AE7612 AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT-1

“275-SEATER PASSENGER AIRCRAFT-6000 KM”

BATCH V

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

BY
PRABHAKAR V (2015501033)
PRADHAP K (2015501034)
PRASANNA G (2015501035)
PRISCA ANGELIN P (2015501036)
RADHESH C R (2015501037)
RAKESH R (2015501039)
RAMAKRISHNAN R (2015501040)

DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

MADRAS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
ANNA UNIVERSITY
CHENNAI – 44
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this is a bonafide record of project on

“275-SEATER PASSENGER AIRCRAFT”

BY

PRABHAKAR V (2015501033)
PRADHAP K (2015501034)
PRASANNA G (2015501035)
PRISCA ANGELIN P (2015501036)
RADHESH C R (2015501037)
RAKESH R (2015501039)
RAMAKRISHNAN R (2015501040)

in the period of DECEMBER 2017 TO APRIL 2018

Dr.C. Senthil Kumar Dr.V.Arumugam

Assistant Professor (S.G) Associate Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering Department of Aerospace Engineering

Madras Institute of Technology Madras Institute of Technology

Anna University, Chennai Anna University, Chennai

Dr.K.Jayaraman
Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Madras Institute of Technology
Anna University, Chennai
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are very grateful to Dr. C. Senthil Kumar for giving us

continuous guidance during the various stages of our project’s
aerodynamic design.

We also express our heartfelt thanks to Dr.K.Jayaraman and

Dr.V.Arumugam for their guidance and help in the structural design
of the project.

We would also like to thank all our faculty members who have
helped us during the course of the design project.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TOPIC

AERODYNAMIC DESIGN

01. DATA COLLECTION

02. PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATION

03. AIRFOIL SELECTION

04. FLAP SELECTION

05. EMPENNAGE SELECTION

06. TYRE SELECTION

07. SEATING ARRANGEMENT

08. WEIGHT BALANCING

09. ESTIMATION OF DRAG

10. PERFORMANCE CALC & CURVES

11. ANALYSIS OF STABILITY & CONTROL

12. V-N DIAGRAM

Aircraft Data Collection:
Preliminary Specifications of the Aircraft:
 Cruise Speed 855 kmph (237.5 m/s)
Takeoff Weight 1450000N
T/W 0.3
Wing Span 45 m
Wing Planform Area 280 m2
Fineness Ratio 10.5
Sweep Angle 29 deg
Taper ratio 0.23
Aircraft Height 15.5 m
Aircraft Length 47 m
Aspect Ratio 8.4
Wing Loading 5400 N/m2
We/Wo 0.53
Preliminary Weight Estimation:
Cruise Altitude: 11200 m
Cruise Velocity, Vcruise: 237.5 m/s (855 kmph)
T/Wo: 0.3 (T, Thrust)
Number of Passengers: 276 (Business Class: 24; Economy Class: 252)
Crew: 10 (2, 8)
Range: 6000 km
Initial Wf/Wo: 0.32 (Wf, Weight of fuel ; Wo, Takeoff weight
Initial We/Wo: 0.53 (We, Empty weight)
Number of engines: 4
Weight of crew per head, 100*9.8 = 980 N
Weight of business class passenger per head, 130*9.8 = 1274 N
Weight of economy class passenger per head, 120*9.8 = 1176 N
Total weight of crew, 10*980 = 9800 N
Total weight of payload = 326928 N
The weight distribution is fixed after the iterative procedure followed below.
Sample iteration:
Takeoff weight, Wo = (Wcrew + Wpayload) / [1 - (Wf/Wo) - (We/Wo)]
Wo = 336728 / (1- 0.32- 0.53)
 Wo = 2237666.67N
T/Wo = 0.3
 T = 671300 N
Tsea level = T*1.2 = 805560 N
Tsea level per engine = 805560 / 4 = 201390 N

Density ratio = Density at 11200 m / Density at sea level = 0.3529/1.225 = 0.29

Tcruise altitude per engine = Tsea level per engine * (0.29^1.2) = 45594.82 N

Engine Selected:
GE CF6 - 80A
Thrust = 213504 N
SFC = 0.356 hr-1
Weight (Wpp) = 38974.6 N

Wfuel = (No. of engines * Thrust at cruise altitude * Range * SFC* 1.2) / Cruise Velocity
Wfuel= (4 * 45594.82 * 0.356 * 6000 * 1.2) / 855
 Wfuel = 546753.9 N

(We/Wo) without power plant = (We/Wo) – (Wpp/Wo) = 0.53 – [(389746*4) / 2237666.67]

 (We/Wo) w/o pp = 0.46

Now, Wo = (Wcrew + Wpayload + Wpp + Wfuel) / [1 – (We/Wo) w/o pp]

Wo = (336728 + 155898.4 + 546753.9) / (1 – 0.46)
 Wo = 1923957.484 N
 The iteration is continued till the values converge.

