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. Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter concentrated on the review of related literature from

selected research materials, articles, journals, and books that aimed to

support my study. It focuses on the application of Heuristic Strategy. In

order to develop a thorough understanding and deeper insight into the

previous works that are relevant to the subject, as well as to reach the

specific goals of the study, I also included several theses and dissertations

concerning the topic of the study

Heuristic Strategy

Heuristic method of teaching is aimed at removing the shortcomings

attributed to lecture method or other conventional methods used by the

teachers. It is a method by which students learn to reason for themselves.

The term heuristic was coined from a Greek word, which means ‘I find’.

Here the student is put in the place of a discoverer. The method involves

finding out by the student, instead of merely explaining everything to the

students by the teacher. This method has been found very useful in the

teaching of mathematics (Brehovsky, et al, 2013).

According to Guangli (2011), Heuristic is a term which describes

a range of techniques which enable the teacher to get learners to provide

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information rather than giving it to them. Commonly, heuristic is used to

ask learners to come up with vocabulary and language forms and rules,

and to brainstorm a topic at the start of a skills lesson. Heuristic teaching is

beneficial to the students to cultivate students' creative thinking and

creative ability.

Moreover, Abonyi & Umeh (2014) mentioned that in mathematics,

heuristics is a general way of solving problems, and is particularly used to

come to a solution that is hoped to be close to the best possible solution of

a mathematical problem. They also mentioned that heuristics is non-

algorithmic tools, techniques and tricks that are general in nature and

guide the search for a means of solving a problem.

Hermann (2012) stated that heuristic problem-solving reasoning and

strategies are designed to work on all types of problems, novice problem

solvers can use them to develop their skills and abilities over time. As their

skill at solving problems increases, their performance, level of

achievement, and perceptions become more like those of expert problem.

Expert problem-solvers also benefit from learning in a problem-based

curriculum, since continual exposure and practice has been shown to

significantly increase a student's level of achievement.

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Most of the problems given on national Mathematics tests require to

apply formulas or algorithms. These problems has a mathematical

formulations, they don’t have any connection with real life. Thus teachers

are tempted to solve many routine problems that their pupils obtain good

results at these tests. But most of the pupils who pass these tests and even

they get good marks don’t have a good problem solving competence, they

have just learnt some techniques, methods or formulas and they know

which one to use for a specific problem (Marchis, 2012).

Chavez (2007) discovered in his study that students’ mathematical

problem solving abilities increase after the use of heuristic approaches. He

reported to engage profoundly in their learning and such active learning

environment improved students’ interest in solving mathematical

problems as well as enabled them to respond creatively.

Furthermore, Reiss and Renkl (2008) proposed the use of heuristic

worked-out examples in proving. They suggested that this should be

integrated into mathematics classroom frequently so that students will

learn to extract needed information in the problems. Additionally, Berman,

and Moore (2004) aimed to promote heuristic literacy in a regular

mathematics classroom.
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Mathematical Problems

Lee (2014) has distinguished mathematical problems as three

different types: routine, non-routine, and application word problems

ranging from conceptually simple to conceptually complex. He stated that

non-routine word problems appear to be more difficult than routine word

problems because of their unstraightforward solution. While the solution

to routine word problems can be found through a straightforward

translation of the problem text into a mathematical model without the

need for developing a proper understanding of the word-problem context.

Ogbuehi et al. (2012) mentioned that non-routine problems are the

ones whose results cannot be guessed in advance. They cannot be solved

with a known method or formula. Analysis, synthesis, trial-error and

creative enterprise are needed to solve them. Upper-level thinking skills

and reasoning are important in solving these problems.

Moreover, Elia, Heuvel-Panhuizen and Kolovou (2013) pointed out

that non-routine mathematical problems are more complicated and

difficult than routine problems. Similarly, they are more cognitively

challenging and demanding than routine problems.

Problem-solving has come around yet again as a slogan for

reforming teaching of mathematics. The long and the short of the matter is
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that students in the main continue to assent to what they are told in

lectures and tutorials, rather than to assert and subsequently modify

conjectures When asked what more support they would like, students

usually request more examples, either worked out so as to serve as

templates, or for additional practice. They seem content simply to get

through the next test, as if they thought that attempting the tasks they are

set and scoring passably on tests means that they are teaching (Mason,

2009).

Lupahla et al., (2013) stated that non-routine mathematical problems

are tasks based on real life circumstances or models thereof that cannot be

solved using familiar methods by replicating known procedures.

Furthermore, the known countries that are successful in

Mathematics in international assessment exams like PISA (Program for

International Student Assessment) and TIMSS (Trends in International

Mathematics and Science Study) allocate more time for non-routine

problems (Arslan & Yazgan, 2016).

Heuristic Strategy on Non-routine Problems

Yazgan (2013) mentioned that unlike routine problems that require

algorithms, solving non-routine mathematical problems involve the use of

strategies, even though strategies don’t guarantee solution to problems.

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Instead, strategies help to establish procedures or pathways to solutions.

