Aircraft 101


RF-IR Stealth (Techniques/Benefits)

MARCH 4, 2016NOVEMBER 23, 2018

Brief :

The advantage of detecting, identifying and engaging a target while stay invisible is undeniable,
thus for years designers has been a empting to minimize the ability of radar, RWR and Infrared
system to detect aircraft. Aircraft with significant low observability characteristics embodied in are
called stealth aircraft. This article will discuss some common techniques used by stealth aircraft, their
benefits and clear out some common misconceptions.

Low Observability in Electronic Spectrum.

Radar is the main sensor systems for most aircraft and air defense systems so it is not a surprise that
most of the detection reduction efforts are concentrated in electronic spectrum.
Recalling the basic radar range equation discussed before:

It easy to see that the radar detection range is proportional to σ∧¼ where σ is the radar cross-section
(the RCS ,the measure of a target’s ability to reflect radar signals in the direction of the radar receiver,
often measured in dBsm or m2). Reducing the cross-sectional area, therefore, affects radar range,
although only according to the fourth root. However, by carefully designing an aircraft, the value of σ
may be reduced by many hundreds of times thus present an effective approach.

Contributors to high RCS:

Basic RCS reduction approaches:

1) Shaping

Orientation and curvature of surfaces

 Alignment of edges
Shielding of cavities and ducts

2) Materials selection

Composites and RAM

Metamaterials and other artificial materials

RCS reduction techniques:

Surface orientation:

Make sure surface normals do not point in high priority threat directions
Specular component is frequency independent, but sca ering lobe widths decrease with
increasing frequency
Principal planes (i.e., cuts with the highest sidelobes) are perpendicular to edges
Example above: square versus diamond with the same surface area

Retro-directive Reflectors:
Avoid corner reflectors (dihedral and trihedral reflectors)
No vertical/horizontal tail surfaces on aircraft

Surface orientation is the most important feature of a stealth aircraft, even without radar
absorbing material, a stealth airframe can achieve much lower RCS compare to conventional
aircraft
Example picture: Computer simulation radar sca ering characteristics of Mig-21 ( on the top )and
F-35 ( on the bo om ), frontal radar cross section of F-35 fluctuated between -20 and -30 dBsm
while Mig-21’s radar cross section fluctuated between 10 and 0 dBsm (both models are without
radar absorbing material )
When looking at radar sca ering graph of aircraft, one common mistake is to assume that aircraft will
be detected by radar at a significantly longer distance from the side aspects or tail aspects, because
radar sca ering charts often show much higher radar cross section values for beam aspect and tail
aspect compared to the frontal aspect of aircraft. That misconception raised from the fact that most
enthusiasts treat radar return as equally valuable regardless of aspect angle. That is not the case,
however, and here is why:

.Most radar energy is transmi ed and received via a main lobe aligned with the antenna’s boresight,
but smaller amounts enter through sidelobes that point in almost all directions.

Radar performance degrades at viewing angles where a target must be distinguished from
background clu er. Clu er can enter the receiver via the sidelobes, and the processor has no way of
knowing the return did not come from the main lobe. Such returns can mask that of the target.
Modern radars mitigate this phenomenon with Doppler processing. A pulse-Doppler radar records
the time of arrival of a return and also compares its phase with that of the transmi ed wave. The
difference between the two reveals the target’s radial velocity. The computer creates a 2D
range/velocity matrix of all returns, which puts approaching targets in cells with no stationary
ground clu er. This is why airborne radars exhibit their best detection ranges against approaching
targets. But if the target is being chased, its radial velocity will match some of the ground clu er, and
it will be harder to detect.
For example, the Sukhoi Su-35’s Irbis-E radar in high-power, narrow-beam search can detect a 3-m2
(32-ft.2) target at 400 km (250 mi.) from the front but only 150 km from behind, and these ranges drop
by half in normal search mode. The hardest airborne targets to see are those moving perpendicular to
the radar, because their Doppler profile matches the ground directly below the aircraft. For ground-
based radars, the same principles apply, but the antenna is stationary. Fleeing targets stand out as
much as approaching aircraft. But ground-based radars are especially challenged in detecting targets
moving perpendicularly, because their Doppler profile matches the stationary clu er all around. A
tactic used by fighter pilots against ground radars, called “notching,” is to turn perpendicular to the
radar, placing the aircraft in the “Doppler notch” in which the radar suffers significantly reduced
range.