The final result is,

Takeoff weight, Wo = 1553575.506 N
Tsea level per engine = 139821.8 N
Tcruise altitude per engine = 31655.74 N
Weight of fuel, Wf = 394530.5 N

Therefore, the engine selected is,

IAE V2531 – E5
Weight of engine, Wpp = 24343.2 N
SFC = 0.36 hr-1
Length of engine = 3.2 m
Width of engine = 1.6 m

Weight Distribution:

Gross weight (Wo): 1553575.506 N

Weight of payload 326928 N

Weight of Crew 9800 N
Weight of Power plant ( 4 engines) 97372.8 N
Weight of fuel 394530.5 N
Weight of structure 543751.427 N
Weight of Landing gear 93214.53 N
Weight of fixed equipment ( Galley & 87978.26 N
Closet included)
Airfoil Selection:

Wing loading (Wo/S) = 5400 N/m2

S = 1553575.506/5400
 Wing Planform Area, S = 287.7 m2

Aspect ratio, b2/S = 8.4

 Wing span, b = 49.16 m

L/b =1.125
 Length of aircraft, L= 55.3 m

Fineness ratio, l/d = 10.5

 Diameter of fuselage, d = 5.27 m

Average chord, Cavg = b/aspect ratio

 Cavg = 5.85 m

Taper ratio, 

Fuel Selected: Jet A-1
Density of fuel at 15 deg Celsius = 804 kg/m3

Volume of fuel = Weight of fuel / (g * density)

 Volume of fuel, Vf = 50.07 m3

Average weight, Wavg = (Gross weight + Landing weight) / 2

 Wavg = 1395763.306 N

Cruise Lift coefficient, CLcruise = (2 * Wavg) / (Density at cruise * S * Vcruise2)

 CLcruise = 0.487

Airfoil Selected: NACA 2414

Thickness to chord ratio, t/c = 14%
Maximum thickness location: 30% of chord
Minimum drag coefficient for cruise: 0.0063
Angle of attack, 2.25 deg
Volume of fuel stored in wing = 0.38Cavg * (t/c) Cavg * b/2 * 0.6 * 0.75 * 2
 Vfwing = 40.28 m3

Volume of fuel in fuselage = Vffuselage = 9.79 m3

Flap Selection:

Landing:

Runway length: 1700m

Landing distance, SL = 0.6 * 1700 = 1020 m
Landing velocity with thrust reverser (VL) = Sqrt (2 * 0.25g* SL)
 VL = 70.69 m/s

Stalling velocity, Vstall = VL / 1.2

 Vstall = 58.91 m/s

CL landing = (2*Landing weight) / (Density at sea level * S * VL2)

Weight of landing = Wo – 0.8Wf
 WL = 1237951.106 N

CL landing = (2*1237951.106) / (1.225 * 287.7 * 70.692)

 CL landing = 1.406

During landing, let us assume that the angle of attack of the aircraft becomes 2 deg.
Therefore,
Total  of wing = 2 deg + 2.25 deg = 4.25 deg
CL=4.25 deg = 0.733

CL landing = CL landing - CL=4.25 deg

 CL landing = 0.673

From the aircraft data, we have,
bflap/bwing = 0.78
 bflap = 38.34 m

Sflap = 67.295 m2
Sflap/Swing = 0.234

bflap* cflap = Sflap

 cflap = 1.755

cflap / c = 1.755 / 5.85

 cflap = 0.3c

Hence, from the plots, it is found that the split flap must be deflected by 26 degrees, if the
flap span is complete span of wing.
By interpolation, for the selected span, the split flap must be deflected by 36 degrees.
Take-off:
Vtakeoff = 1.3 Vstall
 Vtakeoff = 76.58 m/s

CLtakeoff = (2* Wo) / (Density at sea level * S * Vtakeoff2)

CLtakeoff = (2*1553575.506) / (1.225 * 287.7 * 76.582)
 CLtakeoff = 1.503

During takeoff, let us assume that the angle of attack of the aircraft becomes 7 deg.
Total  of wing = 7 deg + 2.25 deg = 9.25 deg
CL=9.25 deg = 1.203
CLtakeoff = CL takeoff - CL=9.25 deg
 CL takeoff = 0.3

Hence, from the plots, it is found that the split flap must be deflected by 9.5 degrees, if the
flap span is complete span of wing.
By interpolation, for the selected span, the split flap must be deflected by 14 degrees.

