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Chapter 2

Plate Tectonics:
A Unifying Theory
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Essential Questions to Ask

2.1 Introduction
 Why should you know about plate tectonics?
2.2 Continental Drift
 What were some early ideas about Earth’s past geography?
 What is the continental drift hypothesis and who proposed it?
2.3 Evidence for Continental Drift
 What is the evidence for continental drift?
2.4 Paleomagnetism and Polar Wandering
 What is paleomagnetism?
 What is the Curie point and why is it important?
 How can the apparent wandering of the magnetic poles be best explained?
2.5 Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading
 What evidence is there that Earth’s magnetic field has reversed in the past?
 What is the theory of seafloor spreading, and how does it validate continental drift?
 How was the theory of seafloor spreading confirmed?
2.6 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory
 What are the main tenets of plate tectonic theory?
 Why is plate tectonics a unifying theory of geology?
 What is the supercontinent cycle?
2.7 The Three Types of Plate Boundaries
 What are the three types of plate boundaries?
 What are divergent boundaries?
 What features in the geologic record indicate ancient rifting?
 What are convergent boundaries?
 How can ancient subduction zones be recognized in the geologic record?
 What are transform boundaries?
2.8 Hot Spots: An Intraplate Feature
 What are hot spots and what do they tell us about plate movement?
2.9 Plate Movement and Motion
 How can the rate and direction of plate movement be determined?
2.10 The Driving Mechanism of Plate Tectonics
 What drives plates?
 How do thermal convection cells move plates?
 Can plate movement be gravity driven?
2.11 Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Natural Resources
 How does plate tectonic theory relate to the origin and distribution of natural
resources?
USGS/NASA

 What is the relationship between plate boundaries and various metallic mineral
deposits?

The Himalayas, Southwestern China

Ruby and sapphire veins Geology Matters
spread over white like GEOLOGY IN FOCUS:
fossils of ferns on rock. Oil, Plate Tectonics, and Politics
This satellite image of the
Himalayas reveals an ever-changing GEOLOGY IN UNEXPECTED PLACES:
tapestry of peaks, ridges, A Man’s Home Is His Castle
and rivers woven by Earth
millions of years ago when
GEOLOGY AND CULTURAL CONNECTIONS:
India collided with Asia. The Struggle toward Scientific Progress
—A. W. GEOLOGY AT WORK:
The Geologic Exploration of Mars
This icon, which appears throughout the book, indicates an opportunity to explore
interactive tutorials, animations, or practice problems available on the Physical
GeologyNow website at http://now.brookscole.com/phygeo6.

33
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34 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

have also profoundly influenced the geographic distribu-

2.1 Introduction tion, evolution, and extinction of plants and animals. Fur-
thermore, the formation and distribution of many geologic
Imagine it is the day after Christmas, December 26, 2004, resources, such as metal ores, are related to plate tectonic
and you are vacationing on a beautiful beach in Thailand. processes, so geologists incorporate plate tectonic theory
You look up from the book you’re reading to see the sea sud- into their prospecting efforts.
denly retreat from the shoreline, exposing a vast expanse of
seafloor that had moments before been underwater and  Why should you know about plate tectonics?
teeming with exotic and colorful fish. It is hard to believe If you’re like most people, you probably have no idea or
that within minutes of this unusual event, a powerful only a vague notion of what plate tectonic theory is. Yet
tsunami will sweep over your resort and everything in its plate tectonics affects all of us. Volcanic eruptions, earth-
path for several kilometers inland. Within hours, the coasts quakes, and tsunami are the result of interactions between
of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, Somalia, Myan- plates. Global weather patterns and oceanic currents are
mar, Malaysia, and the Maldives will be inundated by the caused, in part, by the configuration of the continents and
deadliest tsunami in history. More than 220,000 people will ocean basins. The formation and distribution of many nat-
die, and billions of dollars in damage will be wreaked on the ural resources are related to plate movement and thus have
region. an impact on the economic well-being and political deci-
One year earlier, on December 26, 2003, violent shaking sions of nations. It is therefore important to understand this
from an earthquake awakened hundreds of thousands of unifying theory, not only because it affects us as individuals
people in the Bam area of southeastern Iran. When the and as citizens of nation-states but also because it ties to-
magnitude-6.6 earthquake was over, an estimated 43,000 gether many aspects of the geology you will be studying.
people were dead, at least 30,000 were injured, and approx-
imately 75,000 survivors were left homeless. At least 85% of
the structures in the Bam area were destroyed or damaged. Section 2.1 Summary
Collapsed buildings were everywhere, streets were strewn
with rubble, and all communications were knocked out. ● Plate tectonic theory is the unifying theory of geology.
Now go back another 121⁄2 years to June 15, 1991, when It affects all of us because it explains where and why such
Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines erupted violently, dis- natural disasters as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
charging huge quantities of ash and gases into the atmos- tsunami occur as well as the formation and distribution of
phere. Fortunately, in this case, warnings of an impending many economically valuable natural resources.
eruption were broadcast and heeded, resulting in the evacu-
ation of 200,000 people from areas around the volcano. Un-
fortunately, the eruption still caused at least 364 deaths not
only from the eruption but also from ensuing mudflows. 2.2 Continental Drift
What do these three recent tragic events have in common?
They are part of the dynamic interactions involving Earth’s  What were some early ideas about Earth’s past
plates. When two plates come together, one plate is pushed geography?
or pulled under the other plate, triggering large earthquakes The idea that Earth’s past geography was different from to-
such as the one that shook India in 2001, Iran in 2003, and day is not new. The earliest maps showing the east coast of
Pakistan in 2005. If conditions are right, earthquakes can pro- South America and the west coast of Africa probably pro-
duce a tsunami such as the one in 2004 or the 1998 Papua vided people with the first evidence that continents may
New Guinea tsunami that killed more than 2200 people. have once been joined together, then broken apart and
As the descending plate moves downward and is assimi- moved to their present locations.
lated into Earth’s interior, magma is generated. Being less During the late 19th century, the Austrian geologist
dense than the surrounding material, the magma rises to- Edward Suess noted the similarities between the Late
ward the surface, where it may erupt as a volcano such as Paleozoic plant fossils of India, Australia, South Africa,
Mount Pinatubo did in 1991 and others have since. It there- and South America as well as evidence of glaciation in the
fore should not be surprising that the distribution of volca- rock sequences of these southern continents. The plant
noes and earthquakes closely follows plate boundaries. fossils make up a unique flora in the coal layers just above
As we stated in Chapter 1, plate tectonic theory has had the glacial deposits of these southern continents. This
significant and far-reaching consequences in all fields of ge- flora is very different from the contemporaneous coal
ology because it provides the basis for relating many seem- swamp flora of the northern continents and is collectively
ingly unrelated phenomena. The interactions between mov- known as the Glossopteris flora, after its most conspicuous
ing plates determine the locations of continents, ocean genus ( Figure 2.1).
basins, and mountain systems, which in turn affect atmos- In his book, The Face of the Earth, published in 1885,
pheric and oceanic circulation patterns that ultimately de- Suess proposed the name Gondwanaland (or Gondwana as
termine global climate (see Table 1.3). Plate movements we will use here) for a supercontinent composed of the
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2.2 Continental Drift 35

 Figure 2.1 Fossil Glossopteris Leaves Plant fossils, such as continents that eventually broke apart and migrated toward
these Glossopteris leaves from the Upper Permian Dunedoo Formation the equator after Earth’s rotation was supposedly slowed
in Australia, are found on all five Gondwana continents. The presence by gigantic tidal forces. According to Taylor, these tidal
of these fossil plants on continents with widely varying climates
today is evidence that the continents were at one time connected. forces were generated when Earth captured the Moon
The distribution of the plants at that time was in the same climatic about 100 million years ago.
latitudinal belt. Although we now know that Taylor’s mechanism is in-

Courtesy of Patricia G. Gensel, University of North Carolina

correct, one of his most significant contributions was his
suggestion that the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, discovered by the
1872–1876 British HMS Challenger expeditions, might
mark the site along which an ancient continent broke apart
to form the present-day Atlantic Ocean.

 What is the continental drift hypothesis

and who proposed it?
Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist ( Figure 2.2), is
generally credited with developing the hypothesis of conti-
nental drift. In his monumental book, The Origin of Conti-
nents and Oceans (first published in 1915), Wegener pro-
posed that all landmasses were originally united in a single
aforementioned southern continents. Abundant fossils of supercontinent that he named Pangaea, from the Greek
the Glossopteris flora are found in coal beds in Gondwana, meaning “all land.” Wegener portrayed his grand concept of
a province in India. Suess thought these southern conti- continental movement in a series of maps showing the
nents were at one time connected by land bridges over breakup of Pangaea and the movement of the various conti-
which plants and animals migrated. Thus, in his view, the nents to their present-day locations. Wegener amassed a
similarities of fossils on these continents were due to the tremendous amount of geologic, paleontologic, and clima-
appearance and disappearance of the connecting land tologic evidence in support of continental drift, but the ini-
bridges. tial reaction of scientists to his then-heretical ideas can best
The American geologist Frank Taylor published a pam- be described as mixed.
phlet in 1910 presenting his own theory of continental Opposition to Wegener’s ideas became particularly wide-
drift. He explained the formation of mountain ranges as a spread in North America after 1928, when the American
result of the lateral movement of continents. He also envi- Association of Petroleum Geologists held an international
sioned the present-day continents as parts of larger polar symposium to review the hypothesis of continental drift.
After each side had presented its
arguments, the opponents of con-
 Figure 2.2 Alfred Wegener Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist, proposed the tinental drift were clearly in the
continental drift hypothesis in 1912 based on a tremendous amount of geologic, paleontologic,
and climatologic evidence. He is shown here waiting out the Arctic winter in an expedition hut in
majority, even though the evidence
Greenland. in support of continental drift, most
of which came from the Southern
Hemisphere, was impressive and dif-
ficult to refute. The main problem
with the hypothesis was its lack of a
mechanism to explain how conti-
nents, composed of granitic rocks,
could seemingly move through the
denser basaltic oceanic crust.
Nevertheless, the eminent South
African geologist Alexander du Toit
further developed Wegener’s argu-
ments and gathered more geologic
and paleontologic evidence in sup-
port of continental drift. In 1937 du
Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulterbestiz

Toit published Our Wandering Conti-

nents, in which he contrasted the
glacial deposits of Gondwana with
coal deposits of the same age found
in the continents of the Northern
Hemisphere. To resolve this apparent
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36 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

climatologic paradox, du Toit moved the Gondwana conti-  Figure 2.3 Continental Fit When continents are placed together
nents to the South Pole and brought the northern continents based on their outlines, the best fit isn’t along their present-day
together such that the coal deposits were located at the equa- coastlines, but rather along the continental slope at a depth of about
2000 m. Why is this? Because the coastlines are continuously
tor. He named this northern landmass Laurasia. It consisted being modified by erosional and depositional processes, and thus
of present-day North America, Greenland, Europe, and Asia one would not expect them to be the same today as they were at any
(except for India). time in the geologic past.
Despite what seemed to be overwhelming evidence, most
geologists still refused to accept the idea that the continents
moved. Not until the 1960s, when oceanographic research
Greenland
provided convincing evidence that the continents had once
been joined together and subsequently separated, did the hy-
Eurasia
pothesis of continental drift finally become widely accepted.

Section 2.2 Summary

North
● The idea that continents have moved in the past is not America Africa
new and probably goes back to the first maps, in which
one could see that the east coast of South America looks South
like it fits into the west coast of Africa. America
India
● The continental drift hypothesis was first articulated
by Alfred Wegener in 1912. He proposed that a single
Antarctica
supercontinent, Pangaea, consisting of a northern land-
mass (later named Laurasia) and a southern landmass lia
s tra
(previously named Gondwana), broke apart into what Au
would become Earth’s current continents, which then
moved across Earth’s surface to their present locations.

continuously being modified. So, even if the continents had

2.3 Evidence for Continental separated during the Mesozoic Era, as Wegener proposed,
it is not likely that the coastlines would fit exactly.
Drift A more realistic approach is to fit the continents together
along the continental slope, where erosion would be mini-
 What is the evidence for continental drift? mal. In 1965 Sir Edward Bullard, an English geophysicist,
What, then, was the evidence Wegener, du Toit, and others and two associates showed that the best fit between the con-
used to support the hypothesis of continental drift? It in- tinents occurs at a depth of about 2000 m ( Figure 2.3).
cludes the fit of the shorelines of continents, the appearance Since then, other reconstructions using the latest ocean
of the same rock sequences and mountain ranges of the basin data have confirmed the close fit between continents
same age on continents now widely separated, the matching when they are reassembled to form Pangaea.
of glacial deposits and paleoclimatic zones, and the similar-
ities of many extinct plant and animal groups whose fossil
remains are found today on widely separated continents. Similarity of Rock Sequences
Wegener and his supporters argued that this vast amount of and Mountain Ranges
evidence from a variety of sources surely indicated that the If the continents were at one time joined, then the rocks and
continents must have been close together in the past. mountain ranges of the same age in adjoining locations on
the opposite continents should closely match. Such is the
case for the Gondwana continents ( Figure 2.4). Marine,
Continental Fit nonmarine, and glacial rock sequences of Pennsylvanian to
Wegener, like some before him, was impressed by the close Jurassic age are almost identical on all five Gondwana conti-
resemblance between the coastlines of continents on oppo- nents, strongly indicating that they were joined at one time.
site sides of the Atlantic Ocean, particularly South America The trends of several major mountain ranges also support
and Africa. He cited these similarities as partial evidence the hypothesis of continental drift. These mountain ranges
that the continents were at one time joined together as a su- seemingly end at the coastline of one continent only to ap-
percontinent that subsequently split apart. As his critics parently continue on another continent across the ocean.
pointed out, though, the configuration of coastlines results The folded Appalachian Mountains of North America, for
from erosional and depositional processes and therefore is example, trend northeastward through the eastern United
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2.3 Evidence for Continental Drift 37

 Figure 2.4 Similarity of Rock Sequences on the Gondwana Continents Sequences of marine, nonmarine, and glacial rocks of Pennsylvan-
ian (UC) to Jurassic (JR) age are nearly the same on all five Gondwana continents (South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica). These
continents are widely separated today and have different environments and climates ranging from tropical to polar. Thus the rocks forming on each
continent are very different. When the continents were all joined together in the past, however, the environments of adjacent continents were
similar and the rocks forming in those areas were similar. The range indicated by G in each column is the age range (Carboniferous–Permian) of
the Glossopteris flora.

