) = dielectric constant (term associated with the energy storage)
-  ' ' (F/m) = polarization loss (term associated with the energy losses due to ionic conductivity)

The low frequency (or direct current) soil resistivity is of course:

1
 lf 
 lf

In the frequency domain, soil conductivity and permittivity may be taken into account with the following unified parameter
named complex conductivity:

   eff  j eff   dc  j  ' j ' '   dc   ' ' j '

It follows:

 eff   lf   ' '

 eff   '

Soil effective conductivity (or resistivity) and permittivity depend on moisture, temperature and chemical content and in
general are frequency dependant. Many frequency dependence models have been proposed in literature. Those models
are expressed in terms of curve-fit expression for the soil conductivity (or resistivity) and permittivity which are based on
experimental data.
In the following the most established model are described.

11.2.1.1 MESSIER MODEL

The Messier model (1985) is often used because of their simplicity and because of, the requested input data are often
available:

 eff   lf  2 lf  r hf  0

1  lf
 eff  
 eff 1  2 lf  r hf  0

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2 lf  r hf  0
 eff   r hf  0 


where:

-  lf (S/m) = low frequency (or direct current) conductivity

-  lf (Ωm) = low frequency (or direct current) soil resistivity

-  r hf = high frequency limit of relative permittivity (usually set between 4 and 8)

In order to avoid division by zero with DC condition and contemporary to limit the permittivity at low frequency, the
following formula is implemented:

 2 
 eff   rhf  0 1   (f < 100 Hz)
 2 100  lf  rhf  0 


11.2.1.2 VISACRO - PORTELA MODEL

The Visacro – Portela model (2010) is quite recent and requires only the value of the low frequency soil resistivity:

0.072
 f 
 eff   lf   (100 Hz < f < 2 MHz)
 100 

 eff   lf (f < 100 Hz)

 eff  2.34 106 lf0.535 f 0.597  0 (40 Hz < f < 2 MHz)

where:

-  lf (Ωm) = low frequency (or direct current) soil resistivity

In order to avoid division by zero with DC condition and contemporary to limit the permittivity at low frequency, the
following formula is implemented:

 eff  2.34 106 lf0.535 400.597  0 (f < 40 Hz)

11.2.1.3 VISACRO - ALIPIO MODEL

The Visacro – Alipio model (2012) is the most recent and requires only the value of the low frequency soil resistivity:

lf
eff 
1  1.2 10 lf0.73  f  100
(100 Hz < f < 4 MHz)
6 0.65

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 eff   lf (f < 100 Hz)

 eff  7.6 103 f 0.4  1.3 0 (10 kHz < f < 4 MHz)

 eff  192.2 0 (f < 10 kHz)

where:

-  lf (Ωm) = 100 Hz soil resistivity

11.2.1.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN MODELS

The following figures show the effective resistivity and relative permittivity values assuming  lf = 10 and 1000 Ωm,

 r hf = 6 and frequency between 1 Hz and 10 MHz:

Figure 11-5: Effective resistivity as a function of frequency (  lf = 10 Ωm,  rhf = 6)

Figure 11-6: Effective relative permittivity as a function of frequency (  lf = 10 Ωm,  rhf = 6)

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Figure 11-7: Effective resistivity as a function of frequency (  lf = 1000 Ωm,  rhf = 6)

Figure 11-8: Effective relative permittivity as a function of frequency (  lf = 1000 Ωm,  rhf = 6)

A comparison between different models and experimental results is available in literature. Shortly, the models Messier
and Visacro – Alipio predict overall similar results which are in reasonable agreement with the experimental data while
the model Visacro – Portela predicts different values and difference are more significant at high frequencies and for low
resistivity soils.

As general rule, with all models resistivity varies quite slightly with frequency while the permittivity varies strongly with
frequency and the low frequency permittivity may be very high because soil polarization effects.
Anyway, with increasing frequency, resistivity variation cannot be neglected in particular with high resistivity soil.
This is evident by looking at the distribution of the normalized resistivity in Figure 11-9.
The normalized resistivity in Figure 11-9 has been calculated with the Messier model and then with the following formula:

 eff 1
 norm  
 lf 1  2 lf  r hf  0

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Figure 11-9: Normalized resistivity as a function of frequency

11.2.1.5 LOW FREQUENCY APPROXIMATIONS

Soil permittivity may be usually neglected at low frequency.

