Mustansiriyah

University
College of Arts
Translation Department

Rhetorical Devices Used In Translating Novels

A Mid-term Paper as Partial requirement of the Course of

Literary Translation

Submitted by:

Umnia Jamal Lateef

[email protected]

Course Tutor

Asst. Prof. Raheem G. Al-Kaabi, (Ph.D)

 2018

Abstract

All literary works are challenging for a translator especially if he aims at creating a work
that renders the same pleasure that affected the readers of the original work .

Rhetorical devices are the primary components of literary works which make any
translator thinks more than once before he choose to specialize his field in literary.

This paper considered some literary devices used in novels and presents the was these
devices were translated and emphasizing on two of the, namely: metaphor and simile.

Rhetorical Devices

Starting this research paper with the definition of the rhetorical devices in general.
Commonly known rhetorical devices have few other names like persuasive devices or stylistic
devices. They are defined as the author’s usage of techniques that assists him to convey the
meaning that he is intending to the listener or the reader keeping the persuasion as a goal to
consider a different perspective for a topic by using types of sentences that are designed to
provoke or encourage a sentimental display of a mentioned action or perspective. The rhetorical
devices may be used to trigger an emotional reaction in the audience, still this is not the core
purpose of using these devices.

The rhetorical devices are classified into categories:

- Logos: that is defined as the use of logical ideas for the sake of attracting the
audience.
 - Pathos: that is the appeal to crowd’s emotions.
- Ethos: explains the guiding beliefs that resemble a community, ideology or
nation; it may also be appealing to the author’s reliability. This appeal is based on the personality
of the speaker.
- Kairos: this one is described by the appeal to the timeline of the produced
argument.

The rhetorical devices are generally classified into three major categories: one involves
methods such as association, emphasis, focus and clarification; another that involves transition,
physical organization, argument or disposition; the third involves variety and decoration. There
are times when the given trope or device falls primarily into one category for instance the
emphasis can be denoted by an expletive. Yet there are devices that their effects can be more
than one and can be operated by a single effect that falls into the three categories at the same
time, an example for that is parallelism which functions to emphasis, clarify, prettify the thought
and order.

Now let us start with defining each device apart starting with:

1. A sentential adverb:

Is a short phrase or one word that usually interrupts the normal syntax used to give
emphasis to the words immediately close to the meant adverb. On the two sides of the pause we
emphasize the words or it is used as interruption in the order to keep the continuity of the idea.

 But the river was not drained after June.

 But the river was not drained, actually, drained before June.
 They might sometimes be placed at the head of a sentence and function as to signal the
importance of the whole sentence presented after it, in this case the sentence should be in its
shortest possible form. For example:

 In short, the garbage man had neglected his soul.

Or when the author tends to not underemphasize a certain objection or an argument he

opposes.

 “To be sure, no one desires to live in a foul and disgusting environment. But
neither do we want to desert our cities”.

In few examples, the sentential adverb might be placed at the end of the sentence,
especially with short ones like:

 It was a cold week indeed.

 Fasold won the contest, of course.

It can also be used to emphasize a phrase as in:

 The Collins, obviously a happy family, live in a new house with fancy floors.

Traditional phrases, some adverbs and other interrupters may be used to emphasize parts
of sentences and serve as type of quasi-sentential adverb in these conditions. For example:

 We find some customers, however, not willing to come

 “There is nothing, Sir, too little for so little a creature as man.—Samuel Johnson”

There are other useful types of sentential adverbs that include: of course, in fact, I think,
indeed, to be sure, without doubt, it seems, naturally, for all that, after all, in short, on the whole,
in any event, to tell the truth, I suppose, clearly, I hope, assuredly, at least, remarkably,
importantly, certainly, in formal and definitely and other close colloquial emphases such as: you
see, you know, get this and huh and of course avoiding expletives that cannot be used in a
written way.
 2. Asyndeton:

This device deals with omitting the conjunctions between words, clauses or phrases. Its
effect is of unpremeditated multiplicity of an improvised. For instance:

 On his victory he presented treasures, medals, honors, fame, titles.