JR
TR
P
G
C JR

D JR TR
TR P JR
G
JR P UC TR
G
UC
TR P
G
UC
P G
C

Sandstone Basalt Coal beds Glacial Crystalline

lava flows deposits basement rocks

JR TR P UC C D
Jurassic Triassic Permian Pennsylvanian Carboniferous Devonian
(Mississippian and
Pennsylvanian)

States and Canada and terminate abruptly at the Newfound- cate that the Northern Hemisphere had a tropical climate
land coastline. Mountain ranges of the same age and defor- during the time the Southern Hemisphere was glaciated.
mational style are found in eastern Greenland, Ireland, All the Gondwana continents except Antarctica are cur-
Great Britain, and Norway. In fact, the same red sandstones rently located near the equator in subtropical to tropical cli-
used in the construction of many English and Scottish castles mates. Mapping of glacial striations in bedrock in Australia,
are used in various buildings throughout New York. So, even India, and South America indicates that the glaciers moved
though the Appalachian Mountains and their equivalent-age from the areas of the present-day oceans onto land. This
mountain ranges in Great Britain are currently separated by would be highly unlikely because large continental glaciers
the Atlantic Ocean, they form an essentially continuous (such as occurred on the Gondwana continents during the
mountain range when the continents are positioned next to Late Paleozoic Era) flow outward from their central area of
each other as they were during the Paleozoic Era. accumulation toward the sea.
If the continents did not move during the past, one would
have to explain how glaciers moved from the oceans onto
Glacial Evidence land and how large-scale continental glaciers formed near
During the Late Paleozoic Era, massive glaciers covered the equator. But if the continents are reassembled as a sin-
large continental areas of the Southern Hemisphere. Evi- gle landmass with South Africa located at the South Pole,
dence for this glaciation includes layers of till (sediments the direction of movement of Late Paleozoic continental
deposited by glaciers) and striations (scratch marks) in the glaciers makes sense ( Figure 2.5). Furthermore, this geo-
bedrock beneath the till. Fossils and sedimentary rocks of graphic arrangement places the northern continents nearer
the same age from the Northern Hemisphere, however, give the tropics, which is consistent with the fossil and climato-
no indication of glaciation. Fossil plants found in coals indi- logic evidence from Laurasia.
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38 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

 Geo-focus Figure 2.5 Glacial Evidence Indicating Continental Drift

Africa
South America

South
Pole
India

Antarctica

Courtesy of Scott Katz

Australia

a When the Gondwana continents are placed together so that b Glacial striations (scratch marks) on an outcrop of Permian-age
South Africa is located at the South Pole, the glacial movements bedrock exposed at Hallet’s Cove, Australia, indicate the general
indicated by striations (red arrows) found on rock outcrops on direction of glacial movement more than 200 million years ago. As
each continent make sense. In this situation, the glacier (white a glacier moves over a continent’s surface, it grinds and scratches
area) is located in a polar climate and has moved radially outward the underlying rock. The scratch marks that are preserved on a
from its thick central area toward its periphery. rock’s surface (glacial striations) thus provide evidence of the
direction (red arrows) the glacier moved at that time.

Fossil Evidence pletely different, it is hard to imagine how a freshwater rep-

Some of the most compelling evidence for continental drift tile could have swum across the Atlantic Ocean and found a
comes from the fossil record. Fossils of the Glossopteris flora freshwater environment nearly identical to its former habi-
are found in equivalent Pennsylvanian- and Permian-aged tat. Moreover, if Mesosaurus could have swum across the
coal deposits on all five Gondwana continents. The Glos- ocean, its fossil remains should be widely dispersed. It is
sopteris flora is characterized by the seed fern Glossopteris more logical to assume that Mesosaurus lived in lakes in what
( Figure 2.1) as well as by many other distinctive and easily are now adjacent areas of South America and Africa but
identifiable plants. Pollen and spores of plants can be dis- were then united into a single continent.
persed over great distances by wind, but Glossopteris-type Lystrosaurus and Cynognathus are both land-dwelling rep-
plants produced seeds that are too large to have been carried tiles that lived during the Triassic Period; their fossils are
by winds. Even if the seeds had floated across the ocean, found only on the present-day continental fragments of
they probably would not have remained viable for any Gondwana ( Figure 2.6). Because they are both land ani-
length of time in saltwater. mals, they certainly could not have swum across the oceans
The present-day climates of South America, Africa, In- currently separating the Gondwana continents. Therefore,
dia, Australia, and Antarctica range from tropical to polar it is logical to assume that the continents must once have
and are much too diverse to support the type of plants in the been connected. Recent discoveries of dinosaur fossils in
Glossopteris flora. Wegener therefore reasoned that these Gondwana continents further solidifies the argument that
continents must once have been joined so that these widely these landmasses were close to each other during the Early
separated localities were all in the same latitudinal climatic Mesozoic Era.
belt ( Figure 2.6). Notwithstanding all of the empirical evidence presented
The fossil remains of animals also provide strong evi- by Wegener and later by du Toit and others, most geologists
dence for continental drift. One of the best examples is simply refused to entertain the idea that continents might
Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile whose fossils are found in have moved during the past. The geologists were not neces-
Permian-aged rocks in certain regions of Brazil and South sarily being obstinate about accepting new ideas; rather, they
Africa and nowhere else in the world ( Figure 2.6). Because found the evidence for continental drift inadequate and un-
the physiologies of freshwater and marine animals are com- convincing. In part, this was because no one could provide a
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2.3 Evidence for Continental Drift 39

 Figure 2.6 Fossil Evidence Supporting Continental Drift Some of the plants and animals whose fossils are found today on the widely sepa-
rated continents of South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica. During the Late Paleozoic Era, these continents were joined together to
form Gondwana, the southern landmass of Pangaea. Plants of the Glossopteris flora are found on all five continents, which today have widely differ-
ent climates, but during the Pennsylvanian and Permian periods, they were all located in the same general climatic belt. Mesosaurus is a freshwater
reptile whose fossils are found only in similar nonmarine Permian-age rocks in Brazil and South Africa. Cynognathus and Lystrosaurus are land rep-
tiles that lived during the Early Triassic Period. Fossils of Cynognathus are found in South America and Africa, whereas fossils of Lystrosaurus have
been recovered from Africa, India, and Antarctica. It is hard to imagine how a freshwater reptile and land-dwelling reptiles could have swum across
the wide oceans that presently separate these continents. It is more logical to assume that the continents were at one time connected.

Africa

Cynognathus
Cynognathus Lystrosaurus
Mesosaurus
Glossopteris
Lystrosaurus India
Glossopteris
South America
Glossopteris
Australia
Cynognathus Mesosaurus
Lystrosaurus
Glossopteris
Glossopteris
Glossopteris
Antarctica
Mesosaurus

Glossopteris

Lystrosaurus

suitable mechanism to explain how continents could move ● Marine, nonmarine, and glacial rock sequences of
over Earth’s surface. Interest in continental drift waned until Pennsylvanian to Jurassic age are nearly identical on the
new evidence from oceanographic research and studies of five Gondwana continents, suggesting that these conti-
Earth’s magnetic field showed that the present-day ocean nents were joined together during this time interval.
basins were not as old as the continents but were geologically
● Glacial deposits and striations indicate that massive
young features that resulted from the breakup of Pangaea.
glaciers covered large areas of the Gondwana continents
during the Late Paleozoic Era. Placing these continents
Section 2.3 Summary together with South Africa located at the South Pole
shows that the glaciers moved in a radial pattern from a
● The evidence for continental drift is impressive. It in- thick central area toward their periphery, as would be ex-
cludes the fact that the continents show a close fit along pected in such a configuration.
the continental slope at a depth of about 2000 m.
● The distribution of plant and animal fossils also pro-
● Furthermore, several major mountain ranges that cur- vides strong evidence for continental drift because it is
rently end at the coastline form a continuous range when hard to imagine land animals being able to swim across
the present-day continents are assembled into a single the Atlantic Ocean and the same plants occupying tropi-
landmass. cal, moderate, and polar environments.
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40 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

orientation and strength of Earth’s magnetic field at the

2.4 Paleomagnetism time the lava flow cooled.
and Polar Wandering  How can the apparent wandering of the magnetic
poles be best explained?
 What is paleomagnetism? As paleomagnetic research progressed during the 1950s,
Interest in continental drift revived during the 1950s as a some unexpected results emerged. When geologists mea-
result of evidence from paleomagnetic studies, a relatively sured the paleomagnetism of geologically recent rocks,
new discipline at the time. Paleomagnetism is the rema- they found it was generally consistent with Earth’s current
nent magnetism in ancient rocks recording the direction magnetic field. The paleomagnetism of ancient rocks,
and intensity of Earth’s magnetic field at the time of the though, showed different orientations. For example, pale-
rock’s formation. Earth can be thought of as a giant dipole omagnetic studies of Silurian lava flows in North America
magnet in which the magnetic poles essentially coincide indicated that the north magnetic pole was located in the
with the geographic poles ( Figure 2.7). This arrange- western Pacific Ocean at that time, whereas the paleo-
ment means that the strength of the magnetic field is not magnetic evidence from Permian lava flows pointed to yet
constant but varies, being weakest at the equator and another location in Asia. When plotted on a map, the
strongest at the poles. Earth’s magnetic field is thought to paleomagnetic readings of numerous lava flows from all
result from the different rotation speeds of the outer core ages in North America trace the apparent movement of
and mantle. the magnetic pole (called polar wandering) through time
( Figure 2.8). This paleomagnetic evidence from a single
 What is the Curie point and why is it important? continent could be interpreted in three ways: The conti-
When magma cools, the magnetic iron-bearing minerals nent remained fixed and the north magnetic pole moved;
align themselves with Earth’s magnetic field, recording both the north magnetic pole stood still and the continent
its direction and its strength. The temperature at which moved; or both the continent and the north magnetic pole
iron-bearing minerals gain their magnetization is called the moved.
Curie point. As long as the rock is not subsequently heated Upon additional analysis, magnetic minerals from Euro-
above the Curie point, it will preserve that remanent mag- pean Silurian and Permian lava flows pointed to a different
netism. Thus an ancient lava flow provides a record of the magnetic pole location from those of the same age in North

 Figure 2.7 Earth’s Magnetic Field

Geographic north pole Magnetic north pole Geographic

north pole
Lines of
Magnetic magnetic force
north pole

Magnetic
Geographic equator
equator
Magnetic Geographic
equator equator

Dip needle

b The strength of the magnetic field changes from the magnetic

equator to the magnetic poles. This change in strength causes a
dip needle (a magnetic needle that is balanced on the tip of a
support so that it can freely move vertically) to be parallel to
a Earth’s magnetic field has lines of force like those of a bar magnet. Earth’s surface only at the magnetic equator, where the strength
of the magnetic north and south poles are equally balanced. Its
inclination or dip with respect to Earth’s surface increases as it
moves toward the magnetic poles, until it is at 90 degrees or
perpendicular to Earth’s surface at the magnetic poles.
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2.5 Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading 41

 Figure 2.8 Polar Wandering The apparent paths of polar wan-

dering for North America and Europe. The apparent location of the
field is thought to result from the different rotation
north magnetic pole is shown for different time periods on each con- speeds of the outer core and mantle. Earth’s magnetic
tinent’s polar wandering path. If the continents have not moved poles closely coincide with its geographic poles.
through time, and because Earth has only one magnetic pole, the
paleomagnetic readings for the same time in the past taken on differ- ● The Curie point is the temperature at which iron-
ent continents should all point to the same location. However, the
north magnetic pole has different locations for the same time in the
bearing minerals gain their magnetism and align them-
past when measured on different continents, indicating multiple north selves with Earth’s magnetic field.
magnetic poles. The logical explanation for this dilemma is that the
magnetic north pole has remained at the same approximate geo- ● Polar wandering is the apparent movement of the
graphic location during the past, and the continents have moved. magnetic poles through time. The best explanation for
N such apparent movement is that the magnetic poles have
Cretaceous remained near their present polar locations and the con-
Triassic tinents have moved.
Permian