Soil permittivity is not significant if:

1
 eff  2f eff   eff 
 eff

and then, if << is intended as not greater than 1/10, if:

 eff 1
f  
20eff 20eff  eff

The solution of previous non-linear equation taking into account the Messier model and for example a soil with  lf =
0.01 S/m and  r hf = 8, gives:

f  100 kHz

So, generally, the permittivity is significant only for rather high frequency.
If the calculation involves only power frequency, the relative permittivity is not significant and may be arbitrarily set.

Summarizing, XGSLab requires effective resistivity and relative permittivity as input data.
These data may be calculated from the values of frequency, low frequency conductivity (or resistivity) and high frequency
relative permittivity (only for the Messier model) using the previous models.
The low frequency (or direct current) resistivity may be obtained as following described.

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11.3 RESISTIVITY MEASURES

In the following, the term resistivity indicates the direct current or low frequency resistivity.

The conduction of electricity in the earth is due basically to two contribution:

- Ionic (or electrolytic) contribution: movement of free ions in the material
- Electronic contribution: movement of free electrons in the material

Usually, electrolytic conduction is the predominant factor but when the freedom of movement of the ions is limited (e.g.
when the soil is completely frozen), the electronic conduction becomes the predominant.

The soil resistivity value is liable to great variations.

The ranges of variations of the soil resistivity are following:
- Exceptionally low values: 1 - 10 Ωm
- Usual values: 10 - 1000 Ωm
- Exceptionally high values: 1000 - 10000 Ωm

Usual European unit measure for the soil resistivity is Ωm but in the USA it is often used the unit measure Ωcm.
The conversion factor between European and USA unit measure is the following:

1 Ωm = 100 Ωcm

For some typical soil resistivity and high frequency relative permittivity values see 8.1.3.

As a general rule, the soil resistivity depends on moisture, temperature and chemical content and then it is not possible
to assign a single value for the resistivity of a soil material.
The resistivity value must not be obtained from literature or tables but must be measured.
The only reliable data are those related to the specific site.

Assessments based on soil classification yield only a rough approximation of the resistivity. Actual soil resistivity
measures are therefore mandatory. These should be taken at several points within the site. The grounding system sites
where the soil may be characterised by uniform resistivity throughout the entire area and up to a considerable depth are
seldom found. Typically, there are several layers, each one having a different resistivity. Often, lateral changes also
occur, but in comparison to the vertical ones these changes are usually more gradual. Soil resistivity measures may also
determine if there are any important variations of resistivity with depth. The number of such readings taken should be
greater where the variations are large, especially if some readings are as high as to suggest a possible safety risk.
If the resistivity varies appreciably with depth, it is often desirable to use an increased range of electrodes spacing in
order to assess the resistivity of deeper layers. This is possible because, as the electrodes spacing is increased, the test
source current penetrates more and more distant areas, in both vertical and horizontal directions, regardless of how
much the current path is distorted due to the varying soil conditions.

Figure 11-10 represents the current flow and the equipotential lines produced by a current which is closed through the
ground in case of double layer soil model and may be useful to understand the measures technique following described.

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Figure 11-10: Soil resistivity measures method

XGSLab supports both Wenner and Schlumberger methods.

11.3.1.1 WENNER AND SCHLUMBERGER METHODS

There are many methods for soil resistivity measurements.

The Wenner and Schlumberger methods, are the most used ones.
Both methods can be implemented as classic or modified configuration.
The classic configurations in the following described are the preferred and suggested arrangements because their
symmetry allows to reduce or compensate measurements errors.

The Wenner alpha four-pin method, as shown in Figure 11-11 is the most commonly used technique for soil resistivity
measures.

V
Soil Surface
bV bA

a a a

Figure 11-11: Wenner alpha four-pin method

There are other Wenner configuration used in resistivity survey (beta and gamma) but in the following, Wenner method
indicates the Wenner alpha four-pin method.