The omission of the conjunction ‘and’ serves to indicate that the list is probably not
completed, here is another example to compare both ways when it is omitted and presented in the
following:

 I like olives, pickles, raisins, pretzels, dates.

 I like olives, pickles, raisins, pretzels and dates.

For a direct climatic and a strong effect, the asyndetic list is the useful one to be used in
this case. Also in some cases the deletion of this conjunction gives the impact of a synonymity if
it occurred between short phrases or the impression of an afterthought or a replacement of the
previous one, as in the following:

 She was a winner, a heroin.

 She was a winner and a heroin.

There is also a noticeable degree of spontaneity in some conditions by using asyndeton

like:

 The rich, moist, fertile soil.

That looks more spontaneous and natural that the following one:

 The rich, moist and fertile soil.

In general, asyndeton delivers the feeling of concision and speed to phrases, clauses and
lists but the effect, occasionally, can hardly be categorized. Notice the following “flavor” below:
  In movies I find the dead as if they were among us; in movies I foresee events to
happen; in movies warlike affairs put forth; from movies put forth the laws of peace. Richard de
Bury
 We definitely hold within us an image of a person, to whom our veneration and
love look, in whose smile we capture our happiness, for whom we long, in whose fury we trouble
and waste away. John Henry Newman

3. Polysyndeton:

Is characterized by the employment of the conjunctions after every other word, clause or
phrase which in structure makes it the opposite of the aforementioned device, asyndeton.
Polysyndeton rhetorical effect is kind of the same as the one of asyndeton in energetic, building
up, enumeration and the feeling of multiplicity. Here is an example illustrates it:

 They studied and read and drilled. I played and laughed and flunked and talked.

Polysyndeton is used to express an attempt to involve something complex:

 (She) pursues her way, / and sinks, or swims, or creeps, or wades, or flies. John
Milton
 This fluid is like a witch’s potion. / Burnt blue, green, and white

The usage of polysyndeton here signifies the effect of intensity and persistence or
emphasis to the other impact of multiplicity illustrated by multiple conjunctions in the structure.
The repetition of “or “ or “nor” gives the intensity of alternativeness and the use of “yet” or “but”
repeatedly emphasizes qualifications.

Here are instances showing the effectiveness of the mentioned factors:

  And to put forth the correct standard, and to behave according to it, and to assist
forward all students in accordance to their different capacities, this we conceive to be the
business of a college.
 I have not money, nor power, nor influence, nor authority; but ambitions to
preserve, and the hope that I shall conquer soon.

4. Understatement:

This device intends to express a thought in less importance than it really is, this is used
either for emphasizing on the ironic part or for focusing on the tact and politeness. When the
audience of the writer can be predicted to know the real nature of the fact that might be rather
uneasy to explain in a limited space adequately, here the writer may resort to use the device of
understatement to understate the truth as a way of using the power of description of the readers’
minds. Citing one example for that here as the understating the earthquake that took place in San
Francisco in 1906 instead of mentioning the horrific destruction it caused:

 1906 earthquake of San Francisco intervened business somewhat in the northern

area.

This effect maintained here is not the similar caused by the earthquake destruction but
this understating is an effect desired by the readers. Other examples here as:

 Last month we saw a man flayed, you cannot believe to what extent it altered him
for the worse. Johnathan Swift
 You know, we would be a little confused if you will be hit at two am by a drunk
car driver, so I hope you will come early.

In the above cases, the reader provides his own knowledge about the truth and makes a
more personal and vivid description that the one of the writer.

Bottom line, understatement is best used to create tactfulness and modesty. Just whenever
one receives a trophy for his accomplishments or when one needs to describe his own position,
by using this device, anyone can avoid being charges for egotism or exaggerating and in our
human nature, it is always pleasing to find out something more or better than we have expected
or were promised. And it is known that the modest person can directly win the admiration of the
people surrounding him especially if that person was talented or professional in his position. So
according to that we might hear someone says “well, I have some knowledge about rocks” but it
turns out that he is an expert geologist, it is more appealing to people to hear it that way rather
than “oh, I am an expert in this field”.

Another useful function of this device is when dealing with audience disagreeing with
someone or being in a hostile group because, as the following example shows, it holds much less
offence using the second one in speaking:

 The forth law proves that that statement is false and ridiculous.
 The forth law is effective against the probability of such a statement.

