FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS

Introduction To Euclid’s Geometry

5

CHAPTER CONTENTS

Sr. No. Topic Page

No.

1. Introduction 92

2. Euclid’s Definitions 92

3. Axioms aand Postulates 92

4. Euclid’s Five Postulates 93

5. Unsolved Exercise 97

6. Unsolved Exercise 99

(91) TAKSHILA INSTITUTE

Corporate Off : D-11/148, Sec-8, (Opp. Metro Pillar 390), Rohini-110085 Ph:- 011-47155238, 9310378303, 9868445900
 FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS
INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY

INTRODUCTION
The word “Geometry” comes from the Greek words “Geo” meaning the ‘earth’, and ‘metrein’,
meaning ‘to measure’ Geometry appears to have originated from the need for measuring land.
This branch of mathematics was studied in various forms in every ancient civilisation.
Geometry was being developed and applied everywhere in the world. But this was happening
in an unsystematic manner. These developments were passed on from one generation to the
next, either orally or through palm leaf messages, or by other ways.
The credit for developing the geometry systematically as a science goes to Greeks. Euclid, who
is the father of mathematics gave the method of proving geometrical results by deductive
reasoning by means of previously proved results. His work is found in thirteen books called
‘the elements’.
• Thales, a Greek mathematician gave ‘Basic Proportionality Theorem’
• Pythagoras, one of Thales famous pupils gave the result of ‘Pythagoras Theorm’ used in
every aspect of mathematics.
• From among the main Indian contributiors to geometry were: Bhaskara, who proved Pythagora’s
Theorm; Aryabhatta, who worked out the area of an isosceles triangle and Brahma Gupta, who
discovered the formula for finding the area of cyclic quadrilatural.

EUCLID’S DEFINITION
Euclid thought geometry as an abstract model of the world in which they lived. The notions of
point, lines, plane and so on were derived from what was seen around them.
A solid has shape, size, position, and can be moved from one place to another. Its boundaries
are called surfaces. They separate one part of the space from another, and are said to have no
thickness. The boundaries of the surfaces are curves or straight lines. These lines end in
points. We lose one extension called a dimension from solids to points. So a solid has three
dimensions, a surface has two a line has one and a point has none. Euclid summarised these
statements as definitions. A few of them are :
(a) A point is that which has no part
(b) A line is breadthless length.
(c) The ends of a line are points.
(d) A Straight line is a line which lies evenly with the points on itself.
(e) A Surface is that which has length and breadth only.
(f) The edges of a surface are lines.
(g) A Plane surface is a surface which lies evenly with the straight lines on itself.

AXIOMS AND POSTULATES

There are certain “obvious universal truths’ which are not to be proved but are assumed to be
true. Euclid divided these into two types : axioms and postulates.
Postulates are univesal truths which are specific to geometry, whereas axioms are universal
truths used throughout mathematics but not restricted merely to geometry.
Nowadays the words postulate and axion are used interchangeably :

Euclid’s Axioms

Some of Euclid’s axioms are given below :

1. Things which are equal to If b= a and
the same thing are equal to c = a then

(92) TAKSHILA INSTITUTE

Corporate Off : D-11/148, Sec-8, (Opp. Metro Pillar 390), Rohini-110085 Ph:- 011-47155238, 9310378303, 9868445900
 FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS
one another. b=c

2. If equals are added to equals, If a = b and

the wholes are equal c = d then
a+c=b+d

3. If equals are subtracted from If a = b and

equals, the remainders are equal. c = d then
a–c=b–d

4. Things that coincide with one

another are equal to one another. =
circles with the same radii
A
5. The whole is greater than D

the part.
B E C
Area of DDBE < Area of DABC

6. Things that are double of the If y = 2x and

same things are equal to one z = 2x , then
another. y=z

7. Things that are halves of the If y = x/2 and

same thing are equal to one z = x/2,
another. then y = z

Euclid’s Five Postulates

Postulate 1: A straight line may be drawn from any one point to any other point. However, we
shall use the following version.
Axiom 1 : Given any two distinct points in a plane, there exists one and only one line
containing them.
In other words, two distinct points in a plane determine a unique straight line which
contains them.
Through point A there exists infinitely many lines. Similarly through point B, there exists
infinitely many lines. But there exists one and only one line through A and B.

