chapin130008_ch05.

qxd 2/9/06 10:35 AM Page 130

students. The diagram below shows 2 yards divided into 3 groups, with each
group containing
23
yard.

2 yds.
1 ▲

The examples in Activity 13 were chosen because they clearly illustrate two inter-
pretations of division and model the relationships among the dividend, divisor, and
quotient. Many division equations include fractions that cannot easily be modeled
using pictures or materials (e.g.,
58

23
). Furthermore, it is important to realize that
not all division situations are represented by actions based on partitive division or re-
peated subtraction. For example, if the area of a rectangle is 10 square centimeters
and the width is
12
centimeter, the length of the rectangle can be found by calculating
10 
12
. The use of either partitive division or repeated subtraction within this con-
text makes no sense. Area is a multidimensional quantity that is the product of
length and width. The “invert-and-multiply” algorithm, which relies on the inverse
relationship between multiplication and division and between reciprocals, enables us
not only to make sense of other situations but also to divide “messy” fractions.
Why does the “invert and multiply” algorithm work? How is it that we can con-
vert a division expression into a multiplication expression by multiplying by the rec-
iprocal of the divisor? There are a number of ways to explain this. One method is
based on the multiplicative identity property: you can multiply any expression by one
and not change the value of the expression. First, write the expression
58

23
as a frac-
tion in which there is a fraction in the numerator and a fraction in the denominator.
Next, multiply the numerator and the denominator by
32
. A fraction with
32
as the nu-
merator and also
32
as the denominator is equivalent to 1. Thus, we are multiplying
the entire expression by 1.
5 3





8 2



2 3





3 2
Completing the multiplication in the denominator results in a product of 1 (
66
) and
leads to dividing by 1; the numerator is equivalent to
58

32
, or
11
56 .


5 3 5 3









8 2 8 2




2 3 3 3









3 2 2 2
15 15





16 16 15

or
or


6 1 16



6
Another method illustrating why multiplying by the reciprocal works involves the
missing-factor interpretation of division. When considering
58

23
, we can rewrite

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this expression as a multiplication operation in which a factor is missing:
23
 a 
58
.

To find the value of a we can multiply by the reciprocal of
23
:
2



3  a 
58

(
32

23
)a 
58

32

6



6 a 
11
56
a 
1156

One way teachers can help students understand multiplication and division with
fractions is to connect whole number multiplication and division to multiplication
and division with fractions and decimals. Teachers can expand the contexts of prob-
lem situations, expand the range of numbers from whole numbers to fractions, and
expand the language that we use to describe situations. However, it is also important
to extend students’ understanding of these operations beyond whole numbers by
using a range of problem situations and helping students note the similarities and
differences between fractional and whole number relationships.

Teaching Fractions
Fractional numbers are a rich part of mathematics. However, many students find
them difficult to understand. To help students learn about and use fractions, it is im-
portant to introduce the multiple meanings of fraction and to emphasize sense mak-
ing in all mathematical activities. Instruction in the early grades should focus on the
part-whole interpretation of fraction but include all other interpretations as well.
Students most likely will solve problems involving divisions, ratios, operators, or
measures informally at first. However, having experiences with these interpretations
prior to more formal work in middle school will help students develop fractional
sense. Students should be encouraged to use models of fractional quantities (includ-
ing blocks, number lines, and ratio tables) and to model equivalencies and opera-
tions before they are introduced to procedures and rules. Too often instruction moves
quickly to the symbolic, asking students to memorize algorithms. Ideally we want
middle grades students to be flexible in their approach to problems, to be able to per-
form computations accurately and fluidly, and to be able to reason carefully about
rational numbers and operations. The long-range goal is for students to understand
this complex topic and to be fully prepared to deal with rational expressions in alge-
bra and other upper-level courses.

Questions for Discussion

1. Describe the different meanings or interpretations of fractions. Examine a
mathematics textbook (grades 4–7) and analyze how fractions are inter-
preted throughout the book.
2. What are some of the “big ideas” of fractions that students must understand?
Why are these important ideas?
3. Teach someone else the strategies for comparing and ordering fractions.
Reflect on your instruction and discuss how you helped them make sense of
the strategies.