Keeping in mind that using this device shall be for the writer to persuade the audience
and not to insult or offend them. As if the offence is taken by the audience, they will not be
available for persuasion for the other things.

There are matters that need not to be underestimated ever such as the power and degree
of pride in the heart of a human being. Taking under consideration that objection and opposing
are not pleasing to many kinds of people who represent the audience of the writer nor willing to
be disagreed as this will be taken as an indication of disrespect therefore the writer must offer his
work humbly that way even the persons who do agree with the writer from the beginning will be
even more persuaded, because as mentioned earlier the humble person is more desirable and
preferable by the audience.

The following two statements will illustrate its effect on the reader:

 Any person who thinks that this liquid is safe for drinking is either foolish or
stupid. The thing is poisoned and has coliform bacteria in it. Aren’t those idiots aware of that?
 The opponents believe that this water is safe to drink, although we’re not quite
sure that we would drink it. They might be unaware of the type of bacteria it contains.

This device makes the idea less significant than it is as in:

  The tornado interrupted traffic a bit

5. Litotes:

It is a certain form of the previous device (understatement) which is generated as the

contrary of the word or denying the opposite which otherwise will be used. Depending on the
context and the tone of the usage, it either retains the understatements effect or transforms into
an intensifying expression.

Take the difference between the following two instances:

 Heat waves are frequent in the Middle East.

 Heat waves are not strange in the Middle East.

The construction of litotes occasionally conveys irony by its understatement.

 I saw him when he threw the buckets of paints at his papers in anger, and that did
not perfectly resemble his subject.

Usually, using litotes emphasis on the sentiments meant by the writer and makes an
impact of strong emotions conveyed moderately as in:

 By hitting that table you certainly did not do your motorcycle any good.
 The one who examines himself will not long stay ignorant of his failures.
 Overall, the taste of the herbs, mushrooms and spices make the meal not at all
disagreeable to the dish.

6. Parallelism:
 It is defined as recurrent syntactical similarities. Some parts of a sentence or some
sentences can be expressed in a similar way to indicate that the ideas in the sentences or the parts
have the same importance. Parallelism adds also rhythm and balance and adds clarity as well to
the sentence which is the most important impact it gives.

Any element of a sentence can be paralleled any count of times (noting that if it counted
more than needed it will become ridiculous):

 Savage dragons breathing fire and wicked witches casting spells do the harm by
the night in the Dark forest.

There also parallel adverbs and verbs like the examples mentioned below:

 Quickly and joyfully she walked around the store to buy the novel.
 We have always sought but rarely found a parking space near the office.

This device uses different phrases or words with similarity in structure for example:

 Like mother, like daughter.

This device is useful in creating balance and symmetry in any writing.

Or parallelism between direct objects and verbs like:

 She liked to eat grapes and to avoid watermelon

Or merely the objects as is the below example:

 This rich car collector owns four red Cadillacs, three gold Range Rovers and
seven silver Mercedes.

Or it can occur in parallel prepositional phrases as:

 She found it hard to vote for a perfect truth but against her own advantage.
 The pilot went down the aisle, through the gate and into the capsule, humming
“fly, fly and away.”
 Also there are more examples illustrate the case of parallelism like the following:

 “For the end of a theoretical science is truth, but the end of a practical science is
performance.—Aristotle”
 “They had great skill in optics, and had instructed him to see faults in others, and
beauties in himself, that could be discovered by nobody else....—Alexander Pope”

7. Allusion

This device is used when the author indicates to the characters or the events in other
stories in his own work or story he is writing hoping that this event will add depth and context to
the work or the novel he is trying to achieve.

In other words, it is referring informally to an event or a famous person, here is an

example:

 If you park in here, you can expect a tornado to hit in moment.

It is noticeable that this device makes use of very known events or characters and not
vague ones, therefore the best reference for allusion are history, literature, Greek myths and the
sacred books.

Although this device is commonly used, but still holds high rate of risk as the author
cannot be so sure that the reader or the audience will be familiar with what he is mentioning in
his work, so for eliminating this jeopardize, the author can use allusion to very known and
famous and the more famous the mentioned event or story is, the less risky it becomes.