Edge Serration and Alignment:

The maximum intensity of the diffracted lobe from an edge (in the Keller cone direction) increases
with edge length.

Serrations break up edges to reduce lobe intensities ,serrations are applied to both edges. Example
using a rectangular plate is shown.
 Edges are generally aligned so that their lobes occur in low priority region, leading edge
sca ering is dominated by TE polarization. Trailing edge by TM polarization. Example shown: 5λ
plate with wave incident perpendicular to edge, 70 degrees from normal incidence (green arrow is
E; red arrow is ki)

Current Discontinuities:

Gaps in conductivity lead to edge diffraction. A seam can look continuous, but there may not be good
conduction between the two sides. Ex: wire with a break.

Passive Cancellation:

Approach: add a secondary sca erer and adjust it so its sca ered field cancels that of the bare
target
Only effective over a narrow range of angles and frequency bandwidth
Only practical for canceling low RCS levels
Examples: parasitic elements and lumped loads
 Passive cancellation structure ( or RAS )

Intake RCS reduction:

Intake cavity and engine fan blades are a great source of radarreflection.. Stealth aircraft intake
are often more sophisticated, being a serpentine duct rather than a direct, more conventional
intake, they use complex techniques to reduce reflection over a range of frequencies. The intake is
designed to counter radar threats at three wavelengths loosely termed long ( 30 cm), medium ( 10–
20 cm) and short ( 3 cm),equating to 1 GHz (long-range surveillance radar), 1.5–3 GHz (AWACS
radar) and 10 GHz(fighter radar) respectively.
At long wavelengths (30 cm ) the stealth fighter inlet ducts behave as follow:
At medium wavelengths (10-20 cm ) the stealth fighter inlet ducts behave as follow:

At medium-short wavelength, stealth fighter inlet ducts behave as follow:

Randome RCS reduction:

Antenna mode reflections. The antenna mode reflections mimic the antenna main beam and
sidelobes.

Random sca ering. This is caused if the antenna characteristics are not uniform across the
antenna.

Radar antenna edge diffraction. Mismatches of impedances at the perimeter of the antenna can
cause reflections called edge diffraction. In effect the outer perimeter of the antenna acts as a loop
and reflections tend to be abeam of the antenna rather than fore and aft.
Canopy RCS reduction :

Radar wave can go through canopy and reflected off object inside the cockpit , thus increase RCS
significantly. Solution : coat the inner of canopy with a thin layer of gold to prevent radar wave
from entering the cockpit , the ou er cockpit is coated with transparent radar absorbing material.
Example :

Weapons RCS reduction :

Missiles, bombs are all great contributors to radar reflection due to the perpendicular angle of their
wings, fins, Pylons is another great contributors because of the corner they make with aircraft wing.
As a result, stealth aircraft often carry weapons internally, the added benefits is the reduction in
drag. However, due to the limitation in size when using internal configuration, a stealth fighter
cannot carry as many weapons as a normal fighter. In some case, external pylons of stealth aircraft are
designed to have a unique shape so as to reduce their signature.

Example: radar sca ering characteristic of short range heat seeking missiles
Example: F-35 weapons bay
Example: Low observable pylon vs legacy pylon

Skin RCS reduction :

No ma er what shape they have, airframe will always reflect radar waves.The only different that
shaping will make is the directions that the airframe will reflect radar.While this may be enough in
most situation.The adversary may consist of very complex radar network that can illuminate stealth
platform from different angles, so along with unique shaping to redirect radar wave from the original
source, stealth aircraft often have radar absorbing paint or use radar absorbing material (RAM ).One
might be very tempted to construct stealth aircraft skin from such “radio transparent” materials, but
radar would then reflect off objects beneath the surface such as sensors, fuel, metallic airframe and
engine parts and the pilot.The result may be a RCS value even higher than if the skin was radar
reflective. As a result, in practice, the bo om layer of a stealth skin is a highly conductive material,
such as metal, which strongly reflects radar waves before they reach the complex reflecting
environment below.