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4. A model is any tool that can be used to help students think about mathe-
matics. Models can include physical materials, graphs, charts, number lines,
pictures, and calculators. Do you think models are necessary for understand-
ing fraction operations? Give examples of how two different models can be
used to solve fraction problems with each of the four operations.
5. What mental techniques can be used when computing with fractions?
Describe how each mental technique is related to number sense and mathe-
matical properties.

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6
Decimals

Decimal numbers allow us to represent fractional quantities using our base ten num-
ber system. With the advent of the inexpensive calculator, decimals are used much
more frequently than in the past. We use decimals whenever we deal with money,
convert metric measures, rank our favorite baseball players by their hitting record, or
record precise measurements.
Few teachers have difficulty performing computations with decimals. However,
when asked to state important concepts related to decimals, many of us find it hard
to articulate even the most fundamental ideas. As a result, instruction in many class-
rooms focuses on developing students’ computational skills rather than on helping
students develop a conceptual understanding of quantity, order, and equivalence
related to decimal quantities. Looking at some of the “big ideas” related to decimals
will help us come to a more focused understanding of some of the mathematical
relationships decimals represent.

1. Decimal Concepts
Decimals in many ways appear simply to be an extension of whole numbers. The value
of each place to the right of the decimal point is found by dividing the previous value
by ten. This is similar to how values to the left of the decimal point are established—
namely, grouping by powers of ten. However, the decimal number system is consider-
ably more complex mathematically than the whole number system. The quantities
represented by the decimal system are real numbers (of which whole numbers are a
–
subset). Thus, some decimals (e.g., .85, . 3) can be written as fractions, but other dec-
imals (e.g., 0.12112111211112 . . . ) cannot. What can also be confusing is that the
symbols that represent these fractional values look a lot like whole numbers—that
is, 32.5 and 3.25 both have the digits 3, 2, and 5 and a decimal point and look simi-
lar to 325. Furthermore, the language of decimals does not always make it clear that
the quantities are of a different nature—for example, hundredths sounds a lot like
hundreds and sometimes is interpreted as such. And finally, since many of us lack
mental models for decimal fractional quantities, interpreting the symbols is more
complex.
Students often think a “decimal” is the decimal point rather than a number.
When asked to write down a decimal numeral, they might put “.” on their paper. In

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order to use and interpret decimal quantities, students must first understand that the
decimal point is a symbol that indicates the location of the ones place and all other
subsequent place values in the decimal system. The decimal point separates a whole
number amount from a number that is less than one. Finding examples of decimals
(5.2 on an odometer, say), explaining what the decimal numeral means in the con-
text of its use (I traveled 5.2 miles to work), indicating the general value of the decimal
numeral (I live a little more than five miles from work), and then stating what two
whole numbers the decimal is between (5.2 miles is between 5 miles and 6 miles)
helps students recognize that the decimal amount is the sum of a whole number and
a number that is less than one. When reading decimal amounts, the word and is used
to indicate the decimal point and to separate the whole number from the part of the
number that is less than one. Thus, we don’t use the word and when reading large
whole numbers: thirty-nine million twelve thousand sixty-three.
The ideas behind whole number place value extend to decimals. Grouping into
sets of ten is one of the main principles of our Hindu-Arabic (base ten) numeration
system. In whole number numeration, ten “ones” are grouped together and replaced
by one “ten,” and ten “tens” are replaced by one “hundred.” In decimal numeration,
ten “hundredths” are grouped together and replaced by one “tenth” and ten “tenths”
are replaced by one “one.” The relationship between any two adjacent places is that
the place on the left is worth ten times as much as the place on the right, and the
place on the right is worth one tenth as much as the place on the left:

× 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10

hundreds tens ones tenths hundredths thousandths

÷ 10 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 ÷ 10

This place value relationship is based on multiplication by a common factor.