Using the Wenner method, if the electrodes diameter are not more than 10% of the distance between them, the apparent
soil resistivity value is:

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2RW
E 
1 1 1 1
  
a 2  bA  bV  4a 2  bA  bV  a 2  bA  bV  4a 2  bA  bV 
2 2 2 2

where:

-  E (Ωm) = measured apparent soil resistivity

- a (m) = electrodes spacing
- bA (m) = depth of the current probes

- bV (m) = depth of the voltage probes

- RW (Ω) = Wenner resistance measured as V/I in Figure

If b << a, as is the case of electrodes penetrating the ground only for a short distance (as usually happens), the previous
equation may be reduced to:

 E  2aRW

By using the Wenner method, the soil resistivity approximately at a depth of “3a” may be assessed.
The following figure represents the distribution of the current between current electrodes and indicates that, with a
uniform soil, more than 50% of the total current flows in a horizontal cylinder with radius L = 3a whose axis coincides with
the line of electrode. This depth can be considered as the maximum depth of current penetration with a uniform soil and
then the maximum investigated depth by using the Wenner method with electrodes spacing “a”.

Figure 11-12: Fraction of total current which passes completely (A) above a horizontal plane of depth z1, and (B) within a
horizontal cylinder whose axis coincides with the line of electrodes and whose radius is r1. Horizontal
distance between current electrodes, L=3a.

In the Schlumberger method, the distance between the voltage electrodes “a” and the distances from a voltage electrode
and a current electrode “c” are different (see Figure 11-13).

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V
Soil Surface
bV bA

c a c

Figure 11-13: Schlumberger four-pin method

Using the Schlumberger method, if the electrodes diameter are not more than 10% of the distance between them, the
apparent soil resistivity value is:

2RS
E 
1 1 1 1
  
c 2  bA  bV  a  c   bA  bV  c 2  bA  bV  a  c   bA  bV 2
2 2 2 2 2

where:

-  E (Ωm) = measured apparent soil resistivity

- a (m) = spacing between voltage probes
- bA (m) = depth of the current probes

- bV (m) = depth of the voltage probes

- c (m) = spacing between voltage and current probes

- RS (Ω) = Schlumberger resistance measured as V/I in Figure

If b << a and b << c (as usually happens), the previous equation may be reduced to:

ca  c 
E   RS
a

In literature, the configurations with a > c is known as “Schlumberger – Palmer method” while the configuration with a < c
is known as “Schlumberger method”. In the following, both arrangements will be called Schlumberger four-pin method.

The arrangement with c > a is adopted when the goal is to measure the apparent soil resistivity of a reduced ground
volume (see below) while at the opposite, the arrangement with c < a is adopted when the goal is to measure the
apparent soil resistivity of a greater ground volume.

However, the Wenner method or the Schlumberger method with c < a are the most efficient in terms of the ratio of
received voltage per unit of transmitted current. Compared to the Wenner method on equal terms, using the

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Schlumberger method with c > a require more sensitive instruments because the measured resistance is lower, while
with c < a the measure may be easier because the measured resistance is greater.

The Wenner method is more laborious than the Schlumberger method because it requires many time, long measure
cables, large free space, and for big electrodes spacing, one person per electrode is necessary to complete the survey in
a reasonable time.

