Information Search and Analysis Skills

(ISAS)

MAIN MEMORY

Lecturer:
Devi Afrilia Sinikite
Written by:
Abram Fernando Haullussy
Angelia Hanna Sirait
 Preface

We are grateful to Lord God who gave us ability, health, and strength to finish this
paper. We also thankful to our faculty as well as people who always support us to completing
this paper. Praise and Gratitude therefore we give to the Lord God.

Now in this paper and our presentation we will described about “ Main Memory”. The
basis for this research orginally stemmed from our passion to become IT professional. As the
world move futher to digital age, the operation system becomes very important.

We also wanted to say thanks to Ms. Devi Afrilia Sinikite for the guidance,
motivation, and for all the help that Ms. Afril gave to us. Without him, it wouldn’t be
possible to finish this assignment. Hopefully This ISAS can give an idea about Main
Memory.

Depok, 16 November 2018

Writers

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface………………………………………………………………….…i

Table of Contents……………………………………….………………..ii

Table of Figures………………………………………….……………...iii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

I.1. Background

I.2. Writing Objective

I.3. Problem Domain

I.4. Writing Methodology

I.5. Writing Framework

CHAPTER II BASIC THEORY

II.1 Understanding Memory in General

II.2 History of Memory

II.3 Types of Memory

CHAPTER III PROBLEM ANALYSIS

III.1 Understanding Main Memory

III.2 Types of RAM

III.3 Symptons of RAM Problems

CHAPTER IV CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

IV.1. Conclusion

IV.2. Suggestion

ii
 TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Example of Volatile Memory

Figure 2.2 Example of Non Volatile Memory

Figure 3.1 RAM

Figure 3.2 Harddisk

Figure 3.3 Optical Disk

Figure 3.4 SIMM

Figure 3.5 DIMM

Figure 3.6 RIMM

Figure 3.7 FPM-RAM

Figure 3.8 EDO RAM

Figure 3.9 SD RAM

Figure 3.10 RD RAM

Figure 3.11 DDR RAM

Figure 3.12 RAM levers

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

I.1 Background

In this era, technology has growing rapidly. So many operating system has been made
both on computer device and mobile device. Operating system is very important for
everyone. Because in this era, all operating system to meet daily needs, both in the world of
work, education, and so forth.
Operating system or OS ia software program that enable the computer hardware to
cooperate with the computer software. Without OS, a computer and software programs cant
work together like a team. Therefore, a device need OS to running and software.
In this ISAS, we will discuss about main memory. Main memory ia where program
and data are keept when the processor ia actively using then. When programs and data
become active. They are copied from secondary memory into main memory.

I.2 Writing Objective

Our goal to make this ISAS is to finish the task that given by our lecture and to give
the reader some information about main function or feature of Main Memory. In this paper
we also explain the about type of Main Memory.

I.3 Problem Domain

In this paper we will discuss about Main Memory problem issues and how to fix it.
We also talk about history of main memory. The features of main memory will explained too.

I.4 Writing Methodology

We are using case study method, this research directed to collect data, and understand
of the case. Case Study Method is the method used in research conducted on a "unit system",
whether it be a program, activity, event, or group of individuals who are bound by place or
time. Conclusion of the case study only applies to the case studied.

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 6

I.5 Writing Framework

To make it easier in the writing of the ISAS, Then the discussion will be organized
with the system of writing

• CHAPTER I Introduction

In this chapter 1 it will talk about the background of the problem, Writing Objective, Problem
Domain, the method of writing that will be used is the system of writing, and Writing
Framework.

• CHAPTER II

Chapter 2 will mainly discuss about memory in general, memory history, and type of
memory.

• CHAPTER III Problem Analysis

In chapter 3 will talk more about the main memory, type of main memory, symptons of ram
problems and how to fix that problems.