60°
Devonian N

Silurian 2.5 Magnetic Reversals

Cambrian
Path of
30°
N and Seafloor Spreading
North American
paleomagnetic  What evidence is there that Earth’s magnetic field
pole
Path of has reversed in the past?
European
paleomagnetic Geologists refer to Earth’s present magnetic field as being
Equ pole normal—that is, with the north and south magnetic poles
ator
located approximately at the north and south geographic
poles. At various times in the geologic past, however, Earth’s
30° magnetic field has completely reversed. The existence of
S
such magnetic reversals was discovered by dating and de-
termining the orientation of the remanent magnetism in
S lava flows on land ( Figure 2.9).
Once magnetic reversals were well established for conti-
nental lava flows, magnetic reversals were also discovered in
igneous rocks in the oceanic crust as part of the large scale
America ( Figure 2.8). Furthermore, analysis of lava flows mapping of the ocean basins during the 1960s. Although the
from all continents indicated that each continent seem- cause of magnetic reversals is still uncertain, their occur-
ingly had its own series of magnetic poles. Does this really rence in the geologic record is well documented.
mean there were different north magnetic poles for each
continent? That would be highly unlikely and difficult to  What is the theory of seafloor spreading, and how
reconcile with the theory accounting for Earth’s magnetic does it validate continental drift?
field.
A renewed interest in oceanographic research led to extensive
The best explanation for such data is that the magnetic
mapping of the ocean basins during the 1960s. Such map-
poles have remained near their present locations at the geo-
ping revealed an oceanic ridge system more than 65,000 km
graphic north and south poles and the continents have
long, constituting the most extensive mountain range in the
moved. When the continental margins are fitted together so
world. Perhaps the best-known part of the ridge system is
that the paleomagnetic data point to only one magnetic
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which divides the Atlantic Ocean
pole, we find, just as Wegener did, that the rock sequences
basin into two nearly equal parts ( Figure 2.10).
and glacial deposits match and that the fossil evidence is
As a result of the oceanographic research conducted
consistent with the reconstructed paleogeography.
during the 1950s, Harry Hess of Princeton University
proposed the theory of seafloor spreading in 1962 to
Section 2.4 Summary account for continental movement. He suggested that
continents do not move across oceanic crust, but rather
● Paleomagnetism is the remanent magnetism in ancient the continents and oceanic crust move together. Thus the
rocks recording the direction and intensity of Earth’s theory of seafloor spreading answered a major objection
magnetic field at the time of the rock’s formation. of the opponents of continental drift—namely, how could
● Earth’s magnetic field is not constant. Being strongest continents move through oceanic crust? In fact, the con-
at the poles and weakest at the equator, Earth’s magnetic tinents moved with the oceanic crust as part of a litho-
spheric system.
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42 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

 Geo-focus Figure 2.9 Magnetic Reversals During the time period shown (a–d), volcanic eruptions produced a succession
of overlapping lava flows. At the time of these volcanic eruptions, Earth’s magnetic field completely reversed; that is, the magnetic north pole moved to
the geographic south pole, and the magnetic south pole moved to the geographic north pole. Thus the end of the needle on a magnetic compass that
today would point to the North Pole would point to the South Pole if the magnetic field should again suddenly reverse. We know that Earth’s magnetic
field has reversed numerous times in the past because when lava flows cool below the Curie point, magnetic minerals within the flow orient themselves
parallel to the magnetic field at the time. They thus record whether the magnetic field was normal or reversed at that time. The white arrows in this
diagram show the direction of the north magnetic pole for each individual lava flow, thus confirming that Earth’s magnetic field has reversed in the past.

South magnetic North magnetic

pole (normal pole (normal
position) position)

North magnetic South magnetic

pole (reversed) pole (reversed)

South magnetic North magnetic

pole (normal) pole (normal)

North magnetic South magnetic

pole (reversed) pole (reversed)

Hess postulated that the seafloor separates at oceanic As a mechanism to drive this system, Hess revived the
ridges, where new crust is formed by upwelling magma. As idea (proposed in the 1930s and 1940s by Arthur Holmes
the magma cools, the newly formed oceanic crust moves lat- and others) of thermal convection cells in the mantle; that
erally away from the ridge. is, hot magma rises from the mantle, intrudes along frac-
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2.5 Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading 43

 Figure 2.10 Topography of the Atlantic Ocean Basin Artistic view of what the Atlantic Ocean basin
would look like without water. The major feature is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, an oceanic ridge system that is
longer than 65,000 km and divides the Atlantic Ocean basin in half. It is along such oceanic ridges that
the seafloor is separating and new oceanic crust is forming from upwelling magma in Earth’s interior.

ALCOA
tures defining oceanic ridges, and thus forms new crust. The seafloor spreading theory also confirms that ocean
Cold crust is subducted back into the mantle at oceanic basins are geologically young features whose openings and
trenches, where it is heated and recycled, thus completing a closings are partially responsible for continental movement
thermal convection cell (see Figure 1.10). ( Figure 2.12). Radiometric dating reveals that the oldest
oceanic crust is somewhat less than 180 million years old,
Paleomagnetic Data whereas the oldest continental crust is 3.96 billion years old.
Although geologists do not universally accept the idea of
 How was the theory of seafloor spreading
thermal convection cells as a driving mechanism for plate
confirmed?
movement, most accept that plates are created at oceanic
Magnetic surveys of the oceanic crust revealed striped mag- ridges and destroyed at deep-sea trenches, regardless of the
netic anomalies (deviations from the average strength of driving mechanism involved.
Earth’s magnetic field) in the rocks that are both parallel to
and symmetric around the oceanic ridges ( Figure 2.11).
Furthermore, the pattern of oceanic magnetic anomalies Deep-Sea Drilling Project Results
matches the pattern of magnetic reversals already known For many geologists, the paleomagnetic data amassed in
from studies of continental lava flows ( Figure 2.9). When support of continental drift and seafloor spreading were
magma wells up and cools along a ridge summit, it records convincing. Results from the Deep-Sea Drilling Project (see
Earth’s magnetic field at that time as either normal or re- Chapter 12) confirmed the interpretations made from ear-
versed. As new crust forms at the summit, the previously lier paleomagnetic studies. Cores of deep-sea sediments and
formed crust moves laterally away from the ridge. These seismic profiles obtained by the Glomar Challenger and other
magnetic stripes represent times of normal and reversed research vessels have provided much of the data that support
polarity at oceanic ridges (where upwelling magma forms the seafloor spreading theory.
new oceanic crust), conclusively confirming Hess’s theory of According to this theory, oceanic crust is continuously
seafloor spreading. forming at mid-oceanic ridges, moves away from these
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44 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

 Active Figure 2.11 Magnetic Anomalies and Seafloor Spreading The sequence of magnetic anomalies preserved
within the oceanic crust is both parallel to and symmetric around oceanic ridges. Basaltic lava intruding into an oceanic ridge today and spreading
laterally away from the ridge records Earth’s current magnetic field or polarity (considered by convention to be normal). Basaltic intrusions 3, 9, and
15 million years ago record Earth’s reversed magnetic field at that time. This schematic diagram shows how the solidified basalt moves away from
the oceanic ridge (or spreading center), carrying with it the magnetic anomalies that are preserved in the oceanic crust. Magnetic anomalies are
magnetic readings that are either higher (positive magnetic anomalies) or lower (negative magnetic anomalies) than Earth’s current magnetic field
strength. The magnetic anomalies are recorded by a magnetometer, which measures the strength of the magnetic field. Modified from Kious and
Tilling, USGS and Hyndman & Hyndman Natural Hazards and Disasters, Brooks/Cole, 2006, p. 15, Fig. 2.6b.

Midocean ridge

Reversed magnetic 15 mya

polarity
9 mya
Normal magnetic
polarity

3 mya

Present
Lithosphere Magma

Positive magnetic Negative magnetic

anomaly anomaly

+ + Magnetic profile
as recorded by a
– – magnetometer

ridges by seafloor spreading, and is consumed at subduction areas where new crust is continuously produced by vol-
zones. If this is the case, then oceanic crust should be canism and seafloor spreading. Accordingly, sediments
youngest at the ridges and become progressively older with have had little time to accumulate at or very close to
increasing distance away from them. Moreover, the age of spreading ridges where the oceanic crust is young, but
the oceanic crust should be symmetrically distributed about their thickness increases with distance away from the
the ridges. As we have just noted, paleomagnetic data con- ridges ( Figure 2.13).
firm these statements. Furthermore, fossils from sediments
overlying the oceanic crust and radiometric dating of rocks
found on oceanic islands both substantiate this predicted Section 2.5 Summary
age distribution.
Sediments in the open ocean accumulate, on average, at ● According to the theory of seafloor spreading, seafloor
a rate of less than 0.3 cm in 1000 years. If the ocean basins separates at oceanic ridges where new crust is formed by
were as old as the continents, we would expect deep-sea upwelling magma generated by thermal convection cells
sediments to be several kilometers thick. However, data within the mantle. As the magma cools, the newly formed
from numerous drill holes indicate that deep-sea sedi- oceanic crust moves laterally away from the ridge.
ments are at most only a few hundred meters thick and are ● Earth’s magnetic field has periodically reversed during
thin or absent at oceanic ridges. Their near-absence at the the past.
ridges should come as no surprise because these are the
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2.5 Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading 45

 Figure 2.12 Age of the World’s Ocean Basins The age of the world’s ocean basins have
been determined from magnetic anomalies preserved in oceanic crust. The red colors adjacent
to the oceanic ridges are the youngest oceanic crust. Moving laterally away from the ridges,
the red colors grade to yellow at 48 million years, to green at 68 million years ago, and to dark
blue some 155 million years ago. The darkest blue color is adjacent to the continental margins
and is just somewhat less than 180 million years old. How does the age of the oceanic
crust confirm the seafloor spreading theory? Based on magnetic anomalies, the age of the
oceanic crust gets progressively older away from the oceanic ridges where it is being formed.
This means it is moving away from the oceanic ridges; that is, the seafloor is spreading.

NOAA-NGDC
 Figure 2.13 Deep-Sea Sediments and Seafloor Spreading The total thickness of deep-sea sediments increases away from oceanic ridges.
This is because oceanic crust becomes older away from oceanic ridges, and there has been more time for sediment to accumulate.

Deep-sea sediments Mid-ocean ridge

Ocean lithosphere

Asthenosphere Magma
Subduction

● Magnetic anomalies in oceanic crust, which are paral- ● Cores of deep-sea sediments also confirm the theory of
lel to and symmetric around oceanic ridges, match the seafloor spreading in that the sediments directly overly-
pattern of magnetic reversals seen in continental lava ing the oceanic crust get older with increasing distance
flows, thus confirming that new oceanic crust is forming from oceanic ridges, and the sediments become thicker
along oceanic ridges and moving the seafloor laterally moving away from the ridge.
away from them.
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46 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

2.6 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying sist of continental and oceanic crust, which have different
densities; only oceanic crust, because it is denser than con-
Theory tinental crust, is subducted into Earth’s interior.

 What are the main tenets of plate tectonic theory?  Why is plate tectonics a unifying theory of geology?
Plate tectonic theory is based on a simple model of Earth. The Most geologists accept plate tectonic theory, in part because
rigid lithosphere, composed of both oceanic and continental the evidence for it is overwhelming and it ties together
crust as well as the underlying upper mantle, consists of many many seemingly unrelated geologic features and events and
variable-sized pieces called plates ( Figure 2.14). The plates shows how they are interrelated. Consequently, geologists
vary in thickness; those composed of upper mantle and conti- now view such geologic processes as mountain building,
nental crust are as much as 250 km thick, whereas those of up- earthquake activity, and volcanism from the perspective of
per mantle and oceanic crust are up to 100 km thick. plate tectonics. Furthermore, because all the inner planets
The lithosphere overlies the hotter and weaker semiplas- have had a similar origin and early history, geologists are in-
tic asthenosphere. It is thought that movement resulting terested in determining whether plate tectonics is unique to
from some type of heat-transfer system within the asthenos- Earth or whether it operates in the same way on other plan-
phere causes the overlying plates to move. As plates move ets (see “Tectonics of the Terrestrial Planets” on pp. 50–51).
over the asthenosphere, they separate, mostly at oceanic
ridges; in other areas, such as at oceanic trenches, they col-  What is the supercontinent cycle?
lide and are subducted back into the mantle. As a result of plate movement, all of the continents came to-
An easy way to visualize plate movement is to think of a gether to form the supercontinent Pangaea by the end of the
conveyor belt moving luggage from an airplane’s cargo hold Paleozoic Era. Pangaea began fragmenting during the Tri-
to a baggage cart. The conveyor belt represents convection assic Period and continues to do so, thus accounting for the
currents within the mantle, and the luggage represents present distribution of continents and ocean basins. It has
Earth’s lithospheric plates. The luggage is moved along by been proposed that supercontinents, consisting of all or
the conveyor belt until it is dumped into the baggage cart in most of Earth’s landmasses, form, break up, and re-form in
the same way plates are moved by convection cells until they a cycle spanning about 500 million years.
are subducted into Earth’s interior. Although this analogy The supercontinent cycle hypothesis is an expansion on the
allows you to visualize how the mechanism of plate move- ideas of the Canadian geologist J. Tuzo Wilson. During
ment takes place, remember that this analogy is limited. the early 1970s, Wilson proposed a cycle (now known as the
The major limitation is that, unlike the luggage, plates con- Wilson cycle) that includes continental fragmentation, the

 Figure 2.14 Earth’s Plates A world map showing Earth’s plates, their boundaries, their relative motion and rates of movement in centimeters
per year, and hot spots.