Wing sweep:

Temperature at 11200 m = 215.35 K

Speed of sound, a = Sqrt (R* T) = Sqrt (1.4*287*215.35)
 a = 294.16 m/s

Mach number at cruise = Vcruise / a

 Mcruise = 0.81

Mcritical = Mcruise * [6 / (5 + Mcruise2)] 0.5

 Mcritical = 0.83

Mcritical cos^c/4 = 0.7

 ^c/4 = 32.5 deg

Empennage Selection:
Horizontal tail:
Taper ratio () = 0.23
From aircraft data, lht / l = 0.364
 lht = 20.13 m
Assuming Vht = 0.6

𝐻 ∗ 𝐻
𝑉𝐻 =
𝐶∗
 SHT = 56.72 m2.
Aspect Ratio (VHT *ARw) = 5.04.
Span, bHT = Sqrt (ARw * SHT)
 bHT = 16.91 m
ROOT CHORD OF HORIZONTAL TAIL.
∗ 𝐻
𝐶 𝐻 =
[ + 𝐻 ]
 CrHT = 5.32 m
HT = 0.26.
CtHT =  * CRHT
 CtHT = 1.38 m.
SPANWISE LOCATION OF MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD.

𝐻 + 
𝑦𝐻 = ( )∗
6 +
 yHT = 3.4 m.
MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD

++
𝐶 = ( )∗𝐶 𝐻 ∗
+
 MACHT = 3.74 m.

Vertical tail:
𝑙 𝑇
From aircraft data, = .

 lVT = 18.91 m.
Assuming VVT = 0.04.
𝑙 𝑇∗ 𝑇
𝑉 =
∗

 SVT = 29.92 m2
ARVT = 0.04 * 8.45 = 1.6
hVT = Sqrt (ARw * SVT)
 hVT = 6.92 m
ROOT CHORD OF VERTIACAL TAIL.
∗
𝐶 =
[ + ℎ ]
 CrVT = 6.6 m
VT = 0.31
  CtVT = 2.05 m
SPANWISE LOCATION OF MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD.
∗ℎ + 
= ∗( )
6 +

 ZVT = 2.85 m.
MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD OF VERTICAL TAIL

++
𝐶 =( )∗𝐶 ∗
+

 MACVT = 3.46 m.

Tyre Selection:
Main Wheel:
Main wheel carries 90% of aircraft total takeoff weight.
4 Main wheels carry 1398217.96 N
1 Main wheel carries 349554.49 N i.e. 78636.29 lbf.
Tyre Selected, Good Year - 50*19 -19
d=50”
w=19”
RF=19”
From table, Inflation Pressure = 190 psi.

AP = . ∗ √𝑤 ∗ 𝑑 ∗ – RF)

 AP = 425.35 in2.
Wallowable = Ap* P = 80815.47 lbf
Therefore, the wheel can withstand the pressure exerted on the ground by the aircraft.
By section theorem,
b = width / 2 = 9.5”.

=√ − 𝐹 .

a = 16.25”.
Area of contact =*a*b = 484.68 in2.
.
Runway Loading = .
= 162.24 lb/in2 ≈ 112.84 N/cm2.

So, the aircraft can land on a concrete runway.

Nose wheel:
Nose wheel carries 10% of aircraft total takeoff weight.
2 Nose wheels carry 155357.55 N.
1 Nose wheel carries 77678.77 N i.e 17474.73 lbf.
Tyre Selected, Good Year - 36*11 - 16
AP = 91.54 in2.
By section theorem,
b= 11/2 = 5.5”.
a = 8.25”.

Area of contact = *a*b = 142.48 in2

Runway Loading = 17474.73 / 142.48 = 122.65 lb / in2 = 85.3 N / cm2
So, the aircraft can land on a concrete runway.

Seating arrangement (Floor Plan):

Diameter of fuselage: 5.27 m

Aisle Height: 3.42 m
Overhead baggage compartment: 1.42 m
Head room: 2 m

Business Class
Seat Width: 0.66 m
Seat Height: 1.4 m
Aisle Width: 0.56 m
Seat Pitch: 1 m
Number of rows: 4
Number of seats per row: 6 (2+2+2)

Economy Class
Seat Width: 0.5 m
Seat Height: 1.2 m
Aisle Width: 0.56 m
Seat Pitch: 0.96 m
Number of rows: 32
Number of seats per row: 1 to 31 rows – 8 (2+4+2)
32nd row – 4 (2+2)
 (Above dimensions are in inches)

Cabin Crew Seat

Seat Width: 0.5 m
Seat Height: 1.2 m
Number of rows: 4
Number of seats per row: 2
Seat Pitch: 0.96 m

Lavatory: 10 (1.5 x 1.35 x 2 m)

Galley: 8 (0.9 x 1.1 x 1.3 m)
Closet: 3 (0.7 x 0.55 x 1 m)
Cockpit: 3.5 m
Empennage: 4 m

(The above dimensions are in inches)

Weight Balancing:
Weight of lavatory: 3452.39 N
Weight of galley: 1941.97 N
Weight of closet: 517.86 N
Food: Business class passenger: 3 kg; Economy class passenger: 1.5 kg
Weight of suit: 156.8 N
Weight of cargo: 83496 N
Weight of wing structure: 87489.39 N
Weight of fuselage structure: 380000 N

i) Full Payload Full Fuel

ii) Full Payload Half Fuel
iii) Full Payload Reserve Fuel
iv) Half Payload Full Fuel
v) Half Payload Half Fuel
vi) Half Payload Reserve Fuel
vii) No Payload Full Fuel
viii) No Payload Reserve Fuel
 (The above diagrams are for Full Payload Full Fuel condition, refer to the corresponding table for dimensions)