The ability of a substance to absorb electromagnetic (EM) waves depends on two material properties
called permi ivity and permeability, which are the capacity to store electrical or magnetic energy,
respectively. The source of both is the existence of electric or magnetic dipoles at the atomic,
molecular or crystal la ice level. When an EM wave passes through the material, these dipoles orient
opposite to the field’s direction. In some materials, the dipoles effortlessly return to neutral after the
EM field returns to zero. In other materials, the dipoles are “sticky” and require energy to orient them
or return them to neutral. That additional energy is lost and the material’s permi ivity or
permeability is said to have a loss component.

In general, RAMs are composites made up of a matrix material and a filler. The matrix is a low-loss
dielectric material with appreciable permi ivity and negligible permeability. They are effectively
“transparent” to EM waves and are usually chosen for their physical properties. Typically, they are
insulating polymers like plastic, glass, resin, polyurethane and rubber. Ceramics have higher
permeabilities and heat tolerance. Foams and honeycombs have especially low permi ivity—
electrical energy storage—because they contain a lot of air.The RAM filler, on the other hand, is
typically particles composed of or coated with a lossy material. Carbon is the material of choice for
dielectric absorption because electrical lossiness is proportional to conductivity and carbon’s
conductivity is below metals but above insulators. Magnetic absorbers, which have some permi ivity
but far greater permeability—magnetic energy storage—are typically carbonyl iron (a pure powdered
form of the metal) or iron oxides, also called ferrites. These materials can be impregnated into rubber
or dissolved into a paint and ferrites are often sintered into tiles.

As its permi ivity, permeability, and loss components increase, a material can absorb more EM
energy because EM wavelengths shrink as these values rise. But when waves reach a boundary
between two mediums, energy can be reflected rather than admi ed. The amount reflected depends
on their impedances—the square root of the ratio between each material’s permeability and
permi ivity. The greater the impedance change, the more energy is reflected before it can be
absorbed. So RAM design must balance absorptivity with surface reflectivity to maximize absorption.

A material’s EM properties also varied significantly with frequency. At higher radar bands, no
magnetic materials have permi ivity and permeability in a ratio close to that of air, so high surface
reflection is inevitable. However, if the material is a quarter-wavelength deep, reflection from the
metal backing partially cancels the surface reflection.Radar absorbing materials operate via phase
cancellation like this is often called magnetic absorber. Because of the high permeability of magnetic
RAM, the depth required is small. Absorption performance of 20 dB (99%) is achieved by
commercially available “resonant absorbers” with resonant frequencies of 1-18 GHz and thicknesses
of 0.04-0.2 in. The main disadvantages of such absorber is very narrow absorbing bandwidth,
however, with significant absorption extending perhaps 15% from the resonance frequency.
Given that magnetic absorbing material has limited bandwidth, as well as high weight and cost,
dielectric absorbers are often preferred for wideband absorption at high frequencies. Since dielectrics
have no magnetic properties, their impedances never match air, but by using layers of materials—
each with an increasing concentration of carbon particles—permi ivity, conductivity and dielectric
losses all gradually increase while impedance gradually decreases. Layers can also be adjusted to
maximize cancellations. These graded dielectric absorbers can reduce reflection by 20 dB, and their
bandwidth easily covers higher frequencies. High levels of reflection loss, in many cases be er than
20dB, can be achieved in materials which are <1/3 wavelength thick. One of the most common type of
graded dielectric absorber is the reticulated foam absorbing material.

Another approach is to use a physical gradient. These “geometric transition” absorbers use pointed
objects of homogeneous material oriented perpendicular to waves. At high frequencies, waves bounce
among these structures, losing energy with each strike. If the wavelength is large relative to the
structure, the waves act as though encountering a gradual change in material properties rather than a
geometric shape. Absorbers of this type can reduce reflection by up to 60 dB, but require structures
very big structures and high weight so their only application is the pyramidal absorbers that line
anechoic chambers used for RCS testing.