• CHAPTER IV Conclusion and Suggestion

Chapter 4 will give the conclusion and Suggestions made in the setting up of the ISAS.
 CHAPTER 2

BASIC THEORY

II.1 Understanding Memory in General

The basic function of computer memory is essentially to store data. Depending on the
type of data it stores and the role it plays in computer operation, however, memory performs
several different functions. Although all of these functions involve data storage, RAM, ROM,
flash memory and hard drives each perform a different and necessary function to keep
a computer working.

RAM

Random access memory (RAM) provides temporary application data storage. Instead of
having to go back and find information on the hard drive every time a computer needs a piece
of data, the computer temporarily stores frequently used files on RAM, making them easier to
find. When the computer shuts down, all the data in RAM is erased or transferred to the hard
drive, making room for new data when the computer begins operating again.

Hard Drive

A hard drive is core of a computer's data storage. It provides memory space for system and
user files -- everything from your operating system to documents and images. In mechanical
terms, a hard drive is a rotating disk treated with a magnetic coating, similar to the magnetic
ribbons that store data on cassettes. A moving arm reads and copies data to and from the
rotating disk, allowing you to open files from the hard disk or save new data.

Flash Memory

Flash memory, the common term for electronically erasable programmable read-only
memory (EEPROM), is used in computer video game cards and to store some vital system
information. Unlike other memory types that copy or erase data byte-by-byte, EEPROM can
edit data in groups of bytes, making it a popular choice for devices like memory sticks
and cameras where the data stored is constantly changing.

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 8

Unlike hard drives, EEPROM does not require a fragile moving arm, prompting
some computer manufacturers to move toward replacing hard disks with flash architecture,
although the technology remains more expensive than hard disks.

ROM

Read-only memory (ROM) is used to store data that controls the most
basic computer functionality, such as starting up, detecting peripherals and operating
the computer fan. As the name suggests, the data cannot be edited by the system or users and,
unlike RAM, the data stays recorded even when the computer is off. Like hard drives and
flash memory, ROM is an example of non-volatile memory -- meaning that it remains in
place when the power is off -- while RAM is considered volatile memory. [1]

II.2 History of Memory

1834

Charles Babbage begins to build his “Analytical Engine”, a precursor to the computer. It uses
read-only memory in the form of punch cards.

1932

Gustav Tauschek invents drum memory in Austria.

1936

Konrad Zuse applies for a patent for his mechanical memory to be used on his computer. This
computer memory is based on sliding metal parts.

1939

Helmut Schreyer invents a prototype memory using neon lamps.

1942

The Atanasoff-Berry Computer has 60 50-bit words of memory in the form of capacitors
mounted on two revolving drums. For secondary memory, it uses punch cards.

1947

Frederick Viehe of Los Angeles applies for a patent for an invention that uses magnetic core
memory. Magnetic drum memory is independently invented by several people.
 9
 An Wang
An Wang invented the magnetic pulse controlling device, the principle upon which
magnetic core memory is based.
 Kenneth OlsenKenneth Olsen invented vital computer components, best known for
"Magnetic Core Memory" Patent No. 3,161,861 and as being the co-founder of
Digital Equipment Corporation.

 Jay Forrester was a pioneer in early digital computer development and invented
random-access, coincident-current magnetic storage.

1949

Jay Forrester conceives the idea of magnetic core memory as it is to become commonly used,
with a grid of wires used to address the cores. The first practical form manifests in 1952-53
and renders obsolete previous types of computer memory.

1950

Ferranti Ltd. completes the first commercial computer with 256 40-bit words of main
memory and 16K words of drum memory. Only eight were sold.

1951

Jay Forrester files a patent for matrix core memory.

1952

The EDVAC computer is completed with 1024 44-bit words of ultrasonic memory. A core
memory module is added to the ENIAC computer.

1955

An Wang was issued U.S. patent #2,708,722 with 34 claims for magnetic memory core.

1966

Hewlett-Packard releases their HP2116A real-time computer with 8K of memory. The newly
formed Intel starts to sell a semiconductor chip with 2,000 bits of memory.