11.3.1.2 PRACTICAL ADVICE

The soil resistivity measures have not to be affected by existing buried electrodes. Underground conductive objects in
contact with the soil can invalidate readings made by the methods described if they are close enough to alter the test
current flow pattern. This in particular for large or long objects.
For an undisturbed soil, the resistivity measure may be carried out as here explained:
- Some measure locations have to be detected on the site area, according to the size of the earthing grid. As
2
reference, at least a location every 10000 m of site area has to be detected and in any cases, at least two locations
at opposite positions have to be detected on the site area
- Select two measure directions for each measure location (preferably orthogonal e.g. North – South and East – West)
- Select an electrodes spacing set for each measure location and direction. In order to investigate the soil resistivity
structure in a right way with the Wenner method, the proper ratio of ascending order electrodes spacing could be
“1:1.5” approximatively to get dense enough measured points. For example, the electrodes spacing can be set to a =
0.5, 0.7, 1, 1.5, 2.3, 3.5, 5, 7, 10, 15, 23, 35, 50, 70, 100 … m. This electrodes spacing set is important in particular in
order to evaluate soil parameters in case of multilayer models
- It is fundamental to carry out some measures using little electrodes spacing (0,7, 1, and 1.5 m) in order to investigate
the upper layer resistivity that affects the touch and step voltage values
- The maximum electrodes spacing should be set depending on the apparent soil resistivity variations with depth and
on the maximum electrode size. Soil resistivity at depth up to 50% of the electrode size can greatly influence its
performance. In order to evaluate the soil resistivity at a given depth, the electrodes spacing has to be extend up to
several times that depth. So, the maximum electrodes spacing should be at least as the diagonal of the biggest
electrode of the grounding system. The bottom layer resistivity affects the resistance to earth
- Measures using large electrodes spacing are very important if the lower layer is of higher resistivity because in such
cases a considerable error is introduced if an unrealistic value of bottom layer resistivity it is attributable to an
insufficient electrodes spacing. Fortunately, the bottom layer resistivity is normally lower than the top layer ones
- During the measures along a selected direction, the central point of the four pin arrangement has to be kept fixed
- The maximum electrodes depth should be limited to 1/5 of the electrodes spacing for currents probes and to 0.25 m
for voltage probes. It is important to record the length of the buried portion of probes in particular in case of little
electrodes spacing
- In case of very large electrodes spacing, in order to increase the measures current, a cluster or rods arranged
according to a circle may be used
- Depending on the apparent measured resistivity variations with the electrodes spacing, it is possible to choose the
best soil model and calculate its parameters as described in the following
- To obtain a better picture of soil resistivity variations or a local map of the resistivity it is possible to use the “line
traverse technique”. In this method, a series of imaginary parallel lines are draw across the area to be surveyed and
for each line the measures in 3) are made. The line traverse number varies from 2 up to 4 or more for large earthing
grid. A comparison among measures carried on different lines will indicate how the resistivity changes across the site

Some practical testing recommendation:

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- Ensure the instrumentation and set up is adequate (e.g. equipment selection criteria, power levels, interference and
filtering)
- Undertake operational checks for accuracy (e.g. a field calibration check)
- Use a measure frequency different from the electromagnetic interference frequency to exclude the effects of
interference due to leads parallel to power lines or stray currents. If the electromagnetic interference frequency is 50
or 60 Hz or DC (stray current), the use of measure frequency between 70 and 150 Hz (not greater not to change the
measure conditions) is suggested
- If necessary, reduce contact resistance in particular for the current electrodes (use salt water)
- Instruct staff to use finer test spacing in areas showing sharp changes (e.g. identify the effects of local inhomogeneity
and then record more data for interpretation). Plot test results immediately during testing to identify such problems
- It is also important to avoid to make the measure when the soil is frozen (when soil freezes its resistivity can increase
by two order of magnitude)

11.3.1.3 MEASURES CORRECTION

SRA requires the measured values at low frequency. As known, in order to avoid interferences with power systems (at
50 or 60 Hz), instruments for soil resistivity measures use a frequency between 70 and 150 Hz. Usually these measures
can be considered at low frequency and directly used. To be more precise, if a soil parameters frequency dependence
model different to the “independent” is used, the User should bring the measures to zero frequency according to the
model used with formulas in 11.2. The effect of the frequency measure can be neglected up to 100 Hz. Over this
frequency, the effect can be evident in particular in case of soil with an high resistivity value and grows with the
frequency measure.