It is a common misconception that radar absorbing material is only effective around X band (8-12
Ghz) or that RAM work at low frequencies will always need to be thick or heavy. In fact, some
magnetic materials actually become more effective at lower frequencies because their energy storage
(permeability) increases. At frequencies of 30-1,000 MHz, certain ferrites exhibit extreme wave
compression and impedance close to air. Commercial ferrite tiles can achieve over 20 dB reduction in
VHF band and 10 dB reduction through UHF, with a thickness of only 0.25 in. and a weight of 7
lb./ft.2.

So far, what has been discussed is reducing specular reflections—those that bounce off an object like
light off a mirror—but RAM is also particularly effective at reducing surface waves. These are the
waves emi ed by currents induced in a conductive surface when struck by radar. As they move along
the surface they emit traveling waves, usually at angles close to grazing, and when they encounter
discontinuities—an airframe edge, a gap or step in the surface or a change in material—they emit
edge waves, concentrated closer to the specular reflection. Surface currents travel along a material’s
length rather than through its thickness, and the RAM acts as a waveguide, trapping the currents and
absorbing them. Magnetic RAM can suppress surface currents well in a thickness of only 0.03 in.
There are ways to combine techniques. Layered magnetic materials can reduce RCS by 10 dB from 2-
20 GHz with 0.3 in. of depth. Hybrid RAMs can be created with a front layer of graded dielectric and
a back layer of magnetic material to a enuate radar reflections from VHF to Ku-band (30 MHz-18
Ghz).
One disadvantage that all radar absorbing materials mentioned above share is that they add weight
and volume without adding structural integrity.The radar absorbing materials developed for F-117,
B-2 F-22 can kept their RCS small, but their maintenance burdens proved too heavy. Their durability
disappointed, necessitating frequent replacements that ballooned support costs and time while
restricting aircraft availability. RAM fillers tend to be spherical, a few to tens of micrometers in size
and densely packed, which is good for absorptive qualities but bad for durability. Bonding them to
aircraft surfaces also proved troublesome. As a result, from the beginning of the F-35 program,
Lockheed’s goal was to achieve acceptable stealth while reducing maintenance needs.In May of 2010,
Tom Burbage, then executive vice president for the F-35 program, disclosed the incorporation of
“fiber mat” technology, describing it as the biggest technical breakthrough they’ve had on F-35
program.The fiber mat would replace many RAM appliques by being cured into the composite skin,
making it durable. Burbage further specified the mat featured a “non-directional weave” which
would ensure EM properties do not vary with angle. Baked into the skin, this layer could vary in
thickness as necessary. Lockheed declined to provide further details, citing classification. Without
further evidence, fiber mat would imply the use of fibers, rather than particles, which would make for
stronger surfaces and the word “conductive” points to carbon-based RAM. That wasn’t the first time
it is hinted that F-35 has a unique kind of RAM. One month before Burbage’s disclosure, Lockheed
filed a patent (h ps://docs.google.com/viewer?
url=patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/pdfs/US20100271253.pdf)claiming the first method of
producing a durable RAM panel. The patent details a method for growing carbon nanotubes (CNT)
on any kind of fiber—glass, carbon, ceramic or metal with unprecedented precision in control of
length, density, a number of walls, connectivity, and even orientation. The CNT-infused fibers can
absorb or reflect radar, and connectivity among the CNTs provides pathways for induced currents.
Moreover, the CNTs can be impregnated with iron or ferrite nanoparticles. Fibers can have differing
CNT densities along their lengths and homogenous fibers can be layered or mixed. The embodiments
described include front layers with impedance matching air, use of quarter-wavelength depths for
cancellation, stepped or continuous CNT-density gradients and continuously varying densities at
specific depths for broadband absorption. The fibers can be disposed with “random orientation” in
materials including “a woven fabric, a non-woven fiber mat and a fiber ply.”.The patent claims
composites with CNT-infused fibers are capable of absorbing EM waves from 0.1 MHz to 60 GHz
with particular effectiveness in L- through K-band.That is a bandwidth unheard of commercial radar
absorbing material before. The patent does not quantify the absorptivity, but does say the panels
would be “nearly a black body across . . . various radar bands.” Also, interestingly, a layer can be
composed so an a ached computer can read the induced currents in the fibers, making the layer a
radar receiver.While the patent mentions stealth aircraft, it does not mention the F-35 specifically, and
the manufacturing readiness level of the material at the time it was granted is not known. But the
proximity in timing and technology of the filing to the “fiber mat” disclosure is hard to ignore.