The most famous examples for using allusion are the holy Qur’an, Shakespearean plays
and the Bible, below is an example where the author used it to refer to Lazarus, the biblical story
in which the indicated character rises from the dead, focus on the importance of using this device
assists in intensifying the recovery of the character:
“Night after night our hero lay in bed with the flu, hacking mucus and blood and seeing
behind his eyelids the angels or devils come to collect him. But one morning, like Lazarus, he
was whole again…”

Using this device can be extremely interesting and attractive in novels or other literary
works because it has the impact of introducing diversity and energy into a limited discussion in
other words, an adventurous and exciting historical story occurs surprisingly in the center of a
discussion about chemicals, physics or other abstract argument.

Other advantage of employing allusion is to describe or explain a matter that the author
finds it difficult to be comprehended by the reader or the audience.

Below are some famous characters illustrated by allusion:

 She was astonished that Johns nose did not grow like Pinocchio’s
 She was a real Cinderella with animals.
 He acts like Romeo with ladies.
 This are is just like a Garden of Eden.

8. Metaphor

Metaphor is a literary device used by applying a phrase or word to an action or object

which cannot be literally applied, it describes the action in a way that it not true in a literal
reading but it assists in explaining the idea or making a comparison, it states that one entity is
another one.

Its essence lies in comparing two things without employing the term like

There are strategies used to translate metaphor, as indicated by Larson (1998:279) that
the elements of metaphor must be identified by the translator, those elements are the image,
topic, and the point of similarity to achieve a successful translation. Those elements are found
frequently implied in the metaphor. At this point the translator must get the concept of the whole
expression in the text to have the ability to maintain the meaning of its metaphor, it is also
explained that one of the below ways that can be used to translate metaphor:

 By preserving the metaphorical expression if the target language permits, which

means that if it can be understood correctly and sounds natural to the reader.
 It can be translated by using simile which will be by adding the words ‘ like’ or
‘as’
 By using a metaphor of the target language that has the same image or sense.
 By keeping the metaphor provided that the translator explains the meaning where
the point of similarity between the two entities and the topic are more explicit.
 By neglecting the imagery of the metaphor and translating its meaning.

Other functions of resorting to metaphor other than comparing two words is to grasp an
aesthetic pleasure for entertaining the reader or for amusement and it is regularly used for
drawing attention to a physical or technical subjects.

And it functions effectively in pointing to a specific resemblance between more than two
distinct objects.

Vanity and Darbelnet presented the procedures of translating metaphor in (Venuti,

2000:84-93) as they are borrowing literal translation, calque, modulation, transposition,
adaptation and equivalence.

Some scholars like McArthur pointed out that the language used in the figures of speech
like simile and metaphor is considered to be a figurative language. And he takes the figures of
speech to be a rhetorical device that uses words in a special way to maintain a special impact.

Perrine (1982) stated that figures of speech cannot be understood in a literal way and that
its function is to give broader meaning to the phrases, words or sentences from the limited
comprehension of the literal reading she claimed that these figures are more effective when we
say something and in an indirect way mean another thing and named them as:

 Metaphor
 Metonymy
 Paradox
 Simile
 Understatement
 Personification
 Allusion
 Irony
 Overstatement

McArthur in his classification of metaphor as one of the rhetorical devices, he stated that
metaphor has two senses, the first is the wider sense and the second is the more specific one.
This includes all the effective figures of speech contributed like comparison, associations and
resemblance which in that way this kind involves figures like metonymy, simile and hyperbole.

In particular, metaphor is considered as a figure of speech that compares two items that
the first is the second.

Stating examples as:

 My wife is a treasure.
 Our house is heaven.
 Time is gold.
 Life is a chess game.
 9. Simile:

It is defined as the figure in which a comparison is applied in a more or less unrealistic or

fanciful this is done by employing the words ‘as’ or ‘like’ as indicated by (McArthur, 1996:935).

It is used when the author needs to make comparison between two unrelated things yet he
emphasis on a similarity between them somehow thus, it adds an extra level of depth and
meaning to the work.