A B

(93) TAKSHILA INSTITUTE

Corporate Off : D-11/148, Sec-8, (Opp. Metro Pillar 390), Rohini-110085 Ph:- 011-47155238, 9310378303, 9868445900
FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS
Postulate 2: A terminated line can be produced indefinitely.
By a terminated line, we mean a line segment. Thus, the second postulate says that a line
segment can be extended to either side to form a line.

A
Postulate 3: A circle can be drawn with any centre and any radius.

Postulate 4 : All right angles are equal to one another.

Postulate 5 : If a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles on the
same side of it taken together less than two right angles, then the two straight lines, if produced
indefinitely meet on that side on which the sum of the angles is less than two right angles.
If ÐA + ÐB < 2 × (90º) = 180º , then l and m meet at some point on the side in which Ð A and
Ð B lie.
How ever, if ÐA + ÐB = 180º, then the lines l and m will never meet. In other words. lines l and
m will be parallel.

n n
l l
A
A+ B = 180°

B C m
m

ÐA + ÐB < 180°, l and m intersect each other ÐA + ÐB = 180°, l || m

Propositions or Theorems : These are statements that can be proved by using axioms,
definitions, earlier propositions, deductive logic, and by applying reasoning.
Corollary: A statement whose truth can be easily derived from a theorem is called its corollary.
Consistent System of Axioms:
A system of axioms is said to be consistent if it is impossible to deduce from these axioms a
statement which contradicts any axioms or a statement already proved using these axioms.
We now prove the following theorem. We prove it by contradiction.
Theorem : Two distinct lines cannot have more than one point in common. Given : Two distinct
lines l and m.

(94) TAKSHILA INSTITUTE

Corporate Off : D-11/148, Sec-8, (Opp. Metro Pillar 390), Rohini-110085 Ph:- 011-47155238, 9310378303, 9868445900
 FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS
To prove : l and m have two distinct points A and B in
common. The line l contains the points A and B and also,
the line m contains the points A and B. But, according m
to Axiom 5.1, there is one and only one line which l
contains two distinct points A and B.
Thus l and m are the same lines. A
This contradicts the given hypothesis that l, m are two
distinct lines.
Our assumption is wrong.
Hence l and m have at most one point in common.
Intersecting lines: Two lines which have exactly one point in common are said to be intersecting
lines, and the common point is called the “point of intersection”
Parallel lines: Two lines which have no point in common are said to be parallel lines.

Equivalent Version of Euclid’s Fifth Postulate

Axiom : Euclid’s Parallel Postulate: If l is a line and P a point not on l, there is one and only
one line which passes through P and parallel to l.

p
Alternative form of Euclid’s Parallel Postulate

Play fair’s Axiom: Two intersecting lines cannot be parallel to the same line.
In other words, given a line l and a point P not an l, there exists one and only one line m
through P and parallel to l.

SOME DEFINITIONS
Concurrent lines
Three or more distinct lines are said to be concurrent if each of them passes through the
same point.

Concurrent lines Non-concurrent lines

(95) TAKSHILA INSTITUTE

Corporate Off : D-11/148, Sec-8, (Opp. Metro Pillar 390), Rohini-110085 Ph:- 011-47155238, 9310378303, 9868445900
 FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS
Part of a Line:
Line Segment and Ray:
A part (or portion) of a line with two end points is called a line segment and a part of a line
with one end point is called a ray.

A B A B
AB or Line segment AB; Length AB AB or Ray AB
Ray AB begins from A and runs in the direction
of B
On the line :

A B C
AB, AC, BC, CB, CA and BA are line segments.

and AB , AC , BC , CA , CB and BA are rays.

Half Line: If point A is excluded from the ray AB and ray AC , we get two half lines :

l
C A B
A point A on the line l divides it into three parts :
(i) Half line AB, (ii) half line AC and (iii) Point A itself.
Half Plane
Let p be a plane and l be a line in the plane p . The line l divides the plane p into three parts
: (i) half plane I, (ii) Half plane II, and (iii) the line l.