Results:

With careful design stealth aircraft can have RCS equal a fraction of conventional aircraft.
Benefit of low RCS

Reduce radar detection range:

One easy to see benefit of RCS reduction is the deduce in enemy detection range ,thus giving pilots
more times to react to the threat or ge ing into weapon engagement zone

Example : radar detection range between conventional and stealth aircraft.

 Improve jamming effectiveness:

It is a common misconception that stealth technology is short live and as radar get more powerful ,
soon , they will be able to out range weapon engagement envelop , thus renders all money spend on
RCS reduction a waste. This impression is inaccurate because any technology that can increase a
radar peak power or gain will also benefit a jammers in the same ways. And stealth have a synergy
relationship with jamming .

Another common opinion is that the gap in RCS can easily be close by using a more powerful jammer
.This is also inaccurate because RCS directly proportional to the power required to jam a radar at a
certain distance.Which mean when RCS is reduced to 1/100th the original value, the required
jamming power is also reduced to 1/100th the original value to achieve the same effect.In others
words, if a stealth aircraft need a 10 kW jammer , a conventional asset will need jammer with power
of 10Mw or more

If the jamming power is keeping the same then burn-through range is reduced by 10 times, which
mean stealth assets( RCS =0.001m2 ) can get 10 times closer the threat compared to conventional
aircraft ( RCS=0.1m2).In other words ,even if adversary radar can see through jamming of
conventional assets from 400 km aways, a stealth asset can still get within 40 km of such radar using
exactly same jamming system

Example : burn-through distance of F-35 , F-18E with same jamming assets, same threat radar (
image not to scale )
 Burn-through Range is the radar to target range where the target return signal can first be
distinguished from the Jamming signal ( rendering jamming ineffective).

Low Observability In Infrared Spectrum.

All objects with a temperature above absolute zero emit heat energy in the form of radiation. Usually
this radiation is invisible to the human eye because it radiates at infrared wavelengths, but it can be
detected by electronic devices designed for such a purpose , these devices are called infrared (IR
)sensor. With the improvement in optics and processing power of CPU , nowadays infrared sensors
can see much further than human eyes .As a result, all stealth aircraft use one way or another to
suppress their infrared signature.

Infrared signature suppression has two objectives:

Reduce the range at which an IR missile or sensor can detect and track the
aircraft.
Increase the effectiveness of countermeasure systems and devices.

It is important to note that infrared sensor detecting assets by comparing the contrast of such assets
infrared signature with background radiation , thus the effectiveness of infrared suppression is
affected significantly by the temperature of background. In general clear sky is the worst background
due to their low temperature while cloud and/or hot land surface make the best backgrounds for
stealth aircraft to hide from adversary infrared sensor.( for the same reason, aircraft fly higher are
much easier to detect by IRST )

Example: infrared photo of C-130 in 2 different background

Like all electromagnetic radiation, IR interacts with ma er in a variety of ways:

Reflects—A wave is reflected from a surface. The angle of reflection equals the
angle of incidence.
Refracts—The direction of a wave bends when passing between two transparent
media with different propagation speeds (Snell’s law).
Sca ers—Sca ering occurs upon interaction with particles whose size
approaches the length of the wave (why the sky is blue).
Diffracts—This interaction occurs around the edges of an obstruction.
Interferes–This interaction occurs in both a constructive and destructive manner.
Absorbs—When absorbed by ma er, radiation is converted into another form of
energy. The most common conversion is to heat.
Emits—Radiation is emi ed from ma er by conversion from another form of
energy.
Transmits—IR propagates through a transparent medium (or vacuum).
Polarizes—An electric field is partially polarized by reflection from dielectric

Infrared wavelength range from 0.7-14 µm , divided to short ( 0.7-1.5 µm ) medium (1.5-6 µm ) and
long infrared wave (7-14 µm ), with different characteristics they all have different military
application.
Infrared signature of aircraft:

An aircraft’s infrared signature is a complex mixture of emissions and reflections from different
materials with different emissivity and different areas. Signature is complex in its spectral
distribution, in its contrast against background, and in its dependence on conditions. Aspect angle,
altitude, airspeed, ambient air temperature, power se ing, and
sun angle are only a partial list of conditions affecting signature values.