Enter 0.00001 into a calculator and multiply the display repeatedly by 10. Each mul-
tiplication results in a number that is ten times greater, shown by the movement of
the 1 to the left. Likewise, if we enter 10,000,000 into a calculator and multiply the
display by 0.1 (which is the same as dividing by 10), we observe how the quantity de-
creases as the 1 moves to the right. Students often can name a specific place in the
decimal system—tenths, millionths—but may not understand the value of that place
(e.g., a tenth represents one tenth of a whole). If students don’t understand the rela-
tionship between place values (that 0.6 is ten times larger than 0.06, for example)
or realize that the value of a place can be represented using other place values (that
13 tenths is equal to 130 hundredths, for example), they will have great difficulty
with decimal numbers.
Another important idea in our base ten system that extends to decimal numbers is
that the quantity represented by a digit is the product of its face value and its place
value. The face value is the value of the digit without regard to its position. In the
number 73.6, the quantity represented by the 7, for example, is its face value (7)
multiplied by its place value (10), which is 7
10, or 70. Similarly, the face value of
the 6 is 6, but the quantity it represents (or its value) is 6
0.1, or 0.6, because the

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6 is in the tenths position. Students who incorrectly indicate that 0.04  0.4 may
only be considering the face value of the numerals (4  4). A related concept is that
the value of a decimal numeral is the sum of the values of the individual digits. For
example, the value of 25.86 is (2
10)  (5
1)  (8
.1)  (6
.01). This con-
cept can perplex students because of how we read decimal amounts—“twenty-five
and eighty-six hundredths.” Notice that “eighty-six hundredths” directs us to think
of the quantity as hundredths rather than as 8 tenths  6 hundredths.
Decimal concepts are often presented to students using symbols. However, physi-
cal models that represent the quantities and the multiplicative relationship between
place values can help individuals make sense of these ideas.

Activity


Face Value and Place Value

1 Objective: use the same physical models to represent different quantities.

Materials: base ten blocks.
Take the following base ten blocks: two units (ones), three longs (tens), one flat
(hundred), and one cube (thousand). The whole number value of these blocks is
1,132. Imagine assigning a value of “one” to the thousands block. What are the
values of the other blocks relative to this new “one”? What number is repre-
sented by the blocks now? Assign other values to the blocks in order to represent
the following numbers: 113.2, 11.32, 1.132, and 0.1132.

1 thousand 1 hundred 3 tens 2 units

Things to Think About

When the thousand block is assigned a value of “one,” then a flat (hundred) block
has a value of one tenth, a long (ten) block has a value of one hundredth, and a
unit cube has a value of one thousandth. The decimal number represented by
these blocks is now 1.132. Notice how the blocks support the idea that 1.132 is
the sum of 1  0.1  0.03  0.002.
How do you read 1.132? As “one point one three two”? The way we read dec-
imal amounts, especially when we just read digits, can either support or hinder

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students’ understanding of decimal place values. Even when we read 1.132 as

“one and one hundred thirty-two thousandths,” students have difficulty inter-
preting the quantity, because the word hundred is used with a digit in the tenths
position! The other words and position values are equally mismatched. There is
an additional mismatch between the words used to represent face and place
values. For example, the face value of the decimal amount in 0.132 is a number
in the hundreds (one hundred thirty-two) while its decimal value is thousandths
(one hundred thirty-two thousandths). All decimal amounts are “off by one” from
the whole number used to identify the face value and the counting unit that
indicates the place value.
Which block needs to be assigned the value of “one” in order for the blocks to
show 113.2? Here, each of the long (ten) blocks represents “one,” the flat (hun-
dred) block represents “ten,” and the thousand block has a value of “hundred.”
What about showing 11.32? Here, the flat (hundred) block is assigned the value
of “one,” the thousand block now has a value of “ten,” the long (ten) blocks are
equivalent to tenths, and the unit blocks represents hundredths.
Changing the block that represents one, sometimes referred to as a referent,
means that the values of all the other blocks also change but the multiplicative
relationship between adjacent place values remains the same. The drawing below
illustrates how the blocks can be used to represent 0.1132:

0.1 + 0.01 + 0.003 + 0.0002

In this example, none of the blocks we are using represent “one.” The thousand
block has a value of one tenth, and the units have a value of one ten-thousandth:
1,000 ten-thousandths are equivalent to one tenth. What block could you con-
struct to represent “one”? Remember that it will be ten times larger than the
one-tenth block. ▲

Models such as base ten blocks and decimal squares (a commercial product specifi-
cally for decimal numbers) can be used to support students’ understanding of decimal
place values. They can also be used to help students develop an understanding of the
quantities that are represented by decimal notation. Another model that presents
decimal numbers as measurements or lengths and that is available in most classrooms
involves meter sticks and centimeter cubes. If the length of a meter represents one

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unit, then decimeters represent tenths, centimeters represent hundredths, and mil-
limeters represent thousandths. Often the long blocks in base ten sets are one
decimeter in length; these become a visual referent for tenths when a meter repre-
sents one unit. The units in these base ten sets, which are one centimeter in length,
then physically represent hundredths. The number 2.45 can be represented con-
cretely using two meter sticks (ones), four long blocks (tenths), and five unit blocks
(hundredths):

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

2 meter sticks

4 tenths

5 hundredths

.1 .1

2.45 meters long

1m 1m
.1 .1 .05

Similarly, the number line is another model that presents decimal fractions as
measures or distances from zero.
Some educators believe that using a variety of models to represent decimals
confuses students. However, recent cognitive research seems to indicate that using a
variety of models and explicitly asking students to focus on the underlying similari-
ties among models helps them generalize important ideas.
Models can also help students understand that some decimal numbers are equiva-
lent. Affixing zeroes to the right of a decimal numeral does not change its value.
Using the meter stick as the “one,” we can compare 0.3 and 0.30 by examining the
length of three tenths (long blocks) and the length of 30 hundredths (small cubes).
Likewise, we can use number lines showing tenths and hundredths. Questions such
as Do 0.3 and 0.30 represent the same amount? How can you tell? What is the same about
them? Are they the same length? How are they different? Why are they the same amount?
help focus our attention on the fact that each of the tenths in 0.3 has been divided
into ten equal pieces. This returns us to the multiplicative relationship between ad-
jacent place values. Think about the insights that are revealed as we compare models
of 0.5, 0.50, and 0.500. How might we generalize the fact that an infinite number of
zeroes can be added to the far right of any decimal numeral?

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Students must not only understand that some decimal numbers are equivalent but
also be able to compare and order decimals. This skill requires that students under-
stand the meaning of decimal numerals. Otherwise, they may consider only the face
value rather than the place value of the numeral. For example, some students incor-
rectly state that 0.14 is greater than 0.3 because 14  3. Asking students either to
build models or to draw pictures to represent the decimals that are being compared
will help them visualize quantity and focus on both the face values and the place
values of the numerals. Another instructional technique is to confront the miscon-
ceptions directly. For example: Some students think that 0.14 is greater than 0.3 because
14 is greater 3. What do you think? Or: Why aren’t 0.6 and 0.06 equal? Also, comparing
decimal numerals in context (when examining scores or records of athletic events,
for example) enables students to use other knowledge of that context to help make
sense of the quantities.
We can use decimal numbers to indicate quantities that are less than one or be-
tween any two whole numbers. In fact, between any two decimal numbers there is
always another decimal number. Students who say there aren’t any numbers between
0.34 and 0.35, for example, may be interpreting these quantities as whole numbers.

Activity


Decimals Between Decimals

2 Objective: explore the concept of the density of decimal numbers and practice
reading decimal numbers.
Materials: graph paper.
Draw a ten-by-ten square on graph paper; let this represent one. Divide the square
vertically into ten strips to show tenths and lightly shade two tenths:

Notice that when only tenths are shaded it appears that there are no numbers
between 0.1 and 0.2. Now divide the square horizontally into ten strips to show
hundredths. What numerals show amounts that are more than ten hundredths
but less than twenty hundredths? List them. Examine 0.15 and 0.16. What num-
bers are between 0.15 and 0.16? What can you do to your ten-by-ten square that
will help you visualize the quantities? What can you do symbolically to 0.15 and
0.16 to help you think about the numbers that are in between? Continue finding
numbers that are in between until you have a decimal amount in the millionths
place. Each time read the decimal number.