In the prose (the formal one) it is considered to be an employed device of explanation and
art comparing (an event, process, or object) that are unfamiliar to each other but have a similarity
in some way.

An example for that is:

 Merrys skin is as soft as silk.

 Carla is like an angel; pure and kind.

The word ‘like’ is used when the comparison is done between two nouns as in:

 After that much of exposure to the sun, the houseplant leaves looked like strips of
burned bacon.
 The spirit within the body is like a lion in a cage.

When comparing between two phrases or verbs with other two phrases or verbs as the
below example:
 Here is your pen and paper. I need you to compete as the greatest heroin would in
her biggest race.

Often, the circumstances or the objects of the imaginative identifying simile is named the
vehicle since it conveys or carries a meaning about the thing or the word that is related to it and
precedes by the thing linked to it namely the (tenor), where in such cases the use of ‘so’ is
illustrated as below:
  The leaves bend with every wind, so as Colin

While in other times, using ‘so’ is rather understood than expressed like:

 As candle melts by fire, may the witch collapse before God.



Anytime when it is unclear to the reader or understood immediately the similarity must
be further specified as a solution to avoid vagueness and confusion. Rather than saying” Fortune
is like glass” here the author will describe clearly the points of similarity between such distant
things.

 Wealth is like glass / the shinier the glimmer the easier broken.
 Sara now feels like an old machine: he had been poked and punched so much that
she had worn out.
 This sheet is just like the accountant’s table: accurate and precise but completely
useless.

Regularly, the similarity between them can be illustrated in just one or two words as in
the following:

 Yes, she is a cute kitten, but when she grows up, she will become as big as the
building.

And sometimes, the word of simile can be employed as an adjective like:

 This wheel has a flower-like pattern to it.

They can be negative, focusing on the fact that the two entities are different in one way or
another like:

 Collins eyes are nothing like the moon.

 Lara definitely does not attack the way John does; but if one pushes her, she has
the gut.
Using comparison is another way to make use of simile like:

 But this fact is brighter than the sun—here, take a look: its shine blinds you.

It is also functional in taking other comparative word like:

 Her mood reminds me of a tornados; her heart; of rocks; her figure, of sandpapers.
 Her speech is smoother than the butter.
 Case Study

This part holds the main aspect of the topic of the research paper. The following
metaphors and similes are taken from the well-known novel The Great Gatsby the express the
concept of wealth and there are eye-catching and interesting examples will be pointed out below,
we shall analyze them carefully.

The novel basically expresses the American dream as illustrated by the main character
Jay Gatsby who’s introduced by his poor friend who is his neighbor as well, Nick Carraway.
Gatsby lives in a gothic mansion like a king located in an area just at the edge of the river. That
area was full with people who just became rich recently.

The actions of this novel took place in New York by the summer of 1922.

The main reason Gatsby chose to live in that spot in particular was what he called “the
green light” it was the light coming from the other side of the river where his beloved live. The
character tends to invite people regardless if he likes them or not, he used to throw parties almost
every week and invite all the wealthy and famous people at West Egg (the name of town he lived
in), he did that hoping that one day his beloved, Daisy, will show in one of his parties.

This novel comprises many rhetorical devices, this paper will be dealing with two
rhetorical devices taken from the original novel published by F. Scott Fitzgerald and the
translated one by Usama Menzalchi in 2014.
 Here are some examples below of metaphors and similes used in the novel and how it
was translated as found in this novel:

Entity Type of rhetorical device

West ragged edge simile
‫الغرب‬ ‫حافة متهرئة‬

Here, the above cited example is taken from the first chapter of the novel in which this
simile corresponds to comparing the East and the West sides of Long Island considered by the
author by which he is demonstrating the poor side is the West one while the East side is the one
where high rank people take place.

We usually use the word rag referring to shabby and old clothes while Fitzgerald here
meant to describe areas instead.

Entity Type of rhetorical device

Red and Gold Mint Simile
‫حمراء وفضية‬ ‫مصنع صك العملة‬

In the above sample of the novel expresses the author attraction of the character by the
concept of wealth and making money and he dtates that is is planning to make some of it.