1968

USPTO grants patent 3,387,286 to IBM's Robert Dennard for a one-transistor DRAM cell.
DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM (Random Access Memory) or Dynamic Random Access
Memory. DRAM will become the standard memory chip for personal computers replacing
magnetic core memory.
 10

1969

Intel begins as chip designers and produces a 1 KB RAM chip, the largest memory chip to
date. Intel soon switches to being notable designers of computer microprocessors.

1970

Intel releases the 1103 chip, the first generally available DRAM memory chip.

1971

Intel releases the 1101 chip, a 256-bit programmable memory, and the 1701 chip, a 256-byte
erasable read-only memory (EROM).

1974

Intel receives a U.S. patent for a "memory system for a multichip digital computer".

1975

Personal consumer computer Altair released, it uses Intel's 8-bit 8080 processor and includes
1 KB of memory.

Later in the same year, Bob Marsh manufacturers the first Processor Technology's 4 kB
memory boards for the Altair.

1984

Apple Computers releases the Macintosh personal computer. It is the first computer that came
with 128KB of memory. The 1 MB memory chip is developed.

1996

DDR SDRAM began being sold in 1996.

1999

RDRAM became available for computers in 1999.

2003

DDR2 SDRAM began being sold in 2003.

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2003

XDR DRAM began being sold in 2003.

2007

DDR3 SDRAM began being sold in June 2007.

2014

DDR4 SDRAM began being sold in September 2014.

II.3 Types of Memory

Memory is the best essential element of a computer because computer can’t perform
simple tasks. Computer memory is of two basic type – Primary memory / Volatile memory
and Secondary memory / non-volatile memory. Random Access Memory (RAM) is volatile
memory and Read Only Memory (ROM) is non-volatile memory.

In computing, memory refers to the devices used to store information for use in a
computer. The term primary memory is used for storage systems which function at high-
speed (i.e. RAM), as a distinction from secondary memory, which provides program and data
storage that is slow to access but offer higher memory capacity. If needed, primary memory
can be stored in secondary memory, through a memory management technique called “virtual
memory.” An archaic synonym for memory is store.

1. Volatile Memory

Figure 2.1
DDR-SD-RAM, SD-RAM, and two older forms of RAM
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Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored
information. Most modern semiconductor volatile memory is either Static RAM (see SRAM)
or dynamic RAM (see DRAM). SRAM retains its contents as long as the power is connected
and is easy to interface to but uses six transistors per bit. Dynamic RAM is more complicated
to interface to and control and needs regular refresh cycles to prevent its contents being lost.
However, DRAM uses only one transistor and a capacitor per bit, allowing it to reach much
higher densities and, with more bits on a memory chip, be much cheaper per bit. SRAM is
not worthwhile for desktop system memory, where DRAM dominates, but is used for their
cache memories. SRAM is commonplace in small embedded systems, which might only need
tens of kilobytes or less. Forthcoming volatile memory technologies that hope to replace or
compete with SRAM and DRAM include Z-RAM, TTRAM, A-RAM and ETA RAM.

2. Non-Volatile Memory

Figure 2.2
Solid-State Drives Are One Of The Latest Forms Of Non-Volatile Memory

Non-volatile memory is computer memory that can retain the stored information even
when not powered. Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only memory (see ROM),
flash memory, most types of magnetic computer storage devices (e.g. hard disks, floppy discs
and magnetic tape), optical discs, and early computer storage methods such as paper tape and
punched cards. Forthcoming non-volatile memory technologies include FeRAM,
CBRAM,PRAM, SONOS, RRAM, Racetrack memory, NRAM and Millipede System
manufacturers use different types of non-volatile memory chips for a variety of purposes. For
instance, one type of Non-Volatile Memory might store the controller program code for
devices such as hard disk drives(HDDs) and tape drives. Another type of Non-Volatile
Solid-state storage typically uses a variant of non-volatile memory known as NAND flash.
SSDs have no moving parts, and they are capable of higher performance than mechanically
addressed HDDs and tape, which use a head to read and write data to magnetic storage
media. SSDs directly connected to a computer's processor through a PCI Express(PCIe) bus
offer lower latency than Serial-Attached SCSI (SAS)- or Serial Advanced Technology
Attachment (SATA)-based SSDs plugged into external drive bays.
 CHAPTER 3
PROBLEM ANALYSIS