CG SHIFT

Here X indicates the position of the wing leading edge. This is fixed for all the operating
conditions.
X = [(Wf * Xcgf) + (Ww * Xcgw) – (Wo * 9.094)] / (Wo – Ww)
Xcg a/p = X + 9.094 (for FPFF condition)
Xcg a/p = [(Wf * Xcgf) + (Ww * (Xcgw + X))] / Wo (for other operating conditions)
% cg shift = {[Xcg a/p (fpff) - Xcg a/p] / Mean Aerodynamic Chord} * 100
Here for all the operating conditions cg shift is within + or – 5%
Hence the aircraft is balanced.
Estimation of drag:
The drag estimation has been done based on the procedure given in the book – Airplane
Aerodynamics and Performance by Dr. Jan Roskam and Dr. Chuan-Tau Edward Lan
S exposed for various components:
Fuselage = 3.14 * Width of fuselage * Length of airplane
Wing = S – (Width of fuselage * Wing Root chord)
Horizontal Tail = S – (4 * Root chord of Horizontal tail)
Vertical Tail = S – (2.635 * Height of Vertical tail)
Power plant = 3.14 * Length * Width * Number of engines
Landing gear = (Diameter of wheel * Width of wheel * Number of wheels)
+ (No. of exposed surfaces * Area of wheel)
Surface Area Factor, Kw = 1.9767 + 0.5333(t/c), for t/c >= 0.05
Kw = 2.0, for t/c < 0.05
Swet = Kw * S exposed
Reynolds’s Number (RN) for different components:
Fuselage = (Density at the altitude * Velocity * Length of fuselage) / Viscosity
Wing = (Density at the altitude * Velocity * MAC of wing) / Viscosity
Horizontal Tail = (Density at the altitude * Velocity * MAC of HT) / Viscosity
Vertical Tail = (Density at the altitude * Velocity * MAC of VT) / Viscosity
Power plant = (Density at the altitude * Velocity * Length of PP) / Viscosity
Landing gear = (Density at the altitude * Velocity * Diameter of wheel) / Viscosity
Rwf is Wing-fuselage interference factor is obtained from plot.
Rls is Lifting surface correction factor is obtained from plot.
L’ is thickness location parameter
L’ = 1.2 for (t/c) max at distance from leading edge >=0.3c
L’ = 2.0 for (t/c) max at distance from leading edge < 0.3c
Cf is skin friction coefficient, Cf = 0.455 / [(log10 RN) 2.58 (1 + 0.144M2)0.65]
Cdo is zero lift drag coefficient,
Cdofus, pp, nwheel, mwheel = Rwf * Cf * (Swet/Sw) * [1 + (60 / (l/d) 3) + (0.0025 * (l/d))]
Cdowing, HT, VT= Rwf * Rls *Cf * (Swet/Sw) * [1+ (L’ * t/c) + (100*(t/c^4)]
Cdoflap = 0.0023 * 0.66 * Flap deflection angle

Velocity at cruise = Sqrt [(2 * Wavg) / (Density at cruise * S * CL)]

Velocity at take off = Sqrt [(2 * Wo) / (Density at sea level * S * C L)]
Velocity at landing = Sqrt [(2 * WL) / (Density at sea level * S * CL)]
Cdo compressible,
Cruise = Cdo cruise / Sqrt (1 – M2)
Take off = Cdo take off / Sqrt (1 – M2)
Landing = Cdo landing / Sqrt (1 – M2)
From the plot it is observed that Drag at Cruise < Drag at Take off < Drag at Landing
Drag Polars:
Take off: CD = 0.040530 + 0.0507 CL2
Cruise: CD = 0.015253 + 0.0507 CL2
Landing: CD = 0.040530 + 0.0507 CL2
Performance Calculation:
Steady Unpowered Flight:
D = Wsin
L = Wcos
tanD / L = Cd / Cl
min = tan-1 [(Cd / Cl) min]
Cd / Cl = (Cdo + kCl2) / Cl = (Cdo / Cl) + kCl
d (Cd / Cl) / dCl = 0
 -Cd0 / Cl2 + k = 0
Cl2 = Cdo / k
 Cl md = Sqrt (Cdo / k)
Cl = Sqrt (Cdo / k)
Cd = Cdo + k (Cdo / k)
 Cd md = 2Cdo

Cl md = Sqrt (0.015253 / 0.0507)

 Cl md = 0.5485
Cd md = 0.0305
 min = tan-1 (0.0305 / 0.5485)
min = 3.183 deg
L = Wcos
Cl q S = Wcos
 Cl = Wcos / q S

