SINUSOIDAL CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

 Alternating Current (or Voltage) as the name implies, goes through a series of
different values both positive and negative in a period of time T, after which
continuously repeats this same series of values in a cyclic manner.
e = Em sin wt e = Blv x 10-8 volts
e = Em sin α where:
Em = maximum value of voltage B = flux density(lines/in2)
α = angle l = length of wire (inches)
t = time v = velocity of wire with
w = 2πf respect to the flux(in/sec)
T = one period
Terms related to AC:
Frequency ( f )
Is the number of cycles per second in Hertz (Hz) units.

Where: f = Frequency
P= no. of poles

N= speed of rotation (rpm)

*1 Hertz = 1 cycle/second = 1cpc

Period ( T )
Is the amount of time for 1 cycle.

Angular Velocity or Angular Frequency ( w )

f
VALUES OF SINE WAVE

Instantaneous Value
 is the value of sine wave at any instant of time. It is devoted by lower case
letters v or i for voltage and current respectively.

v = Vm sinθ = Vm sinwt

i = Im sinθ = Im sinwt
where:

θ = angleof rotation (radian)

w = angular velocity ( radian/sec)

t = time (second)

Vm = maximum voltage value (volt)

Im = maximum current value (ampere)

Peak Value
 is the maximum value represented by Vm or Vp for voltage and Im or Ip for
current.

Vm or Vp = √ Vrms = 1.414 Vrms

Vp-p = 2Vp = 2√ Vrms

Average Value
 Is the arithmetic average of all the values in a sine wave for one alternation, or
a half- cycle.

Vave = 0.637 Vm
I ave = = 0.637 Im

Root Mean Square ( RMS) or Effective Value

Vrms = 0.707 Vm =
√
Irms = 0.707 Im =
√

Form Factor
 Is the ratio of the rms value to the average value.

Form Factor = = = 1.11

Peak Factor = = = 1.414

Phase

 is the fractional part of a period through which time or the associated time
angle wt has advanced from an arbitrary reference.

i = Im sin wt
i1 = Im sin (wt+ )
i2 = Im sin (wt- )
Phasor Diagram

* The length of each arrow represents the peak value of the sine wave.
Circuits Elements

Active Elements - voltage source, current source.

Passive Elements – resistors, inductors, capacitors

POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

True/ Real / Active Power (watts)

- Is the component of apparent power that represents true work. It is also

P= R
=
= IRVR
= VTIT cos
= VTIT (pf)
REACTIVE POWER (volt-ampere reactive or var)

- Is the component of apparent power that is consumed by inductive or

Q= X

= IxVx
= VTIT sin
= VTIT (rf)

APPARENT POWER (volt – ampere)

- Is the combination of real power and reactive power.

S = ITVT
S= Z
S=
POWER TRIANGLE

S √

POWER FACTOR

- is defined as the ratio of true power to the apparent power

Pf = = cos

REACTIVE FACTOR

Rf = = sin
POWER FACTOR TYPES

1. Unity Power Factor

- is when the voltage and the current are in phase

Pf = cos =1

2. Lagging Power Factor

- is when the current lags the voltage by an acute angle .

Pf = cos <1

3. Leading Power Factor

- is when the current leads the voltage by an acute angle

Pf = cos <1

4. Zero Power Factor

- is when the voltage and current are out- of – phase by exactly 90 . The load
is either pure inductive or pure capacitive.

Pf = cos = cos 90 = 0
CIRCUIT WITH RESISTANCE ONLY (PURE R)

Vector Diagram (Phasor Diagram)

voltage and current wave form

P = 0(zero) Where:

V = IXL XL = inductive reactance

I= XL = 𝜋𝑓𝐿, ohms
XL
XL = wL
I=
𝜋𝑓𝐿
Vector Diagram (Phasor Diagram)

 I is always lagging to V by 90

Voltage and Current Waveform

V = I Xc Where:

I = Xc Xc = capacitive
reactance
I = V(2𝜋fC) Xc = , ohms
𝜋C
P = 0(zero)
Xc =
wc
Vector Diagram (Phasor Diagram)

 I is always leading to V by 90

Voltage and Current Waveform

IT

R VR = ITR

VT
{
Z

L VL = ITXL

Where:
Z = impedance

Graphical Relation:

VT = √V VL
VL
=√ I I XL

VL = ITXL
= I XL
𝛉
IT =I √ XL
VR = ITR
VT = ITZ

*Z = √ XL
Impedance Triangle: Power Factor

Pf = cos𝛉
Q = VT IT sin𝛉

= = I XL
𝑍
S = VT IT
=
= I 𝑍
P = VT IT cos𝛉

= I 𝑅

R-C in Series
IT

R VR = ITR

VT
Z
{ C VC = ITXC

Where:
Z = impedance
 Graphical Relation:
IT
VR = ITR
VT = √V VC
𝛉
=√ I I XC
VC = ITXC
VC = I XC

=I √ XC

VT = ITZ

*Z = √ XC

Impedance Triangle: Power Factor

Pf = cos𝛉
Q = VT IT sin𝛉
= = I XC
𝑍

XC = S = VT IT

P = VT IT cos𝛉 = I 𝑍

= I 𝑅
 R-L-C in Series

IT

𝐑 VR = ITR

{
XL = 2𝜋fL

XC =
𝜋C

VT Z 𝐋 VL = ITXL

𝐂
VC = ITXC

Assuming:

XL > XC  the circuit is the same as R-L in series.

XC > XL  the circuit is the same as R-C in series.

VC

VL
VL – VC = IT (XL – XC)

𝛉
IT
T
VR = ITR

VC

VT = V VL − VC

=√ I I XL − I XC

=I √ XL − XC

VT = ITZ

*Z = √ X L − XC
 Pf = cos𝛉
Impedance Triangle: Q = VT IT sin𝛉

=I XL − XC
=
𝑍

= S = VT IT
XL − XC
= I 𝑍
P = VT IT cos𝛉

= I 𝑅

For XC > XL leading pf

VL { VR = ITR
I
𝛉

{
VT = V VC − VL

VC – VL = IT (XC - XL =√ I I XC − I XL

VC =I √ XC − XL

VT = ITZ

*Z = √ XC − XL
VL
 Impedance Triangle: Pf = cos𝛉
Q = VT IT sin𝛉

=I XC − XL
=
𝑍

= S = VT IT
XC − X L
= I 𝑍
P = VT IT cos𝛉

= I 𝑅