When electrode spacing “a” is relevant or frequency measures is high or apparent soil resistivity is low, the mutual
inductive coupling between current and voltage measures cables can affect the soil resistivity measures.
This with both Wenner and Schlumberger methods.
The mutual coupling between cables can be calculated using the well known Carson Clem formula:

 0  0  1.8515  e 
z r  jx  j ln (Ω/m)
8 2  d  0 

where:
- r (Ω/m) = real part of the mutual coupling between measures cables
- x (Ω/m) = imaginary part of the mutual coupling between measures cables

- d (m) = average distance between current and voltage cables

The measured voltage is related to the correct value as follows:

Vm  V  r  jxaI

where:

- Vm (V) = measured voltage

- V (V) = corrected voltage

- a (m) = spacing between voltage probes

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The correct value of Wenner and Schlumberger resistance deducted the effect of the induced voltages can be calculated
simply with the following equation:

R  Rm  xa  ra
2 2

where:

- R (Ω) = Wenner or Schlumberger corrected resistance

- Rm (Ω) = Wenner or Schlumberger measured resistance

11.4 TAB FOR SOIL RESISTIVITY MEASURES RECORDING

Use following tab to record the soil resistivity measure values and the most important information about to the measure
conditions.

MEASURES OF SOIL RESISTIVITY

Date (dd/mm/yyyy): ______/______/___________

Site: __________________________________________________________________
Temperature (°C) _______
Soil conditions  dry  wet  other (_______________________________________________)
Instrumentations __________________________________________________________________
Measure frequency (Hz) _______

MEASURED VALUES USING THE WENNER OR SCHLUMBERGER METHODS

Measure location __________________________________________________________________

n Direction a (m) b (m) c (m) R ( )  E (m)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

(use a new tab for each location)

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Signatures __________________________________________________________________

12. TROUBLESHOOTING
Below are the solutions to some common problems encountered by users.
Every paragraph is structured in 3 logical sections: problem, cause, solution. In “Problem” the trouble is shortly
introduced, in “Cause” the cause of the problem is identified and in “Solution” some hints on how to solve it are reported.

12.1 WRONG FONT IN LEGENDS

Problem
The problem is that the font used in the legends has a size that makes the legend unreadable.

Cause
The OS of each computer does not always contain all the fonts and it allows to modify the general size of the fonts.
Because of this, if your computer has a setting that if different from the default one, the graphical outputs and also
XGSLab window could be not the expected one.

Solution
Go to “Control Panel -> Appearance and Personalization -> Fonts”. Check here if “Arial Narrow” font is present. If it is not
add it. If the dimension is still wrong, again from “Control Panel -> Appearance and Personalization -> Fonts”, click on
“Change font size”. There click on “Set a custom scaling level” then “Custom sizing options“ window appears. In it check
that the scale is set at 100%.

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13. MISCELLANEOUS

13.1 TYPICAL LAYOUT DATA

13.1.1 UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS

Underground systems can be for instance:

- Grounding system
- Power line (cable)
- Pipeline

Grounding system
In general, a good grounding system is characterised by a low earth impedance (or resistance) value, which minimises
the GPR.
For large substations or generating power plants, the earth impedance (or resistance) must be about 1 Ω or less.
For small distribution substations, industrial plants and large buildings, the impedance (or resistance) should be lower
than 5 Ω.
For wind towers the earth impedance (or resistance) is usually between 5 and 10 Ω (and must be lower than 10 Ω).
For transmission lines towers the earth impedance (or resistance) is usually between 5 and 50 Ω.
Since communication equipment are generally not designed to withstand more than 5 kV, the GPR must not exceed this
value at fault conditions.
Standards for telecommunication systems require special attention if the GPR is greater than 430, 1000 or 1500 V
depending on the specific installation.

Generally, in the grounding system design it is usual to take into account the following data:
- Typical spacing range between horizontal wire conductors (grid mesh dimension): from 3 to 15 m
- Typical grid depth range: from 0.5 to 1.5 m (this depth grants a sufficient mechanical protection to the electrode but it
is also recommended that the electrode is situated below the frost line)
- Typical wire section range: from 50 mm² to 240 mm² (from AWG #1 = 42.41 mm² and 500 kcmil = 253 mm²)

and the following rules:

- The area of the grounding system is the most important geometrical factor to determine its low frequency impedance:
the larger the area involved by the grounding system, the lower the grid impedance
- The mesh dimension of the grid is the most important geometrical factor to determine its touch voltages: the lower the
mesh dimension, the larger the touch voltages
- The grid depth is among the most important geometrical factors to determine its step voltage: the larger the grid
depth, the lower the step voltage
- In most cases, the diameter of wires and rods has a negligible effect on GPR values and touch and step voltages.
This is not true with very large grid or very low soil resistivity

For this last reason, as first approximation, in most cases is not fundamental to change the selected wire diameter after
the wires thermal sizing.