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Things to Think About

Some of the numbers that are between 0.1 and 0.2 are: 0.11, 0.12, 0.13, 0.14,
0.15, 0.16, 0.17, 0.18, and 0.19. Drawing hundredths on the ten-by-ten square
may have helped you think about these smaller quantities. What happens if we
divide each hundredth into ten equal-size pieces? The shaded quantity can be re-
ferred to using thousandths (0.100 and 0.200), and we can now list any number
of decimal numerals between the original two. In order to find numbers between
two decimal numbers we continually partition decimal amounts into smaller
units, and this can be done an infinite number of times. For example, 0.15 is be-
tween 0.1 and 0.2; 0.153 is between 0.15 and 0.16; and 0.1537 is between
0.153 and 0.154. Examine each of these in-between decimal numbers. Notice
that as each place value is partitioned to form the next place value to the right,
the in-between quantity is increasing but by smaller and smaller amounts—
0.1537 is greater than 0.153 but only by 0.0007!

0.1 0.15 0.16 0.2

0.154
0.153

0.15 0.16
0.1537

How do we read 0.1537? As one thousand five hundred thirty-seven ten-

thousandths. Pick another number between 0.1537 and 0.1538 such as 0.15374
and read it—fifteen thousand three hundred seventy-four hundred-thousandths.
Notice that we read the digits to the right of the decimal place as if the number
were a whole number, but then we let others know it is a decimal number by
stating the place value of the digit farthest to the right (in the numeral above,
the 4 is farthest to the right and in the hundred-thousandths place). Try not to
use the word and when reading the numeral.
The in-between feature of decimal numbers is known as the density property
of rational numbers; it means that there is an infinite number of rational numbers
between any two rational numbers. ▲

One fundamental concept that students need to make sense of with regard to deci-
mal numbers is this: decimals are used to represent quantities that have values less
than one. Students must have knowledge of these quantities (ideally based on mod-
els), be familiar with the notation system that is used to represent these quantities,
understand fractions as parts of a whole and that decimals can be used to represent
fractional values, and have investigated the relationships that both link the decimal
system to the whole number system and also differentiate them.

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2. Connecting Decimals and Fractions

Decimal fractions are often classified as either terminating decimals or repeating deci-
mals. In fact, all rational numbers can be expressed in decimal form as either termi-
nating or repeating. (Note, however, that irrational numbers such as π and
2 are
neither terminating nor repeating.) Decimals such as 0.666 . . . and 1.723232323 . . . ,
in which, from some specific digit on, a finite sequence of digits repeats again and
again in the same order without interruption, are called repeating decimals. The block
of digits forming the repeating part is called the repetend. The number of digits in the
repetend is called the period of the decimal. A bar is placed over the repetend to indi-
cate that the block of digits underneath is repeated infinitely.
0.142857142857 . . . is written as 0.142857 1.1666666 . . . is written as 1.16
Decimals such as 0.25, 0.625, 3.0002, and 76.84 are called terminating decimals,
because they can be represented using a finite number of nonzero digits to the right
of the decimal point. Technically, terminating decimals are those repeating decimals
whose repetend is zero.
All terminating decimals can be written as fractions with denominators of a
power of ten. When converting a terminating decimal to an equivalent fraction, we
write the face value of the decimal as the numerator and the place value of the deci-
mal as the denominator. Thus, 0.6 is equivalent to 160 (or 35 when changed to simplest
form), and 1.23 is equivalent to 112030 . Notice that when the decimal numeral includes
whole numbers, the whole number does not have to be converted to a fraction
(although it can be—1.23 is also equivalent to 112030 ).
Repeating decimals can also be expressed in fractional form. To convert a repeat-
ing decimal to a fraction we first write an equation in which we set the decimal equal
to n, then multiply both sides of the equation by a power of 10 equal to the number
of repeating digits, and finally subtract the first equation from the second. For exam-
—
ple, let n  0.45. Because there are two digits in the repeating sequence, we multiply
n by 100 and then subtract n:
100n  45.454545 . . .
100n  0.454545 . . .
99n  45.000000
45 5
n   or 
99 11
By multiplying the repeating decimal by a power of 10 and then subtracting the
decimal, we get a finite decimal that can be converted to a fraction. The number
of repeating sequences in the decimal period indicates by which power of 10 we mul-
– –—
tiply: to convert 0. 6 to a fraction, we multiply by 10; to convert 2. 456 to a fraction,
we multiply by 1000.
It is important to realize that the decimal notation recorded for some fractions is
approximate, not exact. We often encounter this when using a calculator. For exam-
ple, the fraction 13 displayed on a calculator as a decimal is 0.333333333—a rounded
–
approximation of 0.3. Since the decimal value was rounded, 0.333333333 does not
convert back to 13. In order to interpret results accurately and to decide which form of
representation (decimal or fraction) to work with, we need to know which fractions
have an exact decimal representation.