Eurasian
plate 1.8 Eurasian
plate
5.4 North American
plate 2.3
7.9 6.9 3.7
Pacific Caribbean
plate 5.5
plate
3.0 2.0
11.7
2.0 Cocos 2.5
10.5 plate
10.1 3.8
4.0 17.2 7.0 South
American African
Indian-Australian Nazca plate plate
6.2 plate plate
11.1
7.1 7.4
18.3
7.3 4.1
7.2 1.7
3.7 10.3 1.3
3.3
7.7
5.7
Antarctic plate

Ridge axis Subduction zone Hot spot Direction of movement

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2.7 The Three Types of Plate Boundaries 47

opening and closing of an ocean basin, and re-assembly of

the continent. According to the supercontinent cycle hy-
2.7 The Three Types
pothesis, heat accumulates beneath a supercontinent be- of Plate Boundaries
cause the rocks of continents are poor conductors of heat.
As a result of the heat accumulation, the supercontinent  What are the three types of plate boundaries?
domes upward and fractures. Basaltic magma rising from
Because it appears that plate tectonics have operated since at
below fills the fractures. As a basalt-filled fracture widens, it
least the Proterozoic Eon, it is important that we under-
begins subsiding and forms a long, narrow ocean such as the
stand how plates move and interact with each other and how
present-day Red Sea. Continued rifting eventually forms an
ancient plate boundaries are recognized. After all, the
expansive ocean basin such as the Atlantic.
movement of plates has profoundly affected the geologic
One of the most convincing arguments for the propo-
and biologic history of this planet.
nents of the supercontinent cycle hypothesis is the “surpris-
Geologists recognize three major types of plate bound-
ing regularity” of mountain building caused by compression
aries: divergent, convergent, and transform (Table 2.1). Along
during continental collisions. These mountain-building
these boundaries new plates are formed, are consumed, or
episodes occur about every 400 to 500 million years and are
slide laterally past each other. Interaction of plates at their
followed by an episode of rifting about 100 million years
boundaries accounts for most of Earth’s volcanic eruptions
later. In other words, a supercontinent fragments and its
and earthquakes as well as the formation and evolution of its
individual plates disperse following a rifting episode, an in-
mountain systems.
terior ocean forms, and then the dispersed fragments re-
assemble to form another supercontinent.
 What are divergent boundaries?
The supercontinent cycle is yet another example of how
interrelated the various systems and subsystems of Earth are Divergent plate boundaries or spreading ridges occur where
and how they operate over vast periods of geologic time. plates are separating and new oceanic lithosphere is forming.
Divergent boundaries are places where the crust is extended,
thinned, and fractured as magma, derived from the partial
Section 2.6 Summary melting of the mantle, rises to the surface. The magma is
almost entirely basaltic and intrudes into vertical fractures to
● The main tenets of plate tectonic theory are that the
form dikes and pillow lava flows (see Figure 5.7). As successive
rigid lithosphere consists of numerous variable-sized pieces
injections of magma cool and solidify, they form new oceanic
called plates. These plates move over the hotter and weaker
crust and record the intensity and orientation of Earth’s
semiplastic asthenosphere as a result of some type of heat-
magnetic field ( Figure 2.11). Divergent boundaries most
transfer system within the asthenosphere. Plates separate,
commonly occur along the crests of oceanic ridges—the Mid-
mostly at oceanic ridges, and collide, usually at oceanic
Atlantic Ridge, for example. Oceanic ridges are thus character-
trenches, where they are subducted back into the mantle.
ized by rugged topography with high relief resulting from the
● Plate tectonics is considered a unifying theory of geol- displacement of rocks along large fractures, shallow-depth
ogy because it explains how many geologic features, earthquakes, high heat flow, and basaltic flows or pillow lavas.
processes, and events are interrelated. Divergent boundaries are also present under conti-
nents during the early stages of continental breakup.
● In the supercontinent cycle, all or most of Earth’s land-
When magma wells up beneath a continent, the crust is
masses come together to form a supercontinent, such as
initially elevated, stretched, and thinned, producing frac-
Pangaea, then break up, producing ocean basins, and
tures, faults, rift valleys, and volcanic activity ( Fig–
then re-form in a cycle spanning about 500 million years.
ure 2.15). As magma intrudes into faults and fractures, it

Ta b l e 2 . 1

Types of Plate Boundaries

Type Example Landforms Volcanism
Divergent
Oceanic Mid-Atlantic Ridge Mid-oceanic ridge with axial rift valley Basalt
Continental East African Rift Valley Rift valley Basalt and rhyolite, no andesite
Convergent
Oceanic–oceanic Aleutian Islands Volcanic island arc, offshore oceanic trench Andesite
Oceanic–continental Andes Offshore oceanic trench, volcanic mountain Andesite
chain, mountain belt
Continental–continental Himalayas Mountain belt Minor
Transform San Andreas fault Fault valley Minor
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48 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

 Geo-focus/Active Figure 2.15 History of a Divergent Plate Boundary

Volcanic activity a Rising magma beneath a continent pushes

the crust up, producing numerous fractures,
faults, rift valleys, and volcanic activity.

Magma
Continental crust

b As the crust is stretched and thinned, rift valleys develop and lava
Rift valley
flows onto the valley floors, such as seen today in the East African
Rift Valley.

Coastal mountain c Continued spreading further separates the continent until

Narrow fault-bounded sea
range it splits apart and a narrow seaway develops. The Red
Sea, which separates the Arabian Peninsula from Africa,
is a good example of this stage of development.

d As spreading continues, an oceanic ridge

Continental “seaboard” system forms, and an ocean basin develops
(coastal mountains gone) and grows. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge
illustrates this stage in a divergent plate
boundary’s history.
Wide ocean
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2.7 The Three Types of Plate Boundaries 49

 Figure 2.16 East African Rift Valley and the Red Sea—Present-Day Examples of Divergent Plate Boundaries The East African Rift Valley
and the Red Sea represent different stages in the history of a divergent plate boundary.

Arabian Plate

African

R
Plate

e
d
S

NASA/Corbis
e
a
b The Red Sea represents a more advanced stage of rifting, in which two
continental blocks (Africa and the Arabian Peninsula) are separated by
a narrow sea.

a The East African Rift Valley is being formed by the separation of

eastern Africa from the rest of the continent along a divergent plate
boundary.

solidifies or flows out onto the surface as lava flows; the latter mainland Mexico, are good examples of this more advanced
often covering the rift valley floor ( Figure 2.15b). The East stage of rifting.
African Rift Valley is an excellent example of continental As a newly created narrow sea continues to enlarge, it may
breakup at this stage ( Figure 2.16a). eventually become an expansive ocean basin such as the
As spreading proceeds, some rift valleys continue to Atlantic Ocean basin is today, separating North and South
lengthen and deepen until the continental crust eventually America from Europe and Africa by thousands of kilometers
breaks and a narrow linear sea is formed, separating two ( Figure 2.15d). The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is the boundary
continental blocks ( Figure 2.15c). The Red Sea separating between these diverging plates ( Figure 2.10); the American
the Arabian Peninsula from Africa ( Figure 2.16b) and the plates are moving westward, and the Eurasian and African
Gulf of California, which separates Baja California from plates are moving eastward.
11487_02_ch02_p032-069.qxd 2/17/06 8:24 AM Page 50

Tectonics of the Terrestrial Planets

The four inner, or terrestrial, planets—Mercury, Venus, spread volcanism and meteorite impacts, both of which
Earth, and Mars—all had a similar early history involving helped modify their surfaces.
accretion, differentiation into a metallic core and silicate Whereas the other three terrestrial planets as well as some
mantle and crust, and formation of an early atmosphere by of the Jovian moons display internal activity, Earth appears to
outgassing. Their early history was also marked by wide- be unique in that its surface is broken into a series of plates.

 2. A color-enhanced photomosaic of Mercury

 1. Images of Mercury sent back by Mariner 10 show a shows its heavily cratered surface, which has
heavily cratered surface with the largest impact basins changed very little since its early history.
filled with what appear to be lava flows similar to the
lava plains on Earth’s moon. The lava plains are not
deformed, however, indicating that there has been
little or no tectonic activity.
Another feature of Mercury’s surface is a
large number of scarps, a feature usually
associated with earthquake activity. Yet some
scientists think that these scarps formed when
Mercury cooled and contracted.

Courtesy of Victor Royer

JPL/NASA

 3. Seven scarps (indicated by arrows) can clearly be

seen in this image. These scarps might have formed
when Mercury cooled and contracted early in its history.

 4. Of all the planets, Venus is the most similar in size and mass to Earth, but it
differs in most other respects. Whereas Earth is dominated by plate tectonics,
volcanism seems to have been the dominant force in the evolution of the Venu-
sian surface. Even though no active volcanism has been observed on Venus, the
various-sized volcanic features and what appear to be folded mountains indicate
a once-active planetary interior. All of these structures appear to be the products
of rising convection currents of magma pushing up under the crust and then
sinking back into the Venusian interior.

 7. Arrows point to a
600-km segment of
JPL/NASA

Venus’ 6800-km long

Baltis Vallis, the longest
known lava flow channel
in our solar system.
 5. A color-enhanced photomosaic of Venus
based on radar images beamed back to Earth
by the Magellan spacecraft. This image
shows impact craters and volcanic features
characteristic of the planet.
NASA

 6. Venus’ Aine Corona, about 200 km in

diameter, is ringed by concentric faults,
suggesting that it was pushed up by rising magma. A network of fractures is visible
in the upper right of this image, as well as a recent lava flow at the center of the
corona, several volcanic domes in the lower portion of the image, and a large
volcanic pancake dome in the upper left of the image.
JPL/NASA
11487_02_ch02_p032-069.qxd 2/17/06 5:45 PM Page 51

 8. Volcano Sapas Mons contains two lava-filled calderas and is flanked by lava flows,
attesting to the volcanic activity that was once common on Venus.

 9. Mars, the Red Planet, has numerous features that indicate an extensive early period of
volcanism. These include Olympus Mons, the solar system’s largest volcano, lava flows, and
uplifted regions thought to have resulted from mantle convection. In addition to volcanic
features, Mars displays abundant evidence of
tensional tectonics, including numerous faults
and large fault-produced valley structures.
Although Mars was tectonically active
during the past, no evidence indicates
that plate tectonics comparable to
those on Earth have ever occurred
there.

JPL/NASA

USGS
 10. A photomosaic of Mars shows a
variety of geologic structures, including
the southern polar ice cap.

JPL/NASA

 11. A vertical view of Olympus Mons, a shield volcano and the largest volcano
known in our solar system. The edge of the Olympus Mons caldera is marked
by a cliff several kilometers high. This huge summit crater is large enough
to contain the greater New York City metropolitan area.

NASA
 12. Although not a terrestrial planet, Io, the innermost of
Jupiter’s Galilean moons, must be mentioned. Images from the
Voyager and Galileo spacecrafts show that Io has no impact
craters. In fact, more than a hundred active volcanoes are visible
on the moon’s surface, and the sulfurous gas and ash erupted
by these volcanoes bury any newly formed meteorite impact
craters. Because of its proximity to Jupiter, the heat source of Io
is probably tidal heating, in which the resulting friction is enough
to at least partially melt Io’s interior and drive its volcanoes.
NASA

 13. Volcanic features of Io, the innermost moon of Jupiter.

As shown in these digitally enhanced color images, Io is a
NASA

very volcanically active moon.