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In large grounding systems rods may be avoided, but they are frequently added for safety in winter, especially in areas
with a very cold climate (remember that when the ground freezes assumes a very high resistivity). In these cases, rods
may be placed uniformly on the grounding system in order to mitigate the effects of frozen soil conditions in winter.
Rods may be useful in order to reduce the GPR when the grounding systems has to be realized in a small site.

Regarding the material used for wires and rods, it is important to remember the recommendations indicated in Table 13-1
from IEC 62305-3:2010 (Table 5 – LPS materials and conditions of use). Previous table from IEC 1024-1:1990 was
similar but less detailed.

Use Corrosion
May be
Material destroyed by
In Air In Soil In Concrete Resistance Increased by
galvanic
coupling with
Sulphur
Solid Solid
Solid Good in many compounds
Copper Stranded Stranded -
Stranded environments Organic
As coating As coating
materials
Acceptable in
air, in concrete
and in benign
Hot galvanized Solid Solid soil. High chloride
Solid Copper
steel Stranded Stranded May be content
corroded in
clay soil or
moist soil
Steel with
Good in many Sulphur
electrodeposited Solid Solid Solid -
environments compounds
copper
Solid Solid Solid Good in many High chloride
Stainless steel -
Stranded Stranded Stranded environments content
Good in
atmosphere
Solid containing low Alkaline
Aluminium Unsuitable Unsuitable Copper
Stranded concentration solutions
of sulphur and
chloride
Good in
atmosphere
Solid Solid Copper
Lead Unsuitable with high Acid soils
As coating As coating Stainless steel
concentration
of sulphates
Table 13-1: Recommended usage and corrosion properties of some materials

Previous table gives general guidance only. As general rule, stranded conductors are more vulnerable to corrosion than
solid conductors. Stranded conductors are also vulnerable where they enter or exit earth concrete positions.

Power line
Underground cables are used for electric power transmission and distribution and are classified by the range of voltages
as for the overhead lines (13.1.2). The replacement of overhead power lines with underground cables can be performed
for aesthetic or technical purposes (underground cables are less susceptible to lightning, wind and freezing and reduce
the electromagnetic interferences in the surrounding area) but with higher costs.
Underground cables usually are three-phase but in case of long power lines a couple of DC cables can be used.

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The power carried by a cable line depends from the voltage as in the following (data for a single three-phase line):
- 132 – 150 kV: 120 – 130 MVA (500 A)
- 220 kV: 200 MVA (500 A)
- 380 kV: 500 MVA (750 A)

Each cable line may include one or more three-phase line.

The conductors for high voltages cable lines are generally made of aluminium.
Cable lines are generally buried inside a cable trench at a depth in the range 1 - 2 m.
Distance between cables of the same three-phase line is usually in the range 0 – 0.5 m.
Distance between axes of different three-phase cable line is usually in the range 1 – 1.5 m.

Pipeline
Metallic pipeline used to convey fluids present diameters in the range 150 - 1500 mm.
They are made of steel and thickness of the tube (or wall thickness), function of the pressure, is in the range 3 - 20 mm.
Metallic pipeline installation depth is usually in the range 0.5 - 2.5 m (referring to the pipeline axis).
Metallic pipeline are usually protected with a bituminous coating (4 – 8 mm thickness) or, for new installation, with a
polyethylene coating (2 – 4 mm thickness).

13.1.2 OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

Overhead systems can be for instance:

- Power line
- Pipeline

Power line
Overhead power lines are used for electric power transmission and distribution and are classified by the range of
voltages as follows:
- Low voltage: up to 1 kV
- Medium voltage: between 1 and 30 kV
- High voltage: between 30 and 400 kV
- Very high voltage: over 400 kV

Other classification criteria can be adopted.