III.1 Understanding Main Memory

The main memory in a computer is called Random Access Memory. It is also known
as RAM. This is the part of the computer that stores operating system software, software
applications and other information for the central processing unit (CPU) to have fast and
direct access when needed to perform tasks. It is called "random access" because the CPU
can go directly to any section of main memory, and does not have go about the process in a
sequential order.
RAM is one of the faster types of memory, and has the capacity to allow data to be
read and written. When the computer is shut down, all of the content held in RAM is purged.
Main memory is available in two types: Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) and
Static Random Access Memory (SRAM).

Pic 3.1 of Random Access Memory (RAM)

Bus address first contacted a part of computer called memory. What is meant by
memory here is a group of chips capable of storing instructions or data. The CPU itself can
do one of the following processes for that memory, which is read (read) or write / save (write)
to that memory. This memory is also termed as the Main Memory.
The type of chip that is pretty much known in this main memory is DRAM (Dynamic
Random Access Memory). The capacity of one chip variable, depending on when and on
what computer the DRAM is used.

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Memory can be imagined as a work space for computers and memory also determines
the size and number of programs, as well as the amount of data that can be processed.
Memory is sometimes also called as primary storage, primary memory, main storage, main
memory, internal memory.
Memory functions to store application systems, control systems, and data that is
operating or processed. Bigger memory capacity will increase the ability of the computer.
Memory is measured by KB or MB. Random Access Memory (RAM), is a part of memory
that can be used by users to store programs and data. Most of the RAM is referred to as
volatile items. This means that if the electric power is removed from the computer and the
computer is off, then all content that is in RAM will be permanently lost.
Because RAM is temporary and volatile, people create another storage media that is
permanent. This is usually referred to as secondary storage. Secondary storage is durable and
also not volatile, this means that all data or programs stored in it can remain even if power or
electricity is turned off. Some examples of secondary storage for example are magnetic tape,
hard disk, magnetic disk and optical disk.[5]

Pic 3.2 Harddisk

Pic 3.3 Optical Disk

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III.2 Types of Random Access Memory
Based on Module:
1. Single Inline Memory Module (SIMM)

Has a capacity of 30 or 72 pins. The 30 pin SIMM memory for the use of the 80286 era
PC is 80486 and operates at 16 bits. 72 pin memory is widely used for Pentium based PCs
and operates on 32 bits. Speed is referred to following the terms ns (nano seconds) such as
80ns, 70ns, 60ns and so on. The smaller the value, the higher the speed. DRAM (dynamic
RAM) and EDO RAM (extended data-out RAM) use SIMM. DRAM stores bits in a storage
cell as an electrical charge that must be refeshed hundreds of times at any time to retain data.
EDO RAM is a kind of DRAM faster, EDO takes time in output data, where it takes time
between CPU and RAM. This type of memory has not been used on computers lately.

Pic 3.4 SIMM

2. Double Inline Memory Module (DIMM)

With a capacity of 168 pins, the two memory modules are active, each surface is 84 pins.
This is different than SIMM which only works next to the module. Supports 64 bit data
delivery. SDRAM (synchronous DRAM) uses DIMMs. Replace DRAM, FPM (fast page
memory) and EDO. SDRAM controls (synchronizes) memory so that it is the same as the
CPU clock for faster data transfer. and there are two speeds, 100MHz (PC100) and 133MHz
(PC133).

Pic 3.5 DIMM

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3. RIMM (Rambus)

Formerly known as RDRAM. Is a type of SDRAM made by Rambus. DRDRAM is used

for high-speed Intel CPUs. Data transfer is the same as DDR SDRAM but has two data
channels to improve capabilities. Also known as PC800 which is 400MHz. It operates in the
form of 16 bits instead of 64 bits. At present there is a speed of 1066MHz DRDRAM known
as RIMM (Rambus inline memory module). DRDRAM 32-bit RIMM 4200 models deliver
4.2gb at a time of 1066MHZ.