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52 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

 What features in the geologic record indicate we would have an expanding Earth. Such plate destruction
ancient rifting? takes place at convergent plate boundaries, where two
Associated with regions of continental rifting are faults, plates collide and the leading edge of one plate is subducted
dikes (vertical intrusive igneous bodies), sills (horizontal beneath the margin of the other plate and eventually is in-
intrusive igneous bodies), lava flows, and thick sedimen- corporated into the asthenosphere. A dipping plane of
tary sequences within rift valleys, all features that are pre- earthquake foci, called a Benioff (or sometimes Benioff-
served in the geologic record. The Triassic fault basins of Wadati) zone, defines a subduction zone (see Figure 10.5).
the eastern United States are a good example of ancient Most of these planes dip from oceanic trenches beneath
continental rifting ( Figure 2.17a). These fault basins adjacent island arcs or continents, marking the surface of
mark the zone of rifting that occurred when North Amer- slippage between the converging plates.
ica split apart from Africa. The basins contain thousands Deformation, volcanism, mountain building, metamor-
of meters of continental sediment and are riddled with phism, earthquake activity, and deposits of valuable mineral
dikes and sills. ores characterize convergent boundaries. Three types of
Pillow lavas, in association with deep-sea sediment, are convergent plate boundaries are recognized: oceanic–oceanic,
also evidence of ancient rifting. The presence of pillow lavas oceanic–continental, and continental–continental.
marks the formation of a spreading ridge in a narrow linear
sea. A narrow linear sea forms when the continental crust in Oceanic–Oceanic Boundaries
the rift valley finally breaks apart, and the area is flooded by When two oceanic plates converge, one is subducted be-
seawater. Magma, intruding into the sea along this newly neath the other along an oceanic–oceanic plate boundary
formed spreading ridge, solidifies as pillow lavas, which are ( Figure 2.18a). The subducting plate bends downward to
preserved in the geologic record, along with the sediment form the outer wall of an oceanic trench. A subduction com-
being deposited on them. plex, composed of wedge-shaped slices of highly folded and
faulted marine sediments and oceanic lithosphere scraped
 What are convergent boundaries? off the descending plate, forms along the inner wall of the
Whereas new crust forms at divergent plate boundaries, oceanic trench. As the subducting plate descends into the
older crust must be destroyed and recycled in order for the mantle, it is heated and partially melted, generating magma,
entire surface area of Earth to remain the same. Otherwise, commonly of andesitic composition (see Chapter 4). This

 Figure 2.17 Triassic Fault-Block Basins of Eastern North America—An Example of Ancient Rifting

CANADA
ME Halifax

Lake VT
Huro n NH
Lake
NY
Ontario Boston
Albany MA
MI
CT RI
Lake
Erie
PA
Palisades

OH NJ
MD
DE
Washington, D.C
WV
Courtesy of John Faivre

VA
KY AT L A N T I C
OCEAN
TN NC

a Triassic fault-block basin deposits appear in numerous locations b Palisades of the Hudson River. This sill (tabular-shaped horizontal
throughout eastern North America. These fault-block basins are igneous intrusion) was one of many that were intruded into the
good examples of ancient continental rifting, and during the Triassic fault-block basin sediments during the Late Triassic rifting that
Period they looked like today’s fault-block basins (rift valleys) of the marked the initial separation of North America from Africa.
East African Rift Valley.
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2.7 The Three Types of Plate Boundaries 53

 Geo-focus/Active Figure 2.18 Three Types of Convergent Plate Boundaries

Continent Margina Volcanic Central a Oceanic–oceanic plate

ls
(back a ea island arc ocean boundary. An oceanic
rc)
trench forms where one
oceanic plate is subducted
Back arc spreading beneath another. On the
nonsubducted plate, a
volcanic island arc forms
rearc from the rising magma
Fo
generated from the
subducting plate. The
Partial melting tle Japanese Islands are a
an
r m re volcanic island arc resulting
pe he from the subduction of one
Mantle upwelling Up osp oceanic plate beneath
en
associated with th Japan another oceanic plate.
nearby subduction Partial As
melting Subducting
oceanic crust

b Oceanic–continental plate boundary. When an oceanic plate is subducted beneath a Panama

continental plate, an andesitic volcanic mountain range is formed on the continental Amazon
plate as a result of rising magma. The Andes Mountains in Peru are one of the best River
examples of continuing mountain building at an oceanic–continental plate boundary.
N

Andean v
Continental Pacific S
interior

ou
Vocanic arc Ocean

th
mountain range ol

Am
c an
ic

er i
ar
c

ca
Fo
re

enta l
a

Contin
rc

Subduction 0 1000
complex crust Km

Up
pe
rm
As an
t he tle
no
sp
he Partial
re Subducting melting
oceanic crust

Him
alay
Secondary rifting a M ts .
caused by collision India N
Mountain range

Indian
Ocean Rift
faulting,
Tibetan
Continen plateau
tal
crust
0 1000
Continen Km
tal
crust
Thrust zo c Continental–continental plate boundary. When two con-
ne tinental plates converge, neither is subducted because
Up
pe of their great thickness and low and equal densities. As
Ast rm
he a the two continental plates collide, a mountain range is
Oceanic no ntle formed in the interior of a new and larger continent. The
sp
crust Little or no he Himalayas in central Asia resulted from the collision
re
partial melting between India and Asia approximately 40 to 50 million
years ago.
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54 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

magma is less dense than the surrounding mantle rocks and called a volcanic arc). An excellent example of an oceanic–
rises to the surface of the nonsubducted plate to form a continental plate boundary is the Pacific coast of South
curved chain of volcanoes called a volcanic island arc (any America, where the oceanic Nazca plate is currently being
plane intersecting a sphere makes an arc). This arc is nearly subducted beneath South America ( Figure 2.18b; see also
parallel to the oceanic trench and is separated from it by a Chapter 13). The Peru–Chile Trench marks the site of sub-
distance of up to several hundred kilometers—the distance duction, and the Andes Mountains are the resulting volcanic
depending on the angle of dip of the subducting plate mountain chain on the nonsubducting plate.
( Figure 2.18a).
In those areas where the rate of subduction is faster than
the forward movement of the overriding plate, the lithos- Continental–Continental Boundaries
phere on the landward side of the volcanic island arc may be Two continents approaching each other are initially sepa-
subjected to tensional stress and stretched and thinned, re- rated by an ocean floor that is being subducted under one
sulting in the formation of a back-arc basin. This back-arc continent. The edge of that continent displays the features
basin may grow by spreading if magma breaks through the characteristic of oceanic–continental convergence. As the
thin crust and forms new oceanic crust ( Figure 2.18a). A ocean floor continues to be subducted, the two continents
good example of a back-arc basin associated with an come closer together until they eventually collide. Because
oceanic–oceanic plate boundary is the Sea of Japan between continental lithosphere, which consists of continental crust
the Asian continent and the islands of Japan. and the upper mantle, is less dense than oceanic lithosphere
Most present-day active volcanic island arcs are in the (oceanic crust and upper mantle), it cannot sink into the
Pacific Ocean basin and include the Aleutian Islands, the asthenosphere. Although one continent may partly slide un-
Kermadec–Tonga arc, and the Japanese ( Figure 2.18a) and der the other, it cannot be pulled or pushed down into a
Philippine Islands. The Scotia and Antillean (Caribbean) subduction zone ( Figure 2.18c).
island arcs are in the Atlantic Ocean basin. When two continents collide, they are welded together
along a zone marking the former site of subduction. At this
continental–continental plate boundary, an interior moun-
Oceanic–Continental Boundaries tain belt is formed consisting of deformed sediments and
When an oceanic and a continental plate converge, the sedimentary rocks, igneous intrusions, metamorphic rocks,
denser oceanic plate is subducted under the continental and fragments of oceanic crust. In addition, the entire region
plate along an oceanic–continental plate boundary is subjected to numerous earthquakes. The Himalayas in
( Figure 2.18b). Just as at oceanic–oceanic plate bound- central Asia, the world’s youngest and highest mountain sys-
aries, the descending oceanic plate forms the outer wall of tem, resulted from the collision between India and Asia that
an oceanic trench. began 40 to 50 million years ago and is still continuing ( Fig-
The magma generated by subduction rises beneath the ure 2.18c; see Chapter 13).
continent and either crystallizes as large intrusive igneous
bodies (called plutons) before reaching the surface or erupts
 How can ancient subduction zones be recognized
at the surface to produce a chain of andesitic volcanoes (also
in the geologic record?
Igneous rocks provide one clue to ancient subduction
zones. The magma erupted at the surface, forming island
arc volcanoes and continental volcanoes, is of andesitic
composition. Another clue is the zone of intensely de-
What Would You Do? formed rocks between the deep-sea trench where subduc-
tion is taking place and the area of igneous activity. Here,
Y ou’ve been selected to be part of the first astronaut
team to go to Mars. While your two fellow crew-
members descend to the Martian surface, you’ll be stay-
sediments and submarine rocks are folded, faulted, and
metamorphosed into a chaotic mixture of rocks called a
ing in the command module and circling the Red Planet. mélange.
As part of the geologic investigation of Mars, one of the During subduction, pieces of oceanic lithosphere are
crewmembers will be mapping the geology around the sometimes incorporated into the mélange and accreted
landing site and deciphering the geologic history of onto the edge of the continent. Such slices of oceanic crust
the area. Your job will be to observe and photograph the and upper mantle are called ophiolites ( Figure 2.19). They
planet’s surface and try to determine whether Mars had consist of a layer of deep-sea sediments that include
an active plate tectonic regime in the past and whether graywackes (poorly sorted sandstones containing abundant
there is current plate movement. What features will you feldspar minerals and rock fragments, usually in a clay-rich
look for, and what evidence might reveal current or pre- matrix), black shales, and cherts (see Chapter 7). These
vious plate activity? deep-sea sediments are underlain by pillow lavas, a sheeted
dike complex, massive gabbro (a dark intrusive igneous
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2.7 The Three Types of Plate Boundaries 55

rock), and layered gabbro, all of which form the oceanic One of the best-known transform faults is the San Andreas
crust. Beneath the gabbro is peridotite, which probably fault in California. It separates the Pacific plate from the
represents the upper mantle. The presence of ophiolite in North American plate and connects spreading ridges in the
an outcrop or drilling core is a key indication of plate con- Gulf of California with the Juan de Fuca and Pacific plates off
vergence along a subduction zone. the coast of northern California ( Figure 2.21). Many of the
Elongate belts of folded and faulted marine sedimentary earthquakes affecting California are the result of movement
rocks, andesites, and ophiolites are found in the Appalachians, along this fault (see Chapter 10).
Alps, Himalayas, and Andes mountains. The combination of Unfortunately, transform faults generally do not leave
such features is good evidence that these mountain ranges re- any characteristic or diagnostic features except the obvi-
sulted from deformation along convergent plate boundaries. ous displacement of the rocks with which they are associ-
ated. This displacement is usually large, on the order of
 What are transform boundaries? tens to hundreds of kilometers. Such large displacements
in ancient rocks can sometimes be related to transform
The third type of plate boundary is a transform plate
fault systems.
boundary. These mostly occur along fractures in the
seafloor, known as transform faults, where plates slide later-
Log into GeologyNow and select this chapter to
ally past each other roughly parallel to the direction of
work through Geology Interactive activities on
plate movement. Although lithosphere is neither created
“Plate Boundaries” (click Plate Tectonics0Plate
nor destroyed along a transform boundary, the movement
Boundaries) and “Triple Junctions and Seafloor
between plates results in a zone of intensely shattered rock
Studies” (click Plate Tectonics0Triple Junctions
and numerous shallow-depth earthquakes.
and Seafloor Studies).
Transform faults “transform” or change one type of
motion between plates into another type of motion. Most
commonly, transform faults connect two oceanic ridge
segments, but they can also connect ridges to trenches
Section 2.7 Summary
and trenches to trenches ( Figure 2.20). Although the ● The three major types of plate boundaries are diver-
majority of transform faults are in oceanic crust and are gent, convergent, and transform.
marked by distinct fracture zones, they may also extend
into continents. ● Divergent plate boundaries occur where plates are sep-
arating and new oceanic lithosphere is forming. They are
characterized by thinning and fracturing of the crust, for-
mation of rift valleys, intrusion of magma, and shallow-
 Figure 2.19 Ophiolites Ophiolites are sequences of rock on land depth earthquakes.
consisting of deep-sea sediments, oceanic crust, and upper mantle.
Ophiolites are one feature used to recognize ancient convergent plate ● Zones of ancient continental rifting can be recognized
boundaries. by faults, dikes, sills, lava flows, and thick sedimentary
sequences, whereas pillow lavas and associated deep-sea
sediments are evidence of ancient spreading ridges.
● Convergent plate boundaries occur where two plates
collide, and the leading edge of one plate is subducted
Deep-sea
beneath the margin of the other plate. They are charac-
sediments terized by metamorphism, mountain building, volcanic
and earthquake activity, and the formation of various
Pillow
lavas
mineral deposits. Three types of convergent plate
boundaries are recognized: oceanic–oceanic, where two
Sheeted oceanic plates converge, oceanic–continental, where an
Oceanic
dikes
crust oceanic plate is subducted beneath the continental plate,
Massive and continental–continental, where an interior mountain
gabbro belt is formed.
Layered ● Intensely deformed rocks, andesite lavas, and ophiolites
gabbro
Upper are all evidence of ancient subduction zones, marking
mantle Peridotite former convergent plate boundaries.
● Transform plate boundaries occur along fractures in
the seafloor, called transform faults, where plates slide
laterally past each other.
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56 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

 Geo-focus Figure 2.20 Transform Plate Boundaries Horizontal movement between plates occurs along transform
faults. Extensions of transform faults on the seafloor form fracture zones.

Trench Fracture zone

Transform fault
Fracture zone

a Most transform faults

connect two oceanic
ridge segments. Mid-ocean
Magma ridge

Oceanic crust

“Subducted” oceanic ridge segment

“Subducted” oceanic ridge segment

Transform fault

b A transform fault can

connect a ridge and a
trench.