High infrared signature component of fighter aircraft:

 Engine “hot parts,” which usually consist of the aft turbine face, engine center
body, and interior nozzle sidewalls.
Engine exhaust plumes, which are emissions from the combustion constituents
of CO2 and water vapor.
Airframe, which includes all of the external surfaces of the wings, fuselage,
canopy, etc. Airframe signature includes solar and terrestrial reflections, mach shock wave in
addition to direct emissions.

Similar to radar cross section, IR signature of an aircraft is very aspect angle dependence thus lead to
very different detection range, For example : OLS-35 ( IRST system on Su-35 ) can easily detect an
aircraft from 90 km aways from tail aspect, however in head on aspect the detection range reduce
significantly down to 30 km

Airframe Aerodynamic Heating:

The temperature of the airframe is warmer than ambient by the amount of aerodynamic heating. A
good estimate of airframe temperature is given by the formula for the recovery temperature given
below. Note that the temperature units are Kelvin.The temperature of the skin of an aircraft stabilizes
at the ambient air temperature plus aerodynamic heating. Aero heating increases as the square of
Mach number. The formula below gives a good approximation:

Aircraft moving at supersonic speed also produces compressed air ( Mach cone ) which not only
increase the airframe temperature significantly but also increase frontal area present to the infrared
sensor.
Aircraft moving at Mach 1 can be detected by IR sensor at twice the distance compare to aircraft
moving at Mach 0.8
As shown in table above flying supersonic can increase aircraft infrared signature significantly, so
the most simple solution is to stay subsonic, the trade off of such decision is smaller weapon
engagement envelope, longer reaction time for adversary , this solution works well in design that
high speed is not a requirement such as F-117 , B-2 .
Another solution is to use fuel as heat sink , most modern stealth aircraft have internal fuel tanks
distributed evenly through out the airframe, the fuel being use all the time thus they can transfer
the built up heat aways from the aircraft.Fuel can also be used to reduce heat generated by
electronic equipments,avionics systems like radar and jammer can generate very high amount of
heat.Example : fuel tank contribution of conventional aircraft ( on the left) vs stealth aircraft ( on
the right)
 Modern stealth assets also use carbon composite material in the leading edge of the wing, such
material has good IR dissipation ability, some RAM paints also have modest infrared reduction
ability, For example the Top coat on F-22 , F-35 reported to reduce their skin infrared signature in
long infrared wavelength (8–12 microns) by more than half.

Internal Equipment Heating:

Electronics equipment such as radars and jammers generate significant amount of heat, the more
sophisticated and powerful the equipment is the more heat they will create , cooling are required not
only to reduce enemy’s infrared sensor detection range but also to prevent the equipment from being
overheat and shutdown

aircraft that lack significant cooling features for electronics often have higher body temperature ,
thus easier to detect.

For example:

picture of F-16 in mid-infrared wavelength.

Solution : As mentioned earlier , avionics can be cooled using fuels , furthermore aircraft can use
open vents, thus atmosphere air can act as heat exchanger with the fuel which got heated by
 avionics

For example : F-35 has a scoop located on the top of the right wing-glove to provide air to the fuel/air
heat exchanger. A deployable scoop is located on the left-aft fuselage to provide air to the IPP and to
the avionics

The aircraft also use engines bypass air as heat exchanger

Airframe heating due to engines:

With the core temperature of several hundreds degrees of modern jet engines , without appropriate
measuares, they can increase aircraft body temperature dramatically
For example : picture of Typhoon in mid-infrared wavelength

Solution :

Airframe heating due to jet engines can be reduced by extensive use of cooling vents, the cold air
at high altitude provides an isolation layer between the engine and the airframe

For example: the F-35 has two scoops located in the wing/fuselage to provide nacelle bay ventilation
Temperature from the exhaust fumes:

The biggest contributors of signature in mid-infrared wavelength on a jet aircraft is their exhaust
fumes, reduction of exhaust temperature as li le as 100 degrees can reduce aircraft infrared emission
by more than haft
One very common misconception about jet engine and infrared signature is : an engine with higher
thrust will always have a higher infrared signature, however that is an inaccurate assumption. It is
entirely possible to have higher IR signature with lower thrust value.