Solved Examples
Example 1
State which of the following are true statements. Give reasons for your answers.
(a) There exists a point through which no line can pass.
(b) Given two distinct points, infinite number of lines can pass through these
points.
(c) If two circles are equal, their radii are equal.
(d) A terminated line can be produced indefinitely on both the sides.
(e) There exists one and only one circle with centre at a given point A.
(f) There exists two number x and y such that x  y but 2x = 2y
(g) Two distinct lines can have at most one common point.

(96) TAKSHILA INSTITUTE

Corporate Off : D-11/148, Sec-8, (Opp. Metro Pillar 390), Rohini-110085 Ph:- 011-47155238, 9310378303, 9868445900
 FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS
Solution
(a) False. Infinite number of lines can pass through a given point.
(b) False. There exists one and only one line passing through two given points.
(c) True. Circles with different radii cannot be equal.
(d) True: Postulate 2.
(e) False. There exist infinite circles with a given centre.
(f) False. Since 2x = 2y Þ x = y
(g) True : Theorem 5.1.
Example 2
If lines AB, AC, AD and AE are parallel to a line l. What can be said about the
points A, B, C, D and E ?
Solution
(i) Since by parallel Playfair’s Axiom, if ‘l’ is a line
and a point P not on it, there is one and only one line ‘m’ which
passes through P and is parallel to ‘l ’
(ii) Here AB, AC, AD and AE are the lines through the point A
parallel to the line ‘l‘. The points A, B,C, D and E all lie on m. P
Hence, the points A, B, C, D and E are collinear. m
l
m
Example 3 A B C D E
Given three collinear points P, Q and R. Name all the line segments these points
determine.
Solution
Since a line segment requires at least two points,
then by postulate, we have the following line
segments from the given
three non-collinear point P, Q and R. P Q R
PQ , PR , QR
Example 4
Given four distinct points in a plane how many lines can be drawn through
them?
Solution
There are three possibilities :
(i) When all the four points are collinear .
In this case one line can be drawn. A B C D
(ii)When three points are collinear. In this case only three lines can be drawn such as :
AC , AD , CD
D

A B C

(97) TAKSHILA INSTITUTE

Corporate Off : D-11/148, Sec-8, (Opp. Metro Pillar 390), Rohini-110085 Ph:- 011-47155238, 9310378303, 9868445900
 FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS
(iii) When no three of them are collinear. Six lines can be drawn such as :
AB , BC , CD , DA , AC , BD

C
A

B
Example 5
How many planes can be made to pass through three distinct points?
Solution
There are two possibilities :
(i) Infinite number of planes can be drawn if three distinct points are collinear.
(ii) Only one plane can be drawn if three distinct points are non-collinear.

Example 6
l, m, n are lines in the same plane, If l , intersects m, and n ll m, show that l also
intersects n.
Solution
To prove : l also intersects n.
Proof: Suppose l does not intersect n. l
Then l ll m but n ll m [Given]
 l ll m which is impossible since l intersects m. [Given]
Hence our supposition is wrong. m
 l also intersects n.
n

Example 7
l and m are intersecting lines, p ll l and q ll m. Show that p and q also intersect.
Solution
Given l and m are intersecting lines, p ll l and q ll m.
To prove : p and q also intersect.
Proof : Suppose that p and q do not intersect. Then p ll q .
p

m
q
But : q ll m [Given]
p ll m [By transitive property]

(98) TAKSHILA INSTITUTE

Corporate Off : D-11/148, Sec-8, (Opp. Metro Pillar 390), Rohini-110085 Ph:- 011-47155238, 9310378303, 9868445900
 FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS
m ll p
By p ll l [Given]
m ll l [By transitive property]
Which is impossible since l and m are intersecting lines [Given]. Hence our supposition
is wrong.
 p and q also intersect.

Example 8
In the given Fig. 5.28, AB, BC and AC are three line segments for a triangle ABC.
Such that AB=12 cm, BC=5 cm, and AC= 13 cm.
Verify that : AB 2 + BC 2 = AC 2 A
Solution

   
LHS : AB + BC
2 2
cm
13 12 cm
= (12)2 + (5)2
= 144 + 25 = 169
C
and R.H.S. = AC   2
= (13)2 = 169 5 cm B
L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Hence Verify.