Fracture Transform fault

zone

c A transform fault can

also link two trenches.
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2.8 Hot Spots: An Intraplate Feature 57

2.8 Hot Spots: An Intraplate  Figure 2.21 The San Andreas Fault—A Transform Plate
Boundary The San Andreas fault is a transform fault separating the
Feature Pacific plate from the North American plate. It connects the spread-
ing ridges in the Gulf of California with the Juan de Fuca and Pacific
plates off the coast of northern California. Movement along the San
Andreas fault has caused numerous earthquakes. The insert photo-
 What are hot spots and what do they tell us about graph shows a segment of the San Andreas fault as it cuts through
plate movement? the Carrizo Plain, California.
Before leaving the topic of plate boundaries, we should
mention an intraplate feature found beneath both oceanic
and continental plates. A hot spot is the location on BRITISH
Earth’s surface where a stationary column of magma, orig- COLUMBIA
inating deep within the mantle (mantle plume), has slowly
risen to the surface and formed a volcano ( Figure 2.22).
Because mantle plumes apparently remain stationary

e
dg
Ri
(although some evidence suggests that they might not)

a
Seattle

c
within the mantle while plates move over them, the re-

Fu
de
sulting hot spots leave a trail of extinct and progressively

an
JUAN WASHINGTON
older volcanoes called aseismic ridges that record the

Ju
movement of the plate. DE FUCA
One of the best examples of aseismic ridges and hot spots PLATE
is the Emperor Seamount–Hawaiian Island chain ( Fig-
ure 2.22). This chain of islands and seamounts (structures of
volcanic origin rising higher than 1 km above the seafloor) OREGON
extends from the island of Hawaii to the Aleutian Trench off
Alaska, a distance of some 6000 km, and consists of more
than 80 volcanic structures. NORTH AMERICAN
Currently, the only active volcanoes in this island chain are PLATE
on the islands of Hawaii and Maui and the Loihi Seamount. CALIFORNIA
The rest of the islands are extinct volcanic structures that be- NEVADA
come progressively older toward the north and northwest.

Sa
This means that the Emperor Seamount–Hawaiian Island

n A
chain records the direction that the Pacific plate traveled as it

ndr
San Francisco
moved over an apparently stationary mantle plume. In this

eas
case, the Pacific plate first moved in a north-northwesterly di-

fau
rection and then, as indicated by the sharp bend in the chain,
changed to a west-northwesterly direction about 43 million PACIFIC lt
years ago. The reason the Pacific plate changed directions
OCEAN
is not known, but the shift might be related to the collision

USGS
of India with the Asian continent at around the same time
(see Figure 13.22). Los Angeles
Mantle plumes and hot spots help geologists explain
some of the geologic activity occurring within plates as
opposed to activity occurring at or near plate boundaries.
In addition, if mantle plumes are essentially fixed with
respect to Earth’s rotational axis, they can be used to PACIFIC
determine not only the direction of plate movement but
also the rate of movement. They can also provide refer- PLATE
ence points for determining paleolatitude, an important
tool when reconstructing the location of continents in the
geologic past.

Section 2.8 Summary

Oceanic Zone of Transform
● Hot spots are locations where stationary columns of ridge subduction faults
magma from the mantle (mantle plumes) have risen to
the surface and formed volcanoes.
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58 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

 Active Figure 2.22 Hot Spots A hot spot is the location where a stationary mantle plume has risen to the surface and
formed a volcano. The Emperor Seamount–Hawaiian Island chain formed as a result of the Pacific plate moving over a mantle plume, and the line
of volcanic islands in this chain traces the direction of plate movement. The Hawaiian hot spot currently underlies the southern half of the island of
Hawaii and adjoining offshore area. The numbers indicate the ages of the Hawaiian Islands in millions of years.

Kamchatka Aleutian Alaskan

Islands coast
Sea level Sea level

Emperor
Seamounts

Kauai
Direction 3.8–5.6
of plate movement Oahu
Sea level 2.3–3.3
Molokai
1.3–1.8
Hawaiian Maui
hot spot 0.8–1.3

Upper mantle
Hawaiian Islands
Oceanic crust
Hawaii 0.7 to
Mantle present
Asthenosphere
plume

● Because the mantle plumes apparently remain station- In this way, not only can the present average rate of move-
ary while plates move over them, the trail of hot spots, ment and relative motion be determined ( Figure 2.14),
marked by extinct and progressively older volcanoes, but the average rate of movement during the past can also
records the direction and rate of plate movement. be calculated by dividing the distance between anomalies
by the amount of time elapsed between anomalies.
Geologists use magnetic anomalies not only to calculate
the average rate of plate movement but also to determine
2.9 Plate Movement plate positions at various times in the past. Because mag-
and Motion netic anomalies are parallel and symmetric with respect to
spreading ridges, all one must do to determine the posi-
tions of continents when particular anomalies formed is to
 How can the rate and direction of plate movement move the anomalies back to the spreading ridge, which will
be determined? also move the continents with them ( Figure 2.23). Un-
How fast and in what direction are Earth’s plates moving? fortunately, subduction destroys oceanic crust and the mag-
Do they all move at the same rate? Rates of plate movement netic record it carries. Thus we have an excellent record of
can be calculated in several ways. The least accurate method plate movements since the breakup of Pangaea, but not as
is to determine the age of the sediments immediately above good an understanding of plate movement before that time.
any portion of the oceanic crust and then divide the distance The average rate of movement as well as the relative mo-
from the spreading ridge by that age. Such calculations give tion between any two plates can also be determined by satel-
an average rate of movement. lite–laser ranging techniques. Laser beams from a station on
A more accurate method of determining both the aver- one plate are bounced off a satellite (in geosynchronous or-
age rate of movement and the relative motion is by dating bit) and returned to a station on a different plate. As the
the magnetic anomalies in the crust of the seafloor. The plates move away from each other, the laser beam takes
distance from an oceanic ridge axis to any magnetic anom- more time to go from the sending station to the stationary
aly indicates the width of new seafloor that formed during satellite and back to the receiving station. This difference in
that time interval. Thus, for a given interval of time, the elapsed time is used to calculate the rate of movement and
wider the strip of seafloor, the faster the plate has moved. the relative motion between plates.
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2.10 The Driving Mechanism of Plate Tectonics 59

 Figure 2.23 Reconstructing Plate Positions Using Magnetic Anomalies

Anomaly Present Anomaly

31 Mid-Atlantic 31
ridge
Eurasian
Plate
Eurasian North American
Plate Plate
North American
Plate

African
Plate
African
Plate
b The Atlantic 67 million years ago.
Anomaly 31 marks the plate boundary
a The present North Atlantic, showing the 67 million years ago. By moving the anomalies back together,
Mid-Atlantic Ridge and magnetic anomaly 31, along with the plates they are on, we can reconstruct the former
which formed 67 million years ago. positions of the continents.

Plate motions derived from magnetic reversals and continental movement. When it was shown that conti-
satellite–laser ranging techniques give only the relative nents and ocean floors moved together, not separately,
motion of one plate with respect to another. Hot spots and that new crust formed at spreading ridges by rising
enable geologists to determine absolute motion because magma, most geologists accepted some type of convective
they provide an apparently fixed reference point from which heat system as the basic process responsible for plate
the rate and direction of plate movement can be measured. motion. The question still remains, however: What ex-
The previously mentioned Emperor Seamount–Hawaiian actly drives the plates?
Island chain formed as a result of movement over a hot spot.
Thus the line of the volcanic islands traces the direction of  How do thermal convection cells move plates?
plate movement, and dating the volcanoes enables geolo- Two models involving thermal convection cells have been
gists to determine the rate of movement. proposed to explain plate movement ( Figure 2.24). In
one model, thermal convection cells are restricted to the
Section 2.9 Summary asthenosphere; in the second model, the entire mantle is
involved. In both models, spreading ridges mark the as-
● One technique used to calculate the average rate of cending limbs of adjacent convection cells, and trenches
plate movement is to divide the distance from an are present where convection cells descend back into
oceanic ridge axis to any magnetic anomaly by the age Earth’s interior. The convection cells therefore determine
of that anomaly. The average rate of movement during the location of spreading ridges and trenches, with the
the past can also be calculated by dividing the distance lithosphere lying above the thermal convection cells. Each
between anomalies by the amount of time elapsed be- plate thus corresponds to a single convection cell and
tween anomalies. moves as a result of the convective movement of the cell
● The relative motion of one plate with respect to an-
itself.
other can be derived from magnetic reversals and satel- Although most geologists agree that Earth’s internal
lite–laser ranging techniques. Hot spots are evidence for heat plays an important role in plate movement, there are
absolute motion because they provide an apparently fixed problems with both models. The major problem associated
reference point from which the rate and direction of with the first model is the difficulty in explaining the source
plate movement can be measured. of heat for the convection cells and why they are restricted
to the asthenosphere. In the second model, the heat comes
from the outer core, but it is still not known how heat is
transferred from the outer core to the mantle. Nor is it
2.10 The Driving Mechanism clear how convection can involve both the lower mantle
and the asthenosphere.
of Plate Tectonics
 Can plate movement be gravity driven?
 What drives plates? In addition to some type of thermal convection system
A major obstacle to the acceptance of the continental drift driving plate movement, some geologists think plate
hypothesis was the lack of a driving mechanism to explain movement occurs because of a mechanism involving
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60 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

are higher than the surrounding oceanic crust. It is thought


Active Figure 2.24 Thermal Convection that gravity pushes the oceanic lithosphere away from the
Cells as the Driving Force of Plate Movement Two models
involving thermal convection cells have been proposed to explain higher spreading ridges and toward the trenches.
plate movement. Currently, geologists are fairly certain that some type
of convective system is involved in plate movement, but
Oceanic trench Oceanic ridge
the extent to which other mechanisms such as slab-pull
and ridge-push are involved is still unresolved. However,
Oceanic trench the fact that plates have moved in the past and are still
moving today has been proven beyond a doubt. And al-
Lower though a comprehensive theory of plate movement has
Heat mantle
source
not yet been developed, more and more of the pieces are
falling into place as geologists learn more about Earth’s
interior.
Core

Heat
source Section 2.10 Summary
Oceanic ridge
Asthenosphere
● Plates are thought to move by some type of thermal
convection system. In one model, thermal convection
Lithosphere cells are restricted to the asthenosphere, and in the sec-
Oceanic ridge
ond model, the entire mantle is involved. Both models
Oceanic trench have problems associated with heat transfer and the
a In the first model, thermal convection cells are restricted to the source of heat.
asthenosphere.
● Some geologists think that, in addition to thermal con-
Oceanic trench Oceanic ridge
vection, plate movement is primarily gravity driven, by
either “slab-pull” or “ridge-push.” In slab-pull, the sub-
Oceanic trench ducting, cold, dense lithosphere pulls the rest of the plate
Heat along as it descends into Earth’s interior. In ridge-push,
source Mantle gravity pushes the lithosphere away from the higher
spreading ridges and toward the subduction trenches.

Core

2.11 Plate Tectonics

Oceanic ridge
Asthenosphere
and the Distribution
of Natural Resources
Lithosphere
Oceanic ridge
 How does plate tectonic theory relate to the origin
Oceanic trench
and distribution of natural resources?
b In the second model, thermal convection cells involve the entire
mantle. Besides being responsible for the major features of Earth’s
crust and influencing the distribution and evolution of
the world’s biota, plate movements also affect the formation
and distribution of some natural resources. The formation
of many natural resources results from the interaction be-
“slab-pull” or “ridge-push,” both of which are gravity dri- tween plates, and economically valuable concentrations of
ven but still dependent on thermal differences within such deposits are found associated with current and ancient
Earth ( Figure 2.25). In slab-pull, the subducting cold plate boundaries. Consequently, geologists are using plate
slab of lithosphere, being denser than the surrounding tectonic theory in their search for petroleum and mineral
warmer asthenosphere, pulls the rest of the plate along as deposits and in explaining the occurrence of these natural
it descends into the asthenosphere. As the lithosphere resources.
moves downward, there is a corresponding upward flow It is becoming increasingly clear that if we are to keep up
back into the spreading ridge. with the continuing demands of a global industrialized soci-
Operating in conjunction with slab-pull is the ridge-push ety, the application of plate tectonic theory to the origin and
mechanism. As a result of rising magma, the oceanic ridges distribution of natural resources is essential.
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2.11 Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Natural Resources 61

 Geo-focus Figure 2.25 Plate Movement Resulting from Gravity-Driven Mechanisms Plate movement is also thought
to result, at least partially, from gravity-driven “slab-pull” or “ridge-push” mechanisms. In slab-pull, the edge of the subducting plate descends into
the interior, and the rest of the plate is pulled downward. In ridge-push, rising magma pushes the oceanic ridges higher than the rest of the oceanic
crust. Gravity thus pushes the oceanic lithosphere away from the ridges and toward the trenches.