To understand why lets have a look at the design of jet engines: below is a diagram of a normal
turbofan engine commonly used in all aircraft flying nowadays:

The 2 main components that responsible for thrust are the Fan and engine core.

The compressor , turbine and combustor ( also know as the engine core ) move air at very high speed
hence, they are less dependence on air density and aircraft velocity. On the other hand, the fan stage
moves air at much slower rate ,which is much more fuel efficient and also mix the exhaust plume
with cold air, thus reduce the temperature of the plume. Not all air suck in by the first stage fan will
go through the engine’s core (compressor , turbine and combustor ) some will pass through the outer
duct. The air that passed through the outer duct is called bypass air. To get to a certain thrust level,
an engine can either have very big fan and small core ( good for combat radius and thermal signature
) or very big core and relatively small fan (good for speed and high altitude performance )
Due to reasons stated above one of the solution for exhaust temperature reduction is to use
engines with higher bypass ratio , the trade off of such design choice is the aircraft will not be able
to fly very high or very fast. ( For example F-135 have much higher bypass ratio compared to F-
119 , EJ200 , Snecma M88 , R-15 ,F404 )

A common misconception is that engine turbine inlet temperature is also proportional to exhaust
temperature, that is wrong, however, in reality, turbine inlet temperature does not reflect the
engine case temperature or even the exhaust plume temperature. It simply means that the gasses
entering the turbine is at a higher energy state and the engine will yield more gross energy per
drop of fuel or air entering the combustor(s). That energy however, is extracted to do work first
by the high-pressure turbine, then by the low-pressure turbine before going out the tail pipe at a
given velocity. The final temperature depends on how much energy is extracted to drive the
compressors and the fan, and how much bypass air is mixed into the exhaust. The F-35 has twice
as many low pressure turbine stages which in theory will extract more energy. It also has a bigger
and higher pressure ratio fan which adds energy to the exhaust as well as introduce relatively
cold air into the mix. The exhaust plume temperature and engine case temperature can never be
derived from the turbine inlet temperature alone.
It is also important to remember that unlike a rocket, jet engines are air-breathing engine, which
means their performance depending a lot on air density, the thinner the air the less thrust they
will be able to generate, so aircraft thrust will reduce as they go higher. For example: a jet engine
that can generate more than 190kN at sea level can be struggled to push out 10kN at 40-50K feet.
On the other hand, a rocket engine can generate the same amount of thrust regardless of altitude
Using high bypass engine is not the only method of reducing exhaust temperature, however. Modern
stealth aircraft also use exotic engines nozzles that either long and flat or with the serrated pa ern so
that exhaust fumes become unstable and mixed quicker with cool ambient air .As a result, the heat
will be dissipated rapidly. In some aircraft, there are spacing between nozzle plates linked to cooling
vents to help reduce the temperature of outer nozzle surface

Example :

1. F-117 and B-2 have flat exhaust nozzles

2.F-35 with serrated nozzle and cooling vents on nozzles

3. Thermal image of exhaust fumes.First nozzle uses conventional circular design. Second nozzle use
serrated design. It is estimated that fumes length is reduced by around 40%

4. Test data comparison between conventional exhaust nozzle and serrated nozzle:
 Stealth aircraft are also designed so that from front, the view of their engines nozzles will be
blocked by their vertical and horizontal stabilizer

Example: Aircraft ( on the left ) have exposed engine nozzles while aircraft ( on the right ) have
masked nozzles
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9 thoughts on “RF-IR Stealth (Techniques/Benefits)”

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Alex Sanderson says:
SEPTEMBER 3, 2018 AT 9:30 PM
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Ashish Bha says:
JANUARY 31, 2019 AT 9:06 AM
Excellent information.
just wanted to ask a question too.
How the F 22 cools the nacelle/ engine bay??

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