EXERCISE-1
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
Euclid’s Definitions, Axioms and Postulates
1. Euclid's Axiom 1 is :
(A) Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another.
(B) If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal.
(C) Given two distinct points, there is a unique line that passes through them.
(D) None of these
2. Euclid's Axiom 5 is :
(A) The things which coincide with one another are equal to one another
(B) If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainder are equal
(C) The whole is greater than the part.
(D) None of these
3. Euclid's Postulate 1 is :
(A) A straight line may be drawn from any point to any other point.
(B) A terminated line can be produced indefinitely
(C) All right angles are equal to one another
(D) None of these
4. Two distinct lines :
(A) Always intersect (B) Either intersect or parallel
(C) Always have two common points (D) Always parallel

(99) TAKSHILA INSTITUTE

Corporate Off : D-11/148, Sec-8, (Opp. Metro Pillar 390), Rohini-110085 Ph:- 011-47155238, 9310378303, 9868445900
 FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS
5. A line segment when extended indefinitely in one direction is called .................
(A) Ray (B) Line (C) Line segment (D) None of these
6. Two distinct points in a plane determine .................
(A) Two lines (B) Three lines (C) A unique line (D) None of these
7. For every line l and for every point P not lying on it there exist a unique line which passes
through P and is ................. to l.
(A) Parallel (B) Perpendicular (C) Intersecting (D) None of these
8. If a straight line falling in two straight line make the interior angles on the same side of it taken
together, then two straight lines if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which the sum
of angles are ................. 2 right angles.
(A) Less than (B) Greater than (C) Equal to (D) None of these
9. Which of the following statement is true :
(A) Two lines may intersect in two point
(B) A line segment has no definite length
(C) Two distinct points always determine a line
(D) None of these
10. Two lines are intersecting, if they have :
(A) A common point (B) An uncommon point (C) Two collinear point (D) None of
these
11. Three basic terms in geometry namely a point, line and plane are ................. terms.
(A) Complex (B) Logic (C) Undefined (D) Define
12. If two circles are equal, then their radii are .................
(A) Equal (B) Diminished (C) Different (D) None of these
13. How many lines can pass through a given point ?
(A) One (B) Two (C) Infinitely (D) None of these
14. Which of the following statement is true ?
(A) Two lines are parallel, if they a common point
(B) Two lines are parallel, if they do not have common point
(C) Two lines can be never parallel
(D) None of these
15. Three or more lines are called concurrent lines if they pass through ................. point.
(A) Two (B) Three (C) Same (D) None of these
ANSWER KEY
Que . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans . A C A B A C A A C A C A C B C

(100) TAKSHILA INSTITUTE

Corporate Off : D-11/148, Sec-8, (Opp. Metro Pillar 390), Rohini-110085 Ph:- 011-47155238, 9310378303, 9868445900
 FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE-2

(FOR SCHOOL/BOARD EXAM)

SECTION -A

TRUE / FALSE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. A point is a undefined term.

2. A line is a defined term.

3. Two distinct points always determine a line.

4. A ray can be extended infinitely on both the sides of it.

5. A line segment has both of its end-points fixed and so it has a definite length.

6. Two lines intersect in a point.

7. Two lines may intersect in two points.

8. A segment has no length.

9. The ray AB is same as ray BA.

10 Two lines are coincident if they have only one point in common.

11. A terminated line can be produced on one side only.

12. A straight line may be drawn from one point to another point.

13. Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another.

14. The whole is smaller than the part.

15. If two circles are equal, then their radii are equal.

16. Things which are half of the same thing are not equal to one another.

17. Only one line can pass through a single point.

18. There are infinite number of lines which pass through two distincts points.

19. A terminated line can be produced indefinitely on both the sides.

20. If figure, if AB = PQ and PQ = XY, then AB = XY

B
Q
Y

A
P
X

21. Two distinct lines always intersect in a point.

22. Every ray has finite length.

(101) TAKSHILA INSTITUTE

Corporate Off : D-11/148, Sec-8, (Opp. Metro Pillar 390), Rohini-110085 Ph:- 011-47155238, 9310378303, 9868445900
 FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS
23. A ray has one end point only.