Oceanic
ridge Sea level
Trench

Ridge push

Ocea
nic c rust Slab
pu

ll
Upper mantle

Convection Asthenosphere
cell movement
Rising magma

 What is the relationship between plate boundaries hydrothermal fluids carried minute amounts of copper, which
and various metallic mineral deposits? was originally widely disseminated but eventually became
Many metallic mineral deposits such as copper, gold, lead, concentrated in the cracks and fractures of the surrounding
silver, tin, and zinc are related to igneous and associated hy- andesites. These low-grade copper deposits contain from
drothermal (hot water) activity, so it is not surprising that a 0.2 to 2% copper and are extracted from large open-pit mines
close relationship exists between plate boundaries and the ( Figure 2.26b).
occurrence of these valuable deposits. Divergent plate boundaries also yield valuable ore de-
The magma generated by partial melting of a subducting posits. The island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean is rich in
plate rises toward the surface, and as it cools, it precipitates copper and has been supplying all or part of the world’s
and concentrates various metallic ores. Many of the world’s needs for the last 3000 years. The concentration of copper
major metallic ore deposits are associated with convergent on Cyprus formed as a result of precipitation adjacent to
plate boundaries, including those in the Andes of South Amer- hydrothermal vents along a divergent plate boundary. This
ica, the Coast Ranges and Rockies of North America, Japan,
the Philippines, Russia, and a zone extending from the eastern
Mediterranean region to Pakistan. In addition, the majority of
the world’s gold is associated with sulfide deposits located at
ancient convergent plate boundaries in such areas as South
Africa, Canada, California, Alaska, Venezuela, Brazil, southern What Would You Do?
India, Russia, and western Australia.
The copper deposits of western North and South America
are an excellent example of the relationship between conver-
Y ou are part of a mining exploration team that is
exploring a promising and remote area of central
Asia. You know that former convergent and divergent
gent plate boundaries and the distribution, concentration, plate boundaries are frequently sites of ore deposits.
and exploitation of valuable metallic ores ( Figure 2.26a). What evidence would you look for to determine
The world’s largest copper deposits are found along this belt. whether the area you’re exploring might be an ancient
The majority of the copper deposits in the Andes and the convergent or divergent plate boundary? Is there any-
southwestern United States formed less than 60 million years thing you can do before visiting the area that might
ago when oceanic plates were subducted under the North help you to determine the geology of the area?
and South American plates. The rising magma and associated
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62 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

 Figure 2.26 Copper Deposits and Convergent Plate Boundaries

North American
plate

Pacific
plate Caribbean
plate
Cocos
plate

South
American
Nazca plate
plate

Courtesy of R. V. Dietrich
Copper deposits
Subduction zone
Divergent boundary

a Valuable copper deposits are located along the west coasts of North b Bingham Mine in Utah is a huge open-pit copper mine with reserves
and South America in association with convergent plate boundaries. estimated at 1.7 billion tons. More than 400,000 tons of rock are
The rising magma and associated hydrothermal activity resulting from removed for processing each day.
subduction carried small amounts of copper, which became trapped
and concentrated in the surrounding rocks through time.

deposit was brought to the surface when the copper-rich

seafloor collided with the European plate, warping the Section 2.11 Summary
seafloor and forming Cyprus. ● The origin and distribution of many natural resources
Studies indicate that minerals of such metals as copper, are related to the interaction between plates. Many
gold, iron, lead, silver, and zinc are currently forming as metallic ores form as a result of igneous and hydrother-
sulfides in the Red Sea. The Red Sea is opening as a result mal activity related to the formation of magma along
of plate divergence and represents the earliest stage in the divergent and convergent plate boundaries.
growth of an ocean basin ( Figures 2.15c and 2.16b).

Review Workbook
ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS SUMMARY 2.2 Continental Drift
 What were some early idea’s about Earth’s past geography?
2.1 Introduction The idea that continents have moved in the past is not new and
 Why should you know about plate tectonics? probably goes back to the first maps, in which one could see that
Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether in relation to the destruc- the east coast of South America looks like it fits into the west
tion caused by volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, or politically coast of Africa.
and economically due to the formation and distribution of valu-
able natural resources. Furthermore, plate tectonics is the unify-  What is the continental drift hypothesis and who proposed it?
ing theory of geology, tying together many seemingly unrelated Alfred Wegener originally proposed the continental drift hypoth-
geologic phenomena and illustrating why Earth is a dynamic esis in 1912. He postulated that all landmasses were originally
planet of interacting subsystems and cycles. united into a supercontinent he named Pangaea. Pangaea con-
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Review Workbook 63

sisted of a northern landmass called Laurasia and a southern  How was the theory of seafloor spreading confirmed?
landmass called Gondwana. As Pangaea broke up, the various Seafloor spreading was confirmed by the discovery of magnetic
continents moved to their present-day locations. anomalies in the ocean crust that were both parallel to and sym-
metric around the ocean ridges. The pattern of oceanic magnetic
2.3 Evidence for Continental Drift anomalies matched the pattern of magnetic reversals already
 What is the evidence for continental drift? known from continental lava flows. Further evidence confirming
Wegener and others amassed a large amount of evidence in sup- seafloor spreading came from the Deep Sea Drilling Project and
port of continental drift. There is a close fit between continents the age and thickness of the sediments overlying the oceanic
off the coasts at a depth of about 2000 m. Marine, nonmarine, crust.
and glacial rock sequences of Pennsylvanian to Jurassic age are
nearly identical on all the Gondwana continents, and the trend 2.6 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory
of several major mountain ranges produces a continuous moun-  What are the main tenets of plate tectonic theory?
tain range when the continents are positioned next to each According to plate tectonic theory, the rigid lithosphere, com-
other as they were during the formation of Pangaea. Glacial posed of oceanic and continental crust as well as the underlying
tills and striations on the bedrock beneath the till provide evi- upper mantle, is divided into different-sized plates. The litho-
dence of glaciation at the same time on all the Gondwana conti- sphere overlies the asthenosphere, and through some type of
nents, with South Africa located at the South Pole. Lastly, the heat-transfer system within the asthenosphere, moves the plates.
distribution of fossil plants (Glossopteris flora) and animals (the As the plates move over the asthenosphere, they separate mostly
nonmarine reptile Mesosaurus in particular) provides convincing at oceanic ridges and collide and are subducted into Earth’s
evidence that the southern continents were united during the interior at oceanic trenches.
Late Paleozoic Era.
 Why is plate tectonics a unifying theory of geology?
The theory ties together many seemingly unrelated features and
2.4 Paleomagnetism and Polar Wandering
events and shows how they are interrelated. Furthermore, it illus-
 What is paleomagnetism?
trates the dynamic interactions between Earth’s various subsys-
Paleomagnetism is the remanent magnetism in ancient rocks
tems and cycles.
recording the direction and intensity of Earth’s magnetic field at
the time of the rock’s formation.  What is the supercontinent cycle?
The hypothesis put forth by J. Tuzo Wilson in the early 1970s
 What is the Curie point and why is it important?
posits a large-scale global cycle in which a supercontinent frag-
The Curie point is the temperature at which iron-bearing miner-
ments to form various ocean basins that widen and then close,
als gain their magnetism. It is important because as long as the
thus reassembling another supercontinent.
rock is not subsequently heated above the Curie point, it will pre-
serve that remanent magnetism.
2.7 The Three Types of Plate Boundaries
 How can the apparent wandering of the magnetic poles be best  What are the three types of plate boundaries?
explained? The three major types of plate boundaries are divergent, conver-
The best explanation for polar wandering, which is the apparent gent, and transform.
movement of the magnetic poles through time, is that the mag-
 What are divergent boundaries?
netic poles have remained near their present locations at the geo-
Divergent boundaries, also called spreading ridges, occur where
graphic north and south poles and the continents have moved.
plates are separating and new oceanic lithosphere is forming.
When the continents are fitted together, the paleomagnetic data
Whereas most divergent boundaries occur along the crests of
point to only one magnetic pole.
oceanic ridges, they are also present under continents during the
early stages of continental breakup.
2.5 Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading
 What evidence is there that Earth’s magnetic field has reversed in  What features in the geologic record indicate ancient rifting?
the past? Characteristic features of ancient continental rifting include fault-
Earth’s present magnetic field is considered normal, that is, with ing, dikes, sills, lava flows, and thick sedimentary sequences
the north and south magnetic poles located approximately at the within rift valleys. Pillow lavas and associated deep-sea sediments
north and south geographic poles. At various times in the geo- are evidence of ancient spreading ridges.
logic past, Earth’s magnetic field has completely reversed. The
existence of such magnetic reversals was discovered by dating and  What are convergent boundaries?
determining the orientation of the remanent magnetism in conti- Convergent boundaries are places where two plates collide, and
nental lava flows. the leading edge of one plate is subducted beneath the margin of
the other plate. There are three types of convergent boundaries.
 What is the theory of seafloor spreading, and how does it validate Oceanic–oceanic boundaries are where two oceanic plates collide,
continental drift? with one plate subducted beneath the other and a volcanic island
Harry Hess proposed the theory of seafloor spreading in 1962. arc forming on the nonsubducted plate, parallel to the oceanic
He suggested that the seafloor separates at oceanic ridges, where trench where subduction is taking place. The volcanoes result
new crust is formed by upwelling magma. As the magma cools, from rising magma produced by the partial melting of the sub-
the newly formed oceanic crust moves laterally away from the ducting plate. An oceanic–continental boundary is where an
ridge. Thus continents and oceanic crust move together, negat- oceanic plate and a continental plate converge, with the denser
ing the need to explain how continents could plow through oceanic plate being subducted under the continental plate. Just
oceanic crust. as with an oceanic–oceanic boundary, a chain of volcanoes forms
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64 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

on the nonsubducted plate. A continental–continental boundary 2.10 The Driving Mechanism of Plate Tectonics
occurs when two continents approach each other and the ocean  What drives plates?
floor separating them is eventually subducted, resulting in a colli- Most geologists agree that some type of convective heat system is
sion between the two continents. When the two continents col- the basic process responsible for plate motion.
lide, they are welded together to form an interior mountain chain
along a zone marking the former site of subduction.  How do thermal convection cells move plates?
Two models involving thermal convection cells have been pro-
 How can ancient subduction zones be recognized in the geologic record? posed to explain plate movement. In one model, thermal cells are
Intensely deformed rocks, andesite lavas, and ophiolites are all restricted to the asthenosphere, whereas in the second model, the
evidence of ancient subduction zones, marking former conver- entire mantle is involved. Problems with both models involve the
gent plate boundaries. source of heat for the convection cells and how heat is transferred
from the outer core to the mantle.
 What are transform boundaries?
These are boundaries along which plates slide laterally past each  Can plate movement be gravity driven?
other along transform faults, which change one type of motion Although they accept that some type of thermal convection
between plates into another type of motion. system is involved in driving plate movement, some geologists
think a gravity-driven mechanism such as “slab-pull” or “ridge-
2.8 Hot Spots: An Intraplate Feature push” plays a major role. Both mechanisms still depend on
 What are hot spots and what do they tell us about plate movement? thermal differences within Earth, but slab-pull involves pulling
A hot spot is the location on Earth’s surface where a stationary the plate behind a subducting cold slab of lithosphere, and
column of magma, originating deep within the mantle, has slowly ridge-push involves gravity pushing the oceanic lithosphere
risen to the surface and formed a volcano. Because mantle plumes away from the higher spreading ridges and toward the subduc-
apparently remain stationary within the mantle while plates move tion trenches.
over them, the resulting hot spots leave a trail of extinct and pro-
gressively older volcanoes that record the movement of the plate. 2.11 Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Natural
Resources
2.9 Plate Movement and Motion  How does plate tectonic theory relate to the origin and distribution
 How can the rate and direction of plate movement be determined? of natural resources?
The average rate of plate movement is most commonly deter- The formation of many natural resources results from the inter-
mined by dividing the distance from an oceanic ridge axis to any action between plates, and economically valuable concentrations
magnetic anomaly in the crust of the seafloor by the age of that of such deposits are found associated with current and ancient
anomaly. Because magnetic anomalies are parallel and symmet- plate boundaries.
ric with respect to spreading ridges, the relative direction of
movement of a plate is perpendicular to the spreading ridge.  What is the relationship between plate boundaries and various
metallic mineral deposits?
Satellite–laser ranging techniques are also used to determine the
Many metallic mineral deposits are related to igneous and associ-
rate of movement and relative motion of one plate with respect
ated hydrothermal activity, so it is not surprising that a close rela-
to another. Hot spots enable geologists to determine absolute
tionship exists between plate boundaries and the occurrence of
motion because they provide an apparently fixed reference point
these valuable deposits. Many of the world’s major metallic ore
from which the rate and direction of plate movement can be
deposits are associated with convergent plate boundaries. Diver-
measured.
gent plate boundaries also yield valuable ore deposits.