Entity Type of rhetorical device

House Eyesore Metaphor
‫منزلي‬ ‫قذى صغير في العين‬
 Here the character intends to describe how ugly and small his house was by comparing it
to an eyesore but even smaller. And in the same part he indicates to the picture of his
neighborhood

Entity Type of rhetorical device

Ashes Wheat Simile
‫الرماد‬ ‫قمح‬

Here the author uses his character by examining the vally of ashes and comparing it to a
field of wheat, and the effect of ashes on the air and how the houses are covered with it

Entity Type of rhetorical device

His Blue gardens Moths Simile
‫حدائقه الزرقاء‬ ‫فراشات‬

The character means to leave an impression of fantasy or a dream by choosing the blue
color yet he continues to represent the lack of hospitality he hold for them by stating that they are
like moths, as they are unwelcomed and so many.

Entity Type of rhetorical device

Christmas tree enormous garden Metaphor
‫شجرة الميالد‬ ‫مترامية األطراف‬

This is metaphor used in the above sample resembles the way Gatsby managed to prepare
the parties he used to raise with special care.

The metaphor maintains the distinct relation between the two used entities.

Entity Type of rhetorical device

She appeared Angry diamond Simile
‫كانت تظهر‬ ‫كجوهرة غضبى‬
 Gatsby referred to his beloved as a diamond representing how beautiful and precious she
is to him and also used ‘angry’ for the same reference as well, although the diamond cannot be
angry but he intended that powerful simile to indicate that his beloved is angry.

Entity Type of rhetorical device

car triumphant hatboxes
Monstrous length
cream color
labyrinth of windshields
that mirrored dozen suns
‫سيارة‬ ‫صناديق لالدوات‬ Metaphor
‫طولها الهائل‬
‫لون كريم‬
‫حاجبات الرياح المعقدة‬
‫تعكس اشعة عدد من الشموس‬

Here the main character is describing metaphorically how unique his car is, that car
cannot be described by mirroring sun but he means to convey the meaning it holds for being
extra shiny and the rich color of cream represents hoe expensive it is to own such a car at a time
where the classic color of a can is either black or red.

Entity Type of rhetorical device

I young rajah Simile
‫انا‬ ‫راجا شاب‬
I Sheik Metaphor
‫انا‬ ‫شيخ‬
 By those words used by the character, he is making the impression of extreme wealth and
the presence of everything he might need by stating that he is like a ‘rajah’ that refers originally
to an Indian prince or king.

The sheikh here is also demonstrating the same concepts of both richness and power that
is taken from the Arabic wealthy men who intend to gain whatever they want at the time they
desire.

Entity Type of rhetorical device

Voice Money, charm, song, Metaphor
Golden girl
King’s daughter
‫صوتها‬ ‫مملوء بالمال‬
‫الفتاة الذهبيه‬
‫بنت الملك‬
Golden Girl Metaphor / simile
‫الذهبية‬ ‫الفتاة‬

Well, this chain of metaphors are dedicated to the voice of the main character lover,
Daisy, it is quite obvious that the voice cannot be compared or evaluated by money or by
someone, but this

Is made to express how lovely and dear his beloved is and how happy he is to hear her
voice.

In addition to that, the golden girl either taken as a girl made of gold that represents how
valuable she is to him or a blonde girl reflecting the similarity in the colors of both gold and
yellow hair.

Entity Type of rhetorical device

Gatsby broken up like glass Simile
‫غاتسبي‬ ‫تحطم كالزجاج‬
 In the aforementioned sample, the person is represented to be breaking like a glass
referring to how quick and immediate he reveled his secretes to the address, just like when a cup
of glass breaks and pours whatever that is in it.

Conclusion

Literary work is known for the difficulty it maintains for the author himself which make
it more realized how tough is the task for the translator to achieve a work that is done well, yet
preserving the aesthetic values of the original work.

The job of a translator is to create the same taste applied to the readers of the original
language and the target language, this task includes many challenges in any text, let alone if that
original work was literary one.

One of these challenges is facing rhetorical devices employed by the author and the
reasonable way to achieve its equivalent as much as possible to carry all the flavors of the
original work to the translated one.
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