W = Cr q S
Cr = W / q S = Cl / cos
Cl = Cr cos
Cr = Cl / cos

V = Sqrt (2 * W /  * S * Cr)
V = Sqrt [(2 * W * cos * S * Cl)]
Vmin = Sqrt [(2 * W * cosmin) / ( * S * Clmd)]

Here use Wavg = 1395763.603 N

 Vmin = 223.71 m / s

Rate of descent:

RD = Vsin = Vsincoscos = V* (Cd/Cl) * cos

RD = Sqrt [(2 * W * (Cd2 / Cl3) * cos3 * S)]

RDmin occurs at (Cd2 / Cl3) min

Cl mp = Sqrt (3Cdo / k) = 0.95

Cd mp = 4Cdo = 0.061

 RDmin = 10.898 m / s

Maximum distance covered in glide, Cruise altitude, h = 11200 m

R = h / tanRmax = h / tanmin
 Rmax glide = 201.398 km

Maximum time aloft, tmax = h / RDmin

 tmax glide = 17.13 min

Range and Endurance:

Range (Constant Altitude)

R = 2 * Sqrt [2 / ( * S)] * (Cl1/2 / Cd) * (1/SFC) * [Sqrt (Wo) – Sqrt (W1)]
Where, W1 = Landing weight (N)
Cruise density (kg / m3)

Rmax occurs at (Cl1/2/Cd) max

 Rmax = 10130.01 km
 But at cruise Cl = 0.487 => Cd = 0.0273
 R = 9340.64 km
(Due to the selection of a powerful engine or usage of large amount of fuel, range is
very high than the required range)

Range (Constant Velocity)

R = [3.6 * V * ln (W1/W2)] / [SFC * (Cd / Cl)]

Where, W1 is takeoff weight
W2 is landing weight
Use Cl and Cd at cruise

 R = 9361.61 km

Endurance:

E = (1 / SFC) * (Cl / Cd) * ln (Wo / W1)

Use Cl cruise
 E = 10.95 hours

Emax occurs at (Cl/Cd) max

 Emax = 11.04 hours
Performance Curves
 Turning Performance:
The turning performance calculation has been done by fixing the bank angle between
10 to 20 degrees
Cos 1 / n
Load factor (n) = Lift / Weight
Radius of turn = Velocity2 / [g * Sqrt (n2 – 1)]
Rate of turn = [g * Sqrt (n2 – 1)] / Velocity
Rmin and max occurs at nmax
Take off distance:
Vstall = 58.91 m / s
Cl max = 2.54
Coefficient of friction,  = 0.4
N = 3 (assumption)
Vliftoff = 1.1Vstall = 64.801 m / s
Ground run, Sg = {[1.21 * (W/S)] / [Cl max**g*(T/W)]} + 1.1*N*Sqrt (2W / S*Cl max)
 Sg = 791.44 m

Turn Radius, R = V2 / g * (n-1)

V = 1.15 Vstall
 V = 67.75 m / s
Here n = 1.19
 R = 2465.12 m

Cos R – hobstacle) / R

hobstacle = 15 m
 deg

Airborne distance, Sa = 2465.12 sin
 Sa = 271.53 m

Take off distance = Sg + Sa = 1062.97 m

Landing distance:

Cl landing = 1.406
Cd landing = 0.1722
Approach angle, a = 3 degrees

Flare Height, hf = R (1- cosf)

 f = a => hf = R (1.37 * 10-3)

R = (Vavg during flare) 2 / 0.2g

R = (1.23Vstall) 2 / 0.2g
 R = 2678.75 m

 hf = 3.67 m

Approach distance, Sa = (15.24 – hf) / tan a

 Sa = 220.77 m

Flare distance, Sf = R sina

 Sf = 140.19 m

Ground Roll, Sg = N Vtd + (W Vtd2 /2g)*[1 / Trev + D +  (W – L)]

Trev = 50% T
Velocity for D and L is 0.7 Vtd
 Sg = 671.46 m

Slanding = Sg + Sa + Sf
 Slanding = 1032.42 m

Analysis of Stability and Control of aircraft:

Static Stability:
It is the ability of the aircraft to return to its equilibrium position after a disturbance on its
own.
Longitudinal Stability:
dCM / dCL < 0
Longitudinal Stick Fixed:
For the aircraft configuration adopted,
XC.G = 9.094 (from the leading edge root chord tip)
MAC = 6.8
(Cmcl)FUSELAGE =0.008627
VH.T = 0.79363.
 = 0.95.
For the wing Airfoil selected,
aw = 0.0966 deg-1.
Xa.c = 8.7 (from the leading edge root chord tip)
For the tail airfoil selected,
at = 0.111 deg-1.
For the longitudinal stick-fixed static stability of the aircraft, we have,
− 𝑎.𝑐 
(CM / CL)FIXED = 𝐶.
+ 𝐶𝑚𝐶 𝑙 − 𝑡
𝑉𝐻.  −
𝐶 

Using the above expressions we get,

(CM / CL)FIXED = -0.44852.
Therefore the aircraft is stable.
Determination of stick – fixed neutral point:
When the value of (CM / CL) is zero, then the value of C.G is called the neutral point.
From the above formula,
𝑁0 
= 𝑎.𝑐
- 𝐶𝑚𝐶 𝑙 + 𝑡
𝑉𝐻.  − .
𝐶 

𝑵
 = 1.77.
𝑪
𝑵 𝑿𝑪.
Static Margin = 𝑪
− 𝒄
= 0.4326.