ESSENTIAL TERMS TO KNOW

continental–continental plate hot spot (p. 57) Pangaea (p. 35)
boundary (p. 54) Laurasia (p. 36) plate (p. 46)
continental drift (p. 35) magnetic anomaly (p. 43) plate tectonic theory (p. 34)
convergent plate boundary (p. 52) magnetic reversal (p. 41) seafloor spreading (p. 41)
Curie point (p. 40) oceanic–continental plate boundary thermal convection cell (p. 42)
divergent plate boundary (p. 47) (p. 54) transform fault (p. 55)
Glossopteris flora (p. 38) oceanic–oceanic plate boundary (p. 52) transform plate boundary (p. 55)
Gondwana (p. 34) paleomagnetism (p. 40)
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Review Workbook 65

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What evidence convinced Wegener and others that conti- 6. Explain why such natural disasters as volcanic eruptions and
nents must have moved in the past and at one time formed earthquakes are associated with divergent and convergent
a supercontinent? plate boundaries.
2. Why was the continental drift hypothesis proposed by 7. What is the supercontinent cycle? What elements of conti-
Wegener rejected by so many geologists for so long? nental drift and seafloor spreading are embodied in the cycle?
3. How did the theory of seafloor spreading, proposed by Harry 8. Why is some type of thermal convection system thought
Hess in 1962, overcome the objections of those opposed to to be the major force driving plate movement? How have
continental drift? “slab-pull” and “ridge-push,” both mainly gravity driven,
modified a purely thermal convection model for plate
4. Explain how magnetic anomalies recorded in oceanic crust as
movement?
well as the sediments deposited on oceanic crust confirm the
seafloor spreading theory. 9. What can hot spots tell us about the absolute direction of
plate movement?
5. Plate tectonic theory builds on the continental drift
hypothesis and the theory of seafloor spreading. As such, 10. In addition to the volcanic eruptions and earthquakes associ-
it is a unifying theory of geology. Explain why it is a uni- ated with convergent and divergent plate boundaries, why are
fying theory. these boundaries also associated with the formation and accu-
mulation of various metallic ore deposits?

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1. Using the age for each of the Hawaiian Islands in Figure 2.22 3. If the movement along the San Andreas fault, which separates
and an atlas in which you can measure the distance between the Pacific plate from the North American plate, averages
islands, calculate the average rate of movement per year for 5.5 cm per year, how long will it take before Los Angeles is
the Pacific plate since each island formed. Is the average rate opposite San Francisco?
of movement the same for each island? Would you expect it to
4. Based on your knowledge of biology and the distribution
be? Explain why it may not be.
of organisms throughout the world, how do you think plate
2. Estimate the age of the seafloor crust and the age and thick- tectonics has affected this distribution both on land and in the
ness of the oldest sediment off the East Coast of North oceans?
America (e.g., Virginia). In so doing, refer to Figure 2.12 for
the ages and to the deep-sea sediment accumulation rate
stated in this chapter.
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GEOLOGY MATTERS

Geology IN FOCUS Oil, Plate Tectonics, and Politics

I t is certainly not surprising that oil and politics are

closely linked. The Iran–Iraq War of 1980–1989
and the Gulf War of 1990–1991 were both fought
United States is also dependent on imports from
the Persian Gulf but receives significant quantities of
petroleum from other sources such as Mexico and
As a consequence of rifting in the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden during the Cenozoic Era, the Arabian
plate is moving northeast away from Africa and sub-
over oil ( Figure 1). Indeed, many of the conflicts Venezuela. ducting beneath Iran. As the sediments of the con-
in the Middle East have had as their underlying Why is so much oil in the Persian Gulf region? The tinental margin were initially subducted, during the
cause control of the vast deposits of petroleum in answer lies in the ancient geography and plate move- early stages of collision between Arabia and Iran, the
the region. Most people, however, are not aware of ments of this region during the Mesozoic and Ceno- heating broke down the organic molecules and led
why there is so much oil in this part of the world. zoic eras. During the Mesozoic Era, and particularly to the formation of petroleum. The tilting of the
Although large concentrations of petroleum occur the Cretaceous Period when most of the petroleum Arabian block to the northeast allowed the newly
in many areas of the world, more than 50% of formed, the Persian Gulf area was a broad marine formed petroleum to migrate upward into the interior
all proven reserves are in the Persian Gulf region. It is shelf extending eastward from Africa. This continental of the Arabian plate. The continued subduction and
interesting, however, that this region did not become margin lay near the equator where countless mi- collision with Iran folded the rocks, creating traps for
a significant petroleum-producing area until the eco- croorganisms lived in the surface waters. The remains petroleum to accumulate, such that the vast area
nomic recovery following World War II (1939–1945). of these organisms accumulated with the bottom south of the collision zone (know as the Zagros
After the war, Western Europe and Japan in particular sediments and were buried, beginning the complex suture) is a major oil-producing region.
became dependent on Persian Gulf oil, and they still process of petroleum generation and the formation of
rely heavily on this region for most of their supply. The source beds in which the petroleum forms.

Figure 1
The Kuwaiti night skies were illuminated by 700 blazing oil wells set on fire by Iraqi troops during the 1991 Gulf War. The fires continued for nine months.

Reuters NewMedia Inc./Corbis

66
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GEOLOGY MATTERS

Geology IN UNEXPECTED PLACES

A Man’s Home Is His Castle

I magine visiting a castle in Devonshire, England,

or Glasgow, Scotland, and noticing that the same
rocks used in the construction of those castles
an oceanic–continental convergent plate boundary.
As movement along this boundary continued, the
ocean basin separating these landmasses shrunk
Later during the Mesozoic Era (251 to 66 million
years ago), as the supercontinent Pangaea broke
apart along divergent plate boundaries, the Atlantic
can be seen in the Catskill Mountains of New York until the two continents collided in what is known Ocean basin formed, separating North America from
( Figure 1). Whereas most people who visit cas- as the Acadian Orogeny. This mountain-building Europe. Even though the Devonian rocks of the pre-
tles in Great Britain and elsewhere in Europe are episode formed a large mountain range. Just as is sent-day Catskill Mountains in New York are sepa-
learning about the history of the castles—when they happening today, those mountains began weather- rated by several thousand kilometers from the Old
were built, why they were built, who lived in them, ing and their eroded sediments were carried by Red Sandstone rocks of Great Britain, they were
and other historical facts—geologists frequently are streams and deposited as large deltas in the shal- formed at the same time and deposited in the same
looking at the rocks that make up the walls of a low seas adjacent to the mountains. The sediments environment hundreds of millions of years ago. That
castle and trying to determine what type of rock it deposited in what is now New York are referred to is why they have the same red color and composi-
is, how old it is, and anything else they can learn by geologists as the Catskill Delta. The counterpart tion and contain many of the same fossils.
about it. in Great Britain is known as the Old Red Sandstone. So, the next time you see someone closely in-
During the Devonian Period (416 to 359 million These sediments were deposited in the same envi- specting the rocks of a castle wall, there is a good
years ago), the North American continent and what ronment and reflect the conditions at the time of chance that person is a geologist or someone, like
is now Europe were moving toward each other along deposition. yourself, who took a geology course.

Figure 1
Remains of Goodrich Castle in Herefordshire, England, dated to the period between 1160 and 1270. Goodrich Castle is one of many castles built from rocks quarried from the Old Red
Sandstone, a Devonian-age formation. Identical red sandstone is found in the Catskill Mountains of New York. It too has been used as a building stone for many structures in the
New York area.

Shayne McGuire/Myth and Legends Photography

67
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GEOLOGY MATTERS

Geology AND CULTURAL CONNECTIONS

The Struggle toward Scientific
Progress

P rogress in science isn’t made easily. It would be

nice if a scientist could come up with a good
idea and then quickly convince other scientists of its
that land bridges had linked what are now different
continents. Wegener, however, took the fossils of
Suess and others and argued that the rocks in which
Wegener also thought that continental move-
ment was quite rapid, much faster than anything
we understand today in plate tectonic theory. In-
merits, but in fact science is more like one long the fossils were embedded must have been physi- deed, Wegener thought that Greenland was moving
argument. cally together in one ancient supercontinent ( Fig- away from Europe at speeds up to meters per
When Alfred Wegener proposed his idea of con- ure 1). Unfortunately, Wegener was a meteorologist year—and he died while in Greenland trying to
tinental drift, it was met by derision from most geol- by training, not a paleontologist, and he made mis- measure that amazing rate of movement. When
ogists. They pointed out that Wegener had no con- takes about the details of the fossil evidence he re- news of Wegener’s disappearance and presumed
vincing explanation for how continents moved across lied on in his argument. Not surprisingly, fossil ex- death in Greenland reached the civilized world, few
entire ocean basins. That was indeed a great weak- perts denounced his work because of those errors. geologists mourned his passing. The arguments
ness in his story, and Wegener’s crit- Wegener had spawned had been
ics capitalized on it. But it wasn’t the vociferous even by the standards of
only issue that they focused on in their Figure 1 scientific disputes.
Mesosaurus, a Permian-aged freshwater reptile whose fossil remains are found in Brazil
attack on Wegener’s ideas. Progress in science isn’t easy, and
and South Africa, indicating these two continents were joined at the end of the
As you read in this chapter, Edward Paleozoic Era. the arguments that ultimately drive
Suess pointed to fossil evidence of science forward are often unpleasant.
similar ancient animals and plants In the case of Alfred Wegener, it is
apparently separated by great dis- now clear that his insights outweighed
tances across oceans. Suess thought his errors.

Reed Wicander

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GEOLOGY MATTERS

Geology AT WORK
The Geologic Exploration of Mars

H ow would you like to have an extra 39 minutes

to work or play each day? Well, you would if you
lived on Mars, or were part of NASA’s (National Aero-
terrain, as well as being able to focus up close on
surface features of the local terrain; a miniature
thermal emission spectrometer for identifying miner-
Shortly after landing, Opportunity transmitted
images of what appeared to be outcrops of layered
bedrock, which you would expect to have been de-
nautics and Space Administration) Mars Exploration als at the site; a Moessbauer spectrometer for posited in an aqueous environment. However, the
Rover project. With the successful landing on Mars close-up investigations of the composition of iron- most exciting discovery was the presence of what
of the two mobile robots Spirit and Opportunity in bearing rocks and soils; an alpha particle X-ray spec- soon came to be called “blueberries,” grey BB-size
January 2004, members of the Mars Exploration trometer for close-up analysis of the abundances of spheres embedded in the rock layers or scattered
Rover team started working on Mars time, or “sols,” elements that make up the Martian rocks and soils; across the surface as a result of having weathered
as the 24-hour, 39-minute Martian day-night cycle and a microscopic imager for looking at the fine- out from the bedrock. Their resemblance to blueber-
became known. They continued to do so for the first scale features of the rocks and soils encountered. In ries in a muffin is what gave them their popular
few months of the mission, as the two rovers ex- addition, they carried a rock abrasion tool for re- name. These hematite-rich spheres were what the
plored the Martian surface. The downside of living moving the weathered surfaces of rocks to expose orbital surveys were picking up as the grey layers,
on Martian time is that each day begins 39 minutes the fresh interiors for examination, and magnetic making Meridiani Planum such a compelling site. In
later than the previous day, which means that, after targets for collecting magnetic dust particles. addition, the spectrometers on Opportunity indi-
awhile, your Earth day will be starting in the evening Shortly after landing both rovers found strong cated the outcrops were rich in water-deposited sul-
instead of the morning. But most team members and convincing evidence that Mars harbored abun- fate-salt minerals and iron-rich compounds. And
would probably agree that is a small price to pay for dant quantities of salty water during its early history, lastly, a 0.3-m-long outcrop showed distinct cross-
working on such an exciting voyage of discovery and several billion years ago. How long this water per- bedding, indicating the sediments were deposited in
exploration. sisted is still not known, but it does offer the tanta- flowing water.
Launched on June 10 and July 7, 2003, respec- lizing prospect that an ancient warmer and wetter As exciting as these discoveries are, we still don’t
tively, the Mars Exploration Rovers Spirit and Oppor- Mars might possibly have harbored life. Evidence know how long water may have existed on Mars, how
tunity successfully landed on opposite sides of Mars from Opportunity that Mars was awash in water, at extensive its “seas” were, and why and how it disap-
on January 3 and 24, 2004 ( Figures 1 and 2), least at the Meridiani Planum landing site, was soon peared so quickly. Nor do we know unequivocally
and began their primary goal of searching for evi- forthcoming. Meridiani Planum, a broad, flat, equa- whether Mars ever supported life. Opportunity and
dence that Mars once harbored an environment torial plain, had been picked as Opportunity’s land- Spirit were not designed to answer such questions,
suitable for sustaining life. To achieve this goal, the ing site because orbital surveys indicated the pres- and it will be up to the next generation of robotic
rovers each carried panoramic cameras that provide ence of gray hematite on the ground, a mineral that rovers or even a manned landing to hopefully answer
360-degree, stereoscopic, humanlike views of the usually forms only in the presence of liquid water. that question.

Figure 2
Figure 1
Self-portrait of the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit taken by its panoramic camera during
Artistic rendition of the Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity on the Martian surface at
its 329th and 330th Martian days. The images combined into this mosaic show the
Meridiani Planum. Since landing in January 2004, Opportunity has transmitted images
Martian surface with numerous pebbles, some of which indicate evidence of wind
of what appear to be outcrops of layered sedimentary rocks, and it has analyzed
erosion. Martian dust accumulations are also visible on Spirit’s solar panel.
hematite-rich spheres scattered across the surface that indicate the presence of water
during their formation.

NASA/JPL/Cornell
NASA/JPL/Cornell

69