24. A line segment has one end point only.

25. Three lines are concurrent if they have a common point.

26. Two lines are coincident if they have only one point in common.

FILL IN THE BLANKS

1. Two distinct points in a plane determine a .................... line.

2. Two distinct .................... in a plane cannot have more than one point in common.

3. Given a line and a point, not on the line, there is one and only .................... line which passes
through the given point and is .................... to the given line.

4. One and only one line passes through .................... distinct points.

5. .................... lines can be drawn through 3 non-collinear points.

6. Things which coincide with one another are .................... to one another.

7. If equals are added to equals, the whole are .................... .

8. .................... line can be drawn through four collinear points.

9. If two circles are equal, then their .................... are equal.

10. A terminating line can be produced infinitely on .................... sides.

SECTION -B

1. Who proved Phthagoras Theorem?

2. How many lines can be drawn through a given point?

3. In how many points two distinct lines can intersect?
4. In how many lines two distinct planes can intersect?
5. How many least number of distinct points determine a unique plane?
6. How many lines can be drawn through both of the two given points?
7. Given three collinear points A, B and C. Name all the line segments they determine.
8. If B lies between A and C and AC= 10, BC = 6, what is AB2 ?
9. What is determined by two distinct points?
10. Who is the father of geometry?
11. If B lies between A and C, AC = 15 cm and BC = 9 cm. What is AB2 ?
A R
12. In figure name the following :
B

(i) Five line segments

(ii) Five rays

C Q
(iii) Four collinear points D S

(iv) Two pairs of non-intersecting line segments

13. In the figure name the following

(102) TAKSHILA INSTITUTE

Corporate Off : D-11/148, Sec-8, (Opp. Metro Pillar 390), Rohini-110085 Ph:- 011-47155238, 9310378303, 9868445900
 FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS P
R
B C D
(i) Five rays, A E

I J
(ii) Five line segments, H
F G
N O
(iii) Two pairs of non-intersecting line segment. M
K L S
A, B, C, D and E are collinear points. Q

14. In figure, is mid-point of the line segment AB.

D and E are mid-points of the segments AC and BC respectively.

Prove that : (i) AB = 4.AD (ii) AB = 4.BE.

A D C E B

15. In figure, AC = PQ and CP = BQ

Prove that P is mid-point of the line segment AB.

A C P Q B
16. In figure A and B are the centres of the two intersecting circles.
C

A B

With the help of Euclid's first axiom, prove that, the DABC is an equilateral triangle.

17. If A, B and C are three points on a line, and B lies between A and C, then prove that:

AB + BC =AC.
D
C
B
A

18. In the given figure, if AB = CD ; prove that: AC = BD.

ANSWER KEY
Section -A

TRUE / FALSE ANSWERS

1. True 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. True

6. False 7. False 8. False 9. False 10. False

11. False 12. True 13. True 14. False 15. True

(103) TAKSHILA INSTITUTE

Corporate Off : D-11/148, Sec-8, (Opp. Metro Pillar 390), Rohini-110085 Ph:- 011-47155238, 9310378303, 9868445900
 FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS
16. False 17. False 18. False 19. True 20. True

21. False 22. False 23. True 24. False 25. True

26. False

FILL IN THE BLANKS

1. Unique 2. Lines 3. One, Parallel 4. Two

5. Four 6. Equal 7. Equal 8. Only one

9. Radii 10. Both

Section -B
1. Bhaskara 2. Infinite
3. One 4. One
5. One 6. One
7. AB , BC , AC 8. 16
9. Line 10. Euclid

11. 36 cm

    

12. (i) AB, AC, CQ, BR, RS (ii) BQ, BA, BR, QC, QS, (iii) C, D, Q, S (iv) AC, BQ and QS, AB

13. (i) AD, FJ, KO, PQ, RS (ii) ND, GI, LN, BL, CM (iii) GI, LN and BL, DN

9. The point (0, –2) lies on :

(104) TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
Corporate Off : D-11/148, Sec-8, (Opp. Metro Pillar 390), Rohini-110085 Ph:- 011-47155238, 9310378303, 9868445900