Strategies are defined in as procedures used to explore, analyse and probe

aspects of non-routine problems with a view to devising a pathway to the

solution.

Malouff et al. (2011) named two types of strategies in solving

mathematical problems, namely, cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies.

Cognitive strategies include general strategies, such as trial-and-error;

working backwards; finding a pattern; using analogies; considering

extreme cases; visual representation; intelligent guessing and testing;

systematically accounting for all possibilities; and deductive reasoning.

Learners don’t normally use strategies spontaneously when solving

non-routine mathematical problems. They instead glance at non-routine

mathematical problem in trying to decide what reckoning to perform and

this is a shortcoming on their part (Arslan & Altun, 2007).

Additionally, Elia et al. (2013) mentioned that the cognitive demands

of respective strategies vary and this affects the rate of use of each strategy,

for example, trial-and-error is set to have minimum cognitive demands

and it is commonly use. Some problems are solved with more than one

strategy. In terms of picking on strategies to use in non-routine

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mathematical problem solving, learners tend to prefer some strategies to

the other albeit with varying outcomes.

In terms of picking on strategies to use in non-routine mathematical

problem solving, learners tend to prefer some strategies to the other albeit

with varying outcomes. Namibian learners most preferred the algebraic

strategy to other strategies, even though they successfully solved problems

that were illustrated with diagrams Mogari and Lupahla, (2013).

Furthermore, the Filipino learners in used the making a model or

diagram strategy the most. The learners frequently used trial-and-error

strategy with high rate of success (Mabilangan, Limjap & Belecina, 2011).

Learning Mathematics Using Heuristic Approach

The sdudy of Maheswari (2016) mentioned that heuristic methods of

teaching are methods where students are placed the principle of learning

by doing. He propounded such a method of teaching, which he described

as placing students in the ocean of discovery, as deep into the mode a

discoverer opposed to the traditional mode of receiver of information or

simply being told about of things. He further elucidated the very fibre of

the heuristic method is to place the student as an investigator who finds

meaning and not a recipient of information that is “told”.

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Novotná et al., (2014) found out that with the use of Heuristic

strategy some students stopped being afraid to solve word problems, they

stopped withdrawing from the solution in case they were not sure of how

to solve them from the very beginning .They learned to look for the

solution, not to give up. Also students who used to be passive in lessons of

mathematics started to get involved in problem solving. Students started

to comment on their solving procedure, justify it and in case of written

solutions produce verbal answers.

Likewise, Tabesh (2006) mention in his study that students’

confidence is increased by discovering their own capabilities, because they

have obtained the results and discovered the rules. They are interested in

the information and feel that they own it, leading to the desire for further

knowledge. Students grow in the process of active learning, and their

logical thinking is enhanced

In the study of Lee & Chen (2009), they concluded that teaching

students how to implement heuristic reasoning and strategies can greatly

improve their self-efficacy and level of achievement when they are

engaged in problem solving activities.

The reason for the higher achievement by the Heuristics Teaching

Approach could be that the students acquires a real understanding and

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clear notion of the subject, this gives them a complete mastery of what they

have learnt. Heuristic Teaching Approach is certainly a psychologically

sound method, as it aims at utilising the active, original, creative and

constructive tendencies of the learner. Furthermore, the students thinks by

themselves and do not merely listen for information (Novotnal et al., 2013).

Yahaya et al., (2011) stated that undoubtedly the application of

heuristics approaches cultivates students’ skills in thinking in solving

mathematical problem. It is known that these skills induce the

subconscious cognition to spark ideas towards stimulating creativity

without using fixed algorithms. Heuristic approach encourages the

communication of mathematical thoughts through discovery by drawing a

diagram, examining special cases, specializing the solution, generalizing

the solution.

Problem solving, sometimes, requires a combination of strategies.

Evidences showed limited range of strategies being taught in the

classrooms as well as limited type of problems that are mostly routine

problems (Belecina et al, 2018).

Furthermore, the study of Aydogdu (2014) found that elementary

mathematics teacher candidates' problem solving strategies in routine

problems in geometry classes in which he recommended that teachers

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should be a model to students by using different problem solving

strategies in geometry classes and they should encourage students to use

different strategies, so it is thought to be useful to give training to teachers

and teacher candidates on teaching problem solving strategies.

Difficulties in Solving Mathematical Problems

Mathematical problem is a problem designed to help students apply

mathematics concepts to real life situations. Problem solving is a cognitive

process directed to achieve a goal when no obvious solution method is

available to the problem solver (Lai, 2015).

The study of Rudd (2010) mentioned the two types of problem-

solvers are novice and expert. Novice problem solvers typically classify

problems on the basis of surface features and have difficulty

understanding the difference between a problem's setting and its structure.

Expert problem solvers, on the other hand, tend to use heuristic reasoning

and a logical thought process to work through problems. They are better

able to correctly classify the underlying concepts within the problems and

use effective strategies for solving it.

Moreover, Swanson, Orosco, & Lussier (2014) concluded in their

study that some children find it difficult to solve mathematical problems

presented in a paragraph. It is easier for them if the problem is presented

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in numbers or a certain equation; therefore, they need to develop a full

understanding of the problem before they attempt to solve it.