Determination of Zero – Lift Pitching Moment:

CM = CM0 + (CM / CL) FIXED * CL.
CL CRUISE = 0.542 .
(CM / CL)FIXED = -0.44852
At trim condition ,
CM = 0.
 CM0CRUISE = 0.24305.
Determination of tail setting angle,
CM0 CRUISE = at * VH.T *  * (iW + 0 – it)
 iw = 2.25 deg
Substituting all data, we get,
it = - 4.9 deg
Longitudinal Stick –fixed control:
The rate at which the pitching moment coefficient of the aircraft changes with the change in
elevator deflection is called Elevator Control Power.
 = 0.375 (assumed)
𝐶𝑀
= − ∗ 𝑉𝐻. ∗  ∗  = - 0.03123 deg-1.
𝑒

Determination of extreme elevator deflection,

 𝐶𝑀0
0 =
𝑡∗ .𝑇 ∗ ∗

 0 = 7.7 deg
 / IX
e = 0 - 𝐶𝑀 *CLMAX.
𝑒

CL MAX = 2.54
 eMAX = -28.35 deg
Longitudinal Stick Free Stability:
In this section, column of aircraft is free. Hence, the effect of elevator hinge moments (CHE)
is considered .The additional factor that comes into picture is Free Elevator Factor ()
Che/t = -0.002 deg-1.
Che/ e = -0.005 deg-1.
 e/
(1-  ) = 0.85
 e/ e

− 𝑎.𝑐   e/
(CM / CL)FREE = 𝐶.
𝐶
+ 𝐶𝑚𝐶 𝑙 − 𝑡
𝑉𝐻.  −  (1-   e/ e
)

(CM / CL)FREE = -0.3722.

Determination of stick – free neutral point:
𝑁0   e/
𝐶
= 𝐶𝑚𝐶 𝑙 + 𝑡
𝑉𝐻.  −  (1-  e/ e
).

𝑵
 𝑪
= 1.70

Static Margin = 0.3626.

Stick Force gradients:
 𝐶𝑀
F= (A + (Che/t) t) – K (W/S) ((Che/ e)/ 𝑒
)) (CM / CL) FREE.

A=CH0 + Che/t (0 – iw + it) + (Che/ e) * e0.

K= -GSe Ce .
Assume Ch0 = 0.
(Che/t) = -0.012 deg-1
K = -21.070.
A = 0.0108.
(Che/t) t) TRIM = -0.00352
Therefore, trim = 0.3 deg.
 𝑵𝒔
𝑽
= . 𝒎
.
 Stick-Fixed Stability Characteristics at
design Conditions
1,5
-20 deg

1 -17.5 deg
-15 deg
Cm

0,5 -12.5 deg

-10 deg
0
-0,5 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 -7.5 deg
-0,5 -5 deg
CL -2.5 deg

Stick-Free Stability Characteristics at

Design Conditions
1,6
-20 deg
1,4
1,2 -17.5 deg
1 -15 deg
0,8
Cm

-12.5 deg
0,6
0,4 -10 deg
0,2 -7.5 deg
0
-5 deg
-0,5 -0,2 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5
CL -2.5 deg

Lateral Stability:
When a small vertical disturbance causes the aircraft to roll to one side, as such, the airplane
will continue to roll at the same constant velocity. As such, the airplane is neutrally stable in
roll. However, due to the development of sideslip, the lift distribution over the wings is
altered, tending to produce restoring moments which restore the aircraft to its original state.
This effect is generally called the Dihedral Effect. Lateral stability of the airplane is a
measure of this tendency to produce restoring moments when disturbed in roll. It is measured
quantitatively by the variation of rolling moment coefficient with sideslip angle.

Contribution from wing:

The wing dihedral angle has a linear variation with the stability coefficient. There is also an
additional component due to the tip shape. The stability coefficient is given by the following
equation.

Where , Dihedral angle in degrees

For the aircraft,
= 30

Using the above formula,

= 0.00018248 deg-1
Since the wing configuration is low-wing,
Interference = - 0.0008 /deg
(dCl / d wing = 0.000982 /deg
Contribution of vertical tail:
The vertical tail is stabilizing as far as directional stability is concerned.

For the vertical tail,

av = 0.111 /deg
Vv = 0.04
ηv = 0.9
Zvt =2.85 m
lvt = 18.91 m
Using the above formula,

= 0.000602 deg-1
Since the wing configuration is low-wing,
Interference = -0.0008 deg-1

Using the above formula and data,

(dCl / d) airplane = 0.00078 /deg

Using the above formula,

Effective dihedral = 4.91
Lateral Control:
The angular velocity, with which the airplane rolls under the combined effect of aileron
deployment and dihedral effect, is obtained using the strip integration technique.