Low and medium voltages are used for power distribution while high and very high voltages are used for power
transmission. Voltages over 1000 kV has been used in some countries.

Overhead power lines usually are three-phase.

The power carried by a power line depends from the voltage as in the following (data for a single three-phase line):
- 132 – 150 kV: 120 – 130 MVA (500 A)
- 220 kV: 200 MVA (500 A)
- 380 kV: 1000 MVA (1500 A)

Each power line can include one or more three-phase line.

The bare wire conductors for high voltages power lines are generally made of aluminium (either plain or reinforced with
steel). Copper wires are sometime used in medium-voltage distribution.

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Low voltages overhead power lines can be made with overhead cables (insulated).
Starting from high voltage, power lines usually are protected from lightning with one or more overhead earth wire.
Power line can be made with single or bundle conductors.
Bundle conductors include usually 2, 3 or 4 sub conductors for voltages up to 400 kV but also 6 or 8 for voltages greater.
Bundle diameter is usually in the range 300 – 500 mm. To ensure the distance between sub conductors, spacers made
of steel or aluminum are used.

Overhead conductors must remain at safe distance from building, objects, people and vehicles.
Moreover, conductors must remain at safe distance the one to each other.
These distances depend from the power line voltage and are usually given by national standard and determine the main
characteristics of the supports (height, shape and distance).
The following figures represents some examples of supports for power lines.
The supports can be tower lattice (in steel) but also tubular pole (in steel, aluminium, concrete or reinforced plastic).

Figure 13-1: Power lines typical configurations

Overhead conductors takes the form of a catenary between support points. The catenary shape depends from support
point position and catenary constant value (the ratio between the horizontal component of tension and the conductor
weight per unit length).

Pipeline
See 13.1.1.

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13.2 FLOW CHART

The XGSLab general flow chart is shown in the following Figure:

Figure 13-2: XGSLab General Flow Chart

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BIBLIOGRAPHY (PARTIAL)

BOOKS
[ A1 ] E. D. Sunde, Earth Conduction Effects in Transmission Systems, New York, D. Van Nostrand Company Inc.,
1949
[ A2 ] G. F. Tagg, Earth Resistances, London, George Newnes Limited, 1964
[ A3 ] S. Ramo – J.R. Whinnery – T Van Duzer, Fields and Waves in Communication Electronics, New York and
London, Wiley International Edition, 1965
[ A4 ] A. Banos, Dipole radiation in the Presence of a Conducting Half Space, Pergamon Press, 1966
[ A5 ] M. Abramovitz – I.A. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions, New York, Dover Publications Inc. 1970
[ A6 ] Arthur R. von Hippel, ed.: Dielectric Materials and Applications, M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, MA, 1954
[ A7 ] Electro Magnetic Transient Program (EMTP) – Theory Book
[ A8 ] Electromagnetic Compatibility Handbook (CRC Press) – Kenneth L. Kaiser, 2005
[ A9 ] Lightning Protection (IET Power and Energy) - Vernon Cooray, 2009
[ A10 ] Jinlian He, Rong Zeng, Bo Zhang, Methodology and technology for Power System Grounding, Wiley–IEEE
Press, 2013
[ A11 ] A.E Ruehli, G. Antonini, L. Jiang, Circuit Oriented Electromagnetic Modeling Using the PEEC Techniques, Wiley–
IEEE Press, 2017

PUBLICATIONS
[ B1 ] S.A. Skelkunoff, “The electromagnetic theory of coaxial transmission lines and cylindrical shields”, The Bell
System Technical Journal
[ B2 ] R. Andolfato, L. Fellin, R. Turri: "Analysis of earthing grids at power frequency: a comparison between on site test
and numerical simulation results" (in Italian), L'Energia Elettrica, Volume 74, n. 2 marzo-aprile 1997, pagg. 123
134
[ B3 ] I.F. Gonos, I.A. Stathopulos: " Estimation of Multilayer Soil Parameters Using Genetic Algorithms ", IEEE
Transaction on Power Delivery, Vol, 20, no. 1, August 2005
[ B4 ] L. Grcev: "Modelling of Grounding Electrodes Under Lightning Currents", IEEE Transaction on Electromagnetic
Compatibility, Vol, 51, no. 3, August 2009
[ B5 ] L. Grcev: " Lightning Surge Efficiency of Grounding Grids ", IEEE Transaction on Electromagnetic Compatibility,
Vol, 26, no. 3, July 2011
[ B6 ] A. Ametani, N. Nagaoka, Y. Baba: "Application of the Partial Element Equivalent Circuit Method to Analysis of
Transient Potential Rises in Grounding Systems", IEEE Transaction on Electromagnetic Compatibility, Vol, 53, no.
3, August 2011

CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
[ C1 ] R. Andolfato, L. Fellin, R. Turri: "Safety assessment of earthing systems at power frequency", ERA Conference
(Earthing solutions - Standard safety and good practice), Solihull -Birmingham (UK), June 1997
[ C2 ] R. Andolfato, L. Bernardi, L. Fellin: "A Wide Frequency Range Computation Code for Overhead and Buried
Conductor System", IEEE Conference (The 8th International Conference on Harmonics and Quality of Power),
Athens (Greece), October 1998

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[ C3 ] J. Quan, K. Chen, J. Xu, X. Wen, Z. Pan, Q. Yang: "Comparative Study of Different Parameter Inversion
Methods", Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science 2014 Vol I - WCECS 2014,
22-24 October, 2014, San Francisco, USA
[ C4 ] R. Turri, R. Andolfato, D. Cuccarollo: "A Numerical Simulation Tool for Cathodic Protection and Electromagnetic
Interference Analysis", NACE Conference & Expo 2016 (A European event for the Corrosion Prevention of Oil &
Gas industry), Genova (Italy), May 2016
[ C5 ] J. Meppelink, R. Andolfato, D. Cuccarollo: "Calculation of Lightning Effects in the Frequency Domain with a
Program based on Hybrid Methods", CIGRE International Colloquium on Lightning and Power Systems, Bologna
(Italy), June 2016
[ C6 ] N. Raj, R. Andolfato, D. Cuccarollo: " Electromagnetic Interferences between Large Power Systems and Pipelines
th
by using a Multizone Soil Model ", CBIP 9 National Conference on Earthing Systems, New Delhi (India),
September 2016

TECHNICAL STANDARD
[ D1 ] IEEE Std. 81-1983; Guide for measuring earth resistivity, ground impedance, and earth surface potentials of a
ground system
[ D2 ] IEC 1024-1: 1990; Protection of structures against lightning. Part 1 General principles
[ D3 ] IEEE Std. 142-1991; Recommended practice for grounding of industrial and commercial power systems
[ D4 ] CIGRE WG 36-02 1995; Guide on the influence of high voltage AC power systems on metallic pipelines
[ D5 ] CENELEC HD 637 S1 May 1999 “Power installation exceeding 1 kV a.c.”
[ D6 ] IEEE Std. 80-2000; Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding
[ D7 ] IEC 60479-1/2/5: 2005/2007/2007; Effects of current on human beings and livestock
[ D8 ] NACE SP0177 - 2007; Mitigation of Alternating Current and Lightning Effects on Metallic Structures and
Corrosion Control Systems
[ D9 ] IEC 60724: 2008; Short-circuit temperature limits of electric cables with rated voltages of 1 kV (Um = 1.2 kV) and
3 kV (Um = 3.6 kV)
[ D10 ] IEC 60909-3: 2009; “Short-circuit currents in three-phase a.c. systems Part 3: Currents during two separate
simultaneous line-to-earth short circuits and partial short circuit currents flowing through earth”
[ D11] IEC 62305-1: 2010; Protection against lightning - Part 1: General principles
[ D12] IEC 62305-3: 2010; Protection against lightning - Part 3: Physical damage to structures and life hazard
[ D13] EN 61936-1:2010-11; “Power installation exceeding 1 kV a.c. – Part 1: Common rules”
[ D14] EN 50522:2010-11; “Earthing for power installation exceeding 1 kV a.c.”
[ D15] IEEE Std. 80-2013; Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding

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