Tarzimah et al. (2010) implied that students’ difficulties in problem –

solving might occur at any phase. In fact it might be caused by deficiency

in any skills either independently or cumulatively. The understanding of

the difficulties faced by students in any particular area and phase is the

strategy to respond to this issue.

Regardless of the problem type, students need to learn a strategy for

working through the problem. Some children cannot interpret

mathematical problems if they do not visualize the key elements in a

diagram or a bar graph. The ability to visualize the problem can lead to

successful problem solving (Dela Cruz & Lapinid, 2014).

Furthermore, Tambychik (2010) found that the reason why students

misunderstood problem could vary among students. They might have

difficulties in understanding the language, the mathematical terms used or

making connection of the problem. Longer time needed to understand

questions result in longer time to solve problems. Thus, students might not

have enough time to solve all the problems in the time frame given.
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Role of Teachers in Teaching Mathematical Problems

The role of any teacher in the classroom is to educate the children

and prioritize the important things for them to learn. It can start by

building self-confidence in every child. Teaching mathematical problems is

not an easy task. The most cited classroom practice was working the

problem independently (Pearce, Bruun, Skinner, & Lopez-Mohler, 2013).

Teachers should organize the class discussion, questioning, lectures

and other activities to make the students participate in teaching activities

actively. The group is more important than the individual in the class.

Assigning in-class teams can be beneficial by promoting and guaranteeing

student interaction. Teachers can initiate a feedback session about the

lesson which teachers can check how they coped with the exercise. During

the class, students should be the dominant role in the teaching activities

and teachers' teaching and students' thinking must be synchronous by

giving problem and discussing freely (Pol 2008).

Grootenboer & Jorgensen (2009) argue student agency and identity

depend upon providing task opportunities, wherein a sense of

achievement can be had by drawing upon prior mathematical knowledge

by them. Likewise, it is related to the study of Nur et al., (2007) who found
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that teachers were considered as the main factor in student’s harboring a

positive or negative outlook on Math.

Additionally, Porterfield et al., (2015) mentioned that a cognitive

strategy instruction consists of teaching cognitive and metacognitive

strategies that can guide students to understand and be self-aware of the

requirements. Cognitive strategies helps students’ focus on the problem

structure and increase their ability to understand the problem. This

strategy is a vital component for students in the younger grades to solve

effectively word problems.

It is a reasonable conjecture that for as long as people have thought

about the teaching and learning of mathematics (some 4000 years at least),

the issue of time has been uppermost: the time required for students to

explore around a definition or a topic effectively is bound to reduce the

amount of content to which they can be exposed. One extreme considers it

necessary to provide a rich if superficial exposure to many ideas which

students can subsequently work both on and through, over an extended

period of time (Sangwin 2011)

Gravemeijer et al. (2017) argues about what teachers should do

when students do not come up with a model to solve a problem. First the

teachers should give support to the students that lead students to develop
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their mathematical thinking and represents the problem as model of and

moves to model for. Moreover, teachers need to see the world through the

eyes of the students so that she/he can predict or might follow the way of

students’ thinking. In this case, teacher has to stand in an actor’s point of

view where the actor here is the students. Furthermore, when the students

still cannot come up to model their ideas, teacher might explores what

students already have and guide them for instance by using further

questions and giving hints until they recognize the idea.

Further, Flood et al. (2015) mentioned in his study the ‘reciprocal

teaching’ instructional technique builds from teacher-student interactions.

It is the technique of which the method of teaching is through structured

dialogue between teachers and students.

Dixon, et al., (2014) pointed out that the learners will develop deep

conceptual understanding of mathematical problems when their teachers

provide them with rich and meaningful learning activities. For instance,

invite students to write a mathematical problem to a relatable event in

their lives, such as a trip, a football game, etc. Students that are able to

create their own mathematical word problems will be positively

influenced and this will reflect, not only on their understanding, but also

on their problem solving skills and disposition towards mathematics.

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Rifandi (2016) stated that all Further, contextual teaching strategies

need the creativity and awareness of the teachers since they are ones who

know better about their students. In choosing a context and the

contextual teaching strategy, teachers need to consider the classroom

culture and the development of students’ cognitive level.

Finally, one of the indicators telling a teacher whether a pupil

understands the subject matter is the pupil’s ability to come up with new,

original solving procedures when solving a new problem. But this is

something a teacher cannot teach directly. He/she can expect this

approach from their pupils, he/she can ask for it, support them in it but

he/she cannot teach it (Sarrazy & Novotná, 2013).

Several studies and authors cited different insights that are relevant

to my study. The main highlight of those is learning mathematics using

heuristic strategy. Along with this strategy, are the different techniques in

solving mathematical problems and teaching methods that placed the

students in the principle of learning by doing. The relevance of solving

mathematical problems and its application in the practical world and in

our daily life is also emphasized. The above literature of the mentioned

authors would be a great help in conducting my study.