The span wise variation for the wing chord is given by

Where cr : root chord in m

: Wing taper ratio (cr/ct)
y : span wise location of strip
Using the above relation, the aileron rolling power is given by the relation
p k −k × − R + × R× k −k τδa
=[ ]×
+ R .

For the airplane,

τa = 0.5
k1 = 0.69
k2 = 0.9
TR = 0.22
Using the above formula and data,

= 0.002041
Directional Stability:

Directional stability of the airplane is a measure of its tendency to produce restoring moments
when disturbed from an equilibrium angle of sideslip – usually taken as zero. It is measured
quantitatively by the variation of yawing moment coefficient with sideslip angle.

Contribution from wing:

The wing contribution to directional stability is quite small, as the cross wind effects on the
wing are very small. The critical factor is the sweepback of the wing.

(∂Cn / ∂Ψ) wing = -0.00006 * √Λ

For the aircraft,
Λ = 32.5 deg
Using the above formula and data,

= -0.000342deg-1
Contribution from fuselage and nacelle:
The contribution from the fuselage and nacelle is estimated using an approximate formula

. 𝑛 ℎ 𝑤
= √
. 𝑤 ℎ 𝑤

Where, Kn =0.125
Sf=291.43 m2
Sw= 287.7 m2
Lf= 55.3 m
B= 49.16 m
h1=h2=w1=w2= 5.27m
Using the above formula and data,

= 0.002386 deg-1
Hence the contribution fuselage to directional stability is destabilizing.
Contribution of vertical tail:
The vertical tail is the stabilizing component in the aircraft as far as directional stability is
concerned.
For the vertical tail,
av = 0.111 deg-1
Vv = 0.04
ηv = 0.9
A simple algebraic equation for estimating the combined side wash and tail efficiency factor
ηv is presented as,
𝛔 /
ηv× − = 0.724 + 3.06 + 0.4 +0.009 ARw
𝚿 + 𝐬Ʌ / 𝐡

Using the above formula,

= -0.003078deg-1

Using the above formula and data,

-0.00103 deg-1

Directional Control:

Cno = −av× Vv × ηv×τr×δr

τr = 0.4
The variation of 𝐂 with rudder deflection
Directional Stability Characteristics

Rudder Control Power:

The rate at which the yawing moment coefficient of the aircraft changes with change in
rudder deflection is called the Rudder Control Power
Using the above formula,

-0.00159 deg-1

Determination of asymmetric power control:

The basic configuration of the aircraft is four tractor engine. When any one of the engines is
inoperative, we obtain a case of asymmetric thrust or power. The control of the aircraft under
this condition with the help of the rudder is investigated in this section.

The equation of moment equilibrium in yaw in case of OEI is as follows-

The value of in this expression is called the asymmetric-thrust yaw coefficient

CnT.
From the above equation,

Outboard engine: ye = 14.5 m

Inboard engine: ye = 6.145 m
At take-off,
VT.O = 76.58 m/s
TT.O = 139821.7955 N per engine
Using the above formula and data,
Outboard engine inoperative
(𝐂 ) take-off = 0.019953741

 𝛅r = -21.60618165 deg
Inboard engine inoperative
(𝐂 ) take-off = 0.008456

 𝛅r = -9.15655 deg
Both (Inboard and outboard) engines inoperative
(𝐂 ) take-off = 0.056819997

 𝛅r = -61.52546486 deg
At cruise,
Vcruise = 237.5 m/s
Tcruise =31655.74 N per engine
Using the above formula and data,
Outboard engine inoperative
(𝐂 ) cruise = 0.001630384

 𝛅r = -1.765401727 deg
Inboard engine inoperative
(𝐂 ) cruise = 0.000691

 𝛅r = -0.74817 deg
Both (Inboard and outboard) engines inoperative
(𝐂 ) cruise = 0.004642658

 𝛅r = -5.027133607 deg
For full rudder deflection 𝐂 full rudder = 0.027706

The variation of asymmetric-thrust yawing moment coefficient with velocity at sea level

