CHAPTER 4 THE REAL NUMBERS Preliminaries. We introduced the integers as equivalence classes of ordered pairs of natural numbers, and the rational numbers as equivalence classes of ordered pairs of integers. In the construe- tion of the real numbers we again begin with the definition of an equivalence relation. In this case, the equivalence relation will be defined in the set of all fundamental rational sequences. Thus, a real number will be an equivalence class of fundamental rational sequences. By suitable definitions of addition, multiplica- tion, and order, the set R of all real numbers will be made into an ordered field which will be an extension of the ordered field Q. The order in R will have no gaps in the sense of Definition 3.9. Equiva- lently, every fundamental sequence of real numbers will have a limit in R, i.e., the conversé of Theorem 3.22 (which is false in Q, by Theorem 3.24) will hold in R. The Field R. We shall use “Fg” to denote the set of all funda- mental rational sequences. TunorEM 4.1 There is an equivalence relation Q in Fo such that (x,)Q(Yn) holds whenever L(x, — yn) = 0- PROOF: The set Q = {ln), (Ya) | Len — Yn) = OF is a subset of Fg x Fo. Since L(x, — x,) = L(0) = 0 for each (eq) € Fg, Q is reflexive. If L(x, — y,) = 0, then L(—[%, — yn]) = Lyn — tn) = 0, so that Q is symmetric. 80Tu. 4.2 THE REAL NUMBERS 81 If L(x, — Yq) = Oand L(y, — z,) = 0, then L(x, — z,) = L(t, — Ya + Yn — 2x) = Ll, — Yn) + [Yn ~ @n]) = Ln ~ Yn) + LYn — 2,) = 0. Hence, Q is transitive. As usual, we write (x,) ~ (y,) if the pair ((z,),(y,))€@, and denote by “C,,,,” the equivalence class containing (x,). Exercise 4.1 For («,) € Fg, L(«,) = @ if and only if («,) ~ (a). Derinirion 4.1 A real number is an equivalence class C,,,, with respect to the equivalence relation Q of Theorem 4.1, where (z,) is a fundamental rational sequence. We denote by R the set of all real numbers and note that R is the factor set Fg/Q. We use £,7,... to denote real numbers. Addition and Multiplication in R. TuzorEM 4.2 If (xq), (Yn)s (2h): (Ya) € FQ, (a) ~ (i) and (Yn) ~ (Yn)» then (1) Ga + Yn) ~ (n+ Yn) and 2) (@aYn) ~ (@nYn)- PROOF; (1) By Theorem 3.23, L((z, + Yn] — [1 + yn)) = L(t, — w+ Yn — Yn) = Ly — %r) + L(Yn — Yr) = 0+ 0= Oin Q. (2) By Theorem 3.19, since (z,), (y)€Fo, there exist a,6€Q such that |e,| < a, |y;| < 0 for allneN. By Theorem 3.20, (x,y,) and (z,y;,) are fundamental sequences in Q. Since («,) ~ (x;) and (y,) ~ (y;), there are, for each positive ¢ in Q, ni and nj in N such that e. . lt, — 2a] < og in @ forall n 2m, in N and Ion — al < go in Q for all n 2 nf in N.82 THE STRUCTURE OF THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM TH. 4.2 Hence, [enn — ®rYal S [*all¥a — Hol + [yale — el e yn é < ast 6 for all n = me = max {nj, nz} in N. Therefore L(%nY%n — @rYn) = Oin Q and (&Y%q) ~ (erYn)- TunorEM 4.3 There are binary operations F and G on R such that, if (x,) € € and (y,) 7, then Q) FUE, 9) = Coy tun (2) G1) = Conuy PROOF: The sets F = {(& 1); Coy up) | @n) € & (Yn) 15 & 1 € R} and G = {((E 1); Ceagugs) | (Hn) © & (Yn) € 05 £50. € RY are subsets of (R x R) x R. If (9) ER x R, then & = Og), 7 = Cy, for some (#,); (Yn) © Fg- Since (2, + Ya) € Fo by Theorem 3.20, the pair ((, 9), ¢) € F where C= Cosy If (60) 0) © F, then L = Cy, eu) where (an) € & (y,) € 9. By Theorem 4.2, since (x4) ~ (22), (Yn) ~ (Yn), it follows that (7, + yh) ~ (t, + yn) and C=. Thus F is a mapping of (R x R) into R, and hence a binary operation on R. If (9) eR x R, then (x,) € € and (y,) € 7 for some (x,), (Yn) © Fo. By Theorem 3.20, (%,¥,) € Fa. Hence, ((&, n), t)e@ where £= Oxy» Tf (0), 0) €@, then 6 = Cg.y) where (xn) € & (y,) €7. By Theorem 3.20, since (2%) ~ (#2), (Yn) ~ (Yn), it follows that (v,Yn) ~ (xiy',), and £= 0’. Thus @ is a mapping of R x R into R, and hence a binary operation on R. Deriirion 4.2 We call the binary operations F and G of Theorem 4.3 addition in R and multiplication in R, respectively, and write “€ +p7” and “€-,7” for F(é,7) and G(§, 7). As usual, we shall feel free to omit the subscript “R”.