Pic 3.6 RIMM

Based on the speed (nanosecond) and the number of pins:
30 pins, 72 pins, 168 pins.

1. FPM DRAM (Fast Page Mode Random Access Memory)

RAM is the first time plugged into the memory slot 30 pin mainboard computer, where
we can find this RAM on computers type 286 and 386. This type of memory is no longer
produced.

Pic 3.7 FPM DRAM

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2. EDO RAM (Extended Data Out Random Access Memory)

This type of RAM has the ability to read and transfer data faster than ordinary RAM.
Memory slot for EDO - RAM is 72 pins. The EDO-RAM form is longer than the Single
Inline Memory Module (SIMM). Has a speed of more than 66 Mhz.

Pic 3.8 EDO RAM

3. BEDO RAM (Burst EDO RAM)

RAM is the development of EDO RAM which has a speed of more than 66 MHz.
4. SD RAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory)

This type of RAM has a level above EDO-RAM. The memory slot for SD RAM is 168
pins. The form of SD RAM is a Dual Inline Memory Module (DIMM). Has a speed above
100 MHz.

Pic 3.9 SD RAM

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5. RD RAM (Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory)

This type of RAM has a very high speed, first used for computers with Pentium 4
processors. Memory slots for RD RAM are 184 pins. The form of RD RAM is the Rate Inline
Memory Module (RIMM). Has a speed of up to 800 MHz.

Pic 3.10 RD RAM

http://bhssjct.blogspot.com/2013/12/rdram-rambus-dynamic-random-access.html
6. DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM)

This type of RAM has a very high speed by doubling the speed of SD RAM, and is a lot
of RAM circulating today. This type of RAM consumes less electricity. Memory slot for
DDR SDRAM is 184 pins, the shape is RIMM. [6]
https://www.it-jurnal.com/main-memory-jenis-jenis-ram/

Pic 3.11 DDR SDRAM

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III.3 Symptons of RAM Problem
 When you first turn on your computer it runs fine, but as you go about your business you
notice that its performance diminishes. By lunch time, websites take minutes to load and
local programs run at a snail's pace. This type of gradual deterioration of PC
performance, especially with memory-intensive programs, may be caused by a RAM
problem.
 Your computer randomly restarts while you are in the middle of something or freeze
sporadically. It may also reboot almost immediately upon opening the desktop. This
could be a sign of faulty RAM.
 A blue screen with white text flashes before restarting. Blue-screen errors are annoying
because you don't even have a chance to read the error message. Bad RAM is one thing
that cause them.
 Files—particularly ones you frequently access and save—seem to be inexplicably
corrupted. RAM issues can lead to this problem, which can worsen over time. The file
structure of your hard drive may slowly degenerate and you will no longer be able to
boot your machine.
 Your attempts to install a new program repeatedly fail for unknown reasons. You try to
reinstall the operating system, but keep getting odd error messages.
There are certainly a variety of problems that could cause the issues above, but faulty RAM is
an often-overlooked root cause of inexplicable issues. If you have one or a combination of the
above problems you are likely facing a memory issue.

What Causes Memory Damage?

 Power surges can damage most computer components, including RAM. You should
plug your computer and other expensive electronics into a surge protector. Make sure
you know the difference between a surge protector and a power strip.
 Before you handle any parts in your computer, make sure you ground yourself by
touching a piece of grounded metal to discharge static electricity. Electrostatic discharge
can damage your computer.
 Excessive heat can cause RAM and other parts to wear out over time. Individual
components can overheat, or heat from one component can cause damage to adjacent
parts.
 If you have overclocked any part of your computer incorrectly, it may cause damage in
the form of excess heat.
 Your memory module may have some fault that passed through quality control and
worsened over time. This is the most likely cause behind a damaged RAM.
It is also possible that the memory module is fine, but one or more memory slots on your
motherboard are defective, hindering the RAM's performance. The defect may even be so bad
that it damages the memory stick.
 20