Cn(T) Cn(T) Cn(T) (both Cn (full

Velocity (outboard) (inboard) engines) rudder)
40 0.073136651 0.030994808 0.208262919 0.027706
50 0.046807457 0.019836677 0.133288268 0.027706
60 0.032505178 0.01377547 0.092561297 0.027706
70 0.023881355 0.010120754 0.068004218 0.027706
80 0.018284163 0.007748702 0.05206573 0.027706
90 0.014446746 0.006122431 0.041138354 0.027706
100 0.011701864 0.004959169 0.033322067 0.027706
110 0.009670962 0.004098487 0.027538898 0.027706
120 0.008126295 0.003443868 0.023140324 0.027706
130 0.00692418 0.00293442 0.019717199 0.027706
140 0.005970339 0.002530188 0.017001055 0.027706
 150 0.005200829 0.002204075 0.014809808 0.027706
160 0.004571041 0.001937176 0.013016432 0.027706
170 0.004049088 0.001715976 0.011530127 0.027706
180 0.003611686 0.001530608 0.010284589 0.027706
190 0.003241514 0.001373731 0.009230489 0.027706
200 0.002925466 0.001239792 0.008330517 0.027706
210 0.002653484 0.001124528 0.007556024 0.027706
220 0.002417741 0.001024622 0.006884725 0.027706
230 0.002212073 0.000937461 0.006299067 0.027706
240 0.002031574 0.000860967 0.005785081 0.027706
250 0.001872298 0.000793467 0.005331531 0.027706
260 0.001731045 0.000733605 0.0049293 0.027706

0,25

0,2

0,15 Outboard eng failure

Cn(T)

0,1 Inboard eng failure

Two eng inoperative
0,05
Full rudder deflection
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Velocity (m/s)

Figure: The variation of asymmetric-thrust yawing moment coefficient with velocity at

sea level
The velocity at which the yaw coefficient due to full rudder deflection equals the yaw
coefficient due to asymmetric thrust is called the critical velocity for the rudder control or
unstuck speed.
From graph, Critical velocity is
Outboard engine inoperative: Vto= 66 m/s
Inboard engine inoperative: Vto = 40 m/s
Both engines inoperative: Vto = 110 m/s
Determination of cross wind condition control characteristics:
When the airplane is in take-off phase, a cross wind can induce a yawing moment. The
control of the aircraft under this condition with the help of the rudder is investigated in this
section. According to FAR standards, for design we assume
 Cross-wind = 6.5 m/s
The sideslip due to cross wind is given by

Using the above formula,

𝛃 = 4.869041539 deg
To maintain sideslip, we have,

Using the above formula,

𝛅r= -5.450705966 deg
Estimation of load factor and V-n diagram:
In accelerated flight, the lift becomes much more compared to the weight of the aircraft. This
implies a net force contributing to the acceleration. This force causes stresses on the aircraft
structure. The ratio of the lift experienced to the weight at any instant is defined as the Load
Factor.
n= ρ ∗ V2 ∗ CL / (2 W /S)
In this section, we estimate the aerodynamic limits on load factor, and attempt to draw the
variation of load factor with velocity, commonly known as the V-n Diagram. The V-n
diagram is drawn for Sea Level Standard conditions.
Using the above formula, we infer that load factor has a quadratic variation with velocity.
However, this is true only up to a certain velocity. This velocity is determined by
simultaneously imposing limiting conditions aerodynamically ((C L) max) as well as
structurally (nmax). This velocity is called the Corner Velocity, and is determined using the
following formula.

(CL) max is a property of the airfoil selected. For the NACA 2414,
(CL) max= 2.54
Using the above formula,

Vcorner = 110. 22 m/s

nmax =3.5
In the V-n diagram, a horizontal line is drawn at this velocity. This load factor is a limit load
factor, beyond which structural damage occurs to aircraft components if load factor is
exceeded. The plot is extended through the maximum cruise velocity possible for the thrust
and wing loadings of the aircraft, and up to a never-exceed speed or dive speed, defined as
1.5 times the maximum possible cruise velocity. Both these speeds are greater than the design
cruise speed of the aircraft.
Using the above formulae,
Vmaximumcruise = 0.9 * Vat T available=D
Vmaximum, cruise = 300 m/s
Vdive = 450 m/s
The V-n diagram is also extended for negative load factors, i.e. when the aircraft is in dives.
For this case,
-nmax = -1.4
Vcorner = 99.3693 m/s

In order to calculate the gust load factors, the following FAR standards are used.

For velocities up to Vmaximum, cruise, a gust velocity of 65.6 ft/s at sea level is assumed.
For Vdive, a gust velocity of 24.6 ft/s is assumed.
× e× ×
ngust = 1 + W
×
S

Gust Alleviation Factor Kg= 0.88 μg/ (5.3 + μg)

Airplane Mass Ratio μg = 2 W/ (ρ aSg)

Where,
Vge : equivalent gust velocity (ft/s)
: Density of air (slug/ft3)
W/S : wing loading (lbs/ft2)
: mean geometric chord (ft)
g : acceleration due to gravity (ft/s2)
VE : airplane equivalent speed (ft/s)
a : wing lift curve slope (rad-1)
= 0.002377 slug/ft3
W/S = 112.856 lbs/ft2
Ĉ = 22.31 ft
g = 32.185 ft/s2
a = 5.7296 /rad
μ = 23.08
kg = 0.7156

Using the above obtained values, the V-n diagram for the aircraft at sea level is drawn. Gust
lines are drawn in the V-n diagram, indicating the load factor envelopes for normal gusts
encountered.
Scale ratio 1:200