Diagnosing the Problem

 If the symptoms started after you recently added more memory, the new module could
be faulty. This seems obvious, but any time a problem begins after making a change,
first check to see if the change caused the problem.
 Your computer may produce multiple beeps or a continuous beep when you turn it on.
These beeps can indicate many different problems, including being a symptom of bad
RAM. Beep codes vary depending on the manufacturer of your BIOS. You can look up
the beep codes for your specific computer to figure out its specific problem.
 If you are not comfortable fixing your computer yourself, I recommend taking your
computer to a local repair store rather than a big retail store. Big stores are in the
business of selling additional parts, not fixing problems.
 If you are an advanced user, there are diagnostic programs that can help you figure out if
you have a memory problem. Your computer may have one pre-installed by the
manufacturer or you can download a third-party program. The Windows Memory
Diagnostic by Microsoft is also good if you suspect memory problems on a Windows
PC.
 If the above programs indicate your memory sticks are functioning, but you still suspect
a RAM problem or if you need to find which memory module is the problem, you can
try removing the modules and placing them in different slots.

Fixing the Problem by Removing Memory

 To remove a RAM module you need to press the tiny levers on each end to release it.
 Test each of your memory modules one at a time to find which ones are bad. When you
find the sticks that are bad you can order replacements. It is possible all the memory
modules are damaged if your computer experienced a serious power surge.
 If all the memory modules appear bad, then the problem is likely with the memory slot
itself. Try testing each memory module in each of the memory slots to find if one of the
slots is faulty. To fix a faulty slot you would need to replace your motherboard.
 When replacing a module, make sure the indention on the bottom is lined up correctly
with the slot and then press it in until you hear the levers snap. Note that some levers do
not make a snapping sound.

Pic 3.12 RAM levers

The levers for the memory slot are white in this example.
 21

Other Possible Problems

RAM problems often go undiagnosed, but they also can be misdiagnosed. Some common
problems that have nothing to do with memory can cause the symptoms listed above:
 Many of the symptoms listed above can actually be caused by a hard drive problem. You
can run a utility called CHKDSK by pressing the Windows button and R at the same
time, typing CHKDSK into the dialog box, and pressing enter. Alternatively, you can
click on Computer, right-click the drive you intend to scan, click Properties, then the
Tools tab, and click Check now. Note you will need to restart your computer. Also, be
aware this process may take an extended amount of time to finish running. If you hear
your hard drive making lots of noise during normal operation, it may be the cause of
your problems. Defragmenting your drive every few months is a good idea as well.
 If the performance problems occur during graphic-intensive programs such as games or
rendering, your graphics driver could be outdated. Be sure to always keep your drivers
up to date.
 Excessive heat in your machine can cause a variety of problems.
 Random reboots can be cause by a failing power supply.
 Dirt and dust can also cause issues that look like memory problems. It is a good idea to
clean dust out of your computer at least once a year, more often if you have furry pets.
 Your computer can also have a virus. Note that many people automatically assume any
problem with their computer is caused by a virus and many large retail repair stores
frequently misdiagnose hardware problems as viruses. Make sure you have a good anti-
virus program and run scans on a regular basis.
 Chapter 4
Suggestion & Conclusion

IV. Conclusion
Main Memory is where program and data are kept when the processor is actively
using them. When programs and data become active they are copied from secondary memory
into main memory. Memory functions to store application system, and data that is operating
or processed. The greater the memory capacity will increase the ability of the computer.
Memory is measured by KB or MB. Random Access Memory (RAM) is part of memory that
an be used by users to store programs and data. Most of the RAM is referred to as volatile
items. This means that if the electric power is removed from the computer that isin RAM will
bw permanently lost.

IV.2 Suggestion
Understanding how the operating system works and its attributes makes us
understand. Therefore adding insight is very important. This ISAS is not as perfect as it
should be, but we as a writer hope that this paper can be useful for all of us, especially the
authors themselves for friends and for other readers, if there are errors and imperfection in
this paper our criticism and suggestions are expected.

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