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Activity


Does It Terminate?

3 Objective: find out whether there is a way to tell whether a fraction can be written
using a terminating or repeating decimal.
Convert each of the fractions below to a decimal by dividing the numerator by
the denominator. This will give you the decimal expansion of the fraction. Then
sort the fractions into two groups: those that are equivalent to terminating deci-
mals and those that are not.
1 1 1 1 2 3 4 1 2 4 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 
2 3 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 8 9 11 12 15 16 20 24 25 30 32 40 50
Examine the two groups and answer the following questions:
1. If a unit fraction (a fraction with 1 as the numerator) is represented as a ter-
minating decimal, do all fractions with that denominator terminate?
2. If a unit fraction is represented as a repeating decimal, do all fractions with
that denominator repeat?
3. What patterns are observed in the denominators of fractions that represent
terminating decimals? that represent repeating decimals?
4. Determine the prime factorization of the denominators of the fractions. Which
prime numbers are factors of the denominators of terminating fractions?
5. Why can some fractions be written as terminating decimals while others cannot?

Things to Think About

The following fractions can be written as terminating decimals: 12, 14, 15, 25, 35, 45, 18,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
, , , , , , . If a unit fraction is represented as a terminating decimal,
10 16 20 25 32 40 50
then all fractions with that denominator also terminate. For example, 210 is a ter-
minating decimal and 220, 230, 240, . . . , 1290 also terminate. Since 210  0.05, then all
other fractions with a denominator of 20 are multiples of 0.05. This same pat-
tern occurs with repeating decimals. If a unit fraction is represented as a repeat-
ing decimal, then all fractions with that denominator that are in simplest form
also repeat: 16 repeats, as does 56, but 36, which can be simplified to 12, is a termi-
nating decimal.
The prime factorizations of the denominators in fractions that terminate when
written as decimals and in those that repeat when written as decimals are shown
below. From this chart, we can generalize that the denominators of fractions
that terminate contain only 2s and/or 5s in their prime factorization.

FRACTIONS THAT PRIME FACTORIZATION FRACTIONS PRIME FACTORIZATION

TERMINATE OF DENOMINATOR THAT REPEAT OF DENOMINATOR

1 1

2 2 
3 3
1

4 2
2 1

6 2
3
1 1

5 5 
7 7
1

8 2
2
2 1

9 3
3
1

10 2
5 1

12 2
2
3
1

16 2
2
2
2 1

15 3
5
1

20 2
2
5 1

24 2
2
2
3
1

25 5
5 1

30 2
3
5

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Why do fractions that terminate have only 2s and/or 5s as prime factors of

their denominators? First, consider the prime factors of various powers of 10.
Notice that they all have 2s and 5s as prime factors:

10  2
5
100  2
2
5
5
1,000  2
2
2
5
5
5

When a fraction has a decimal expansion that terminates, that fraction can also
be expressed as an equivalent fraction with a denominator of 10, 100, 1000, or
any other power of 10. Fractions with only 2s and 5s as prime factors in the de-
nominators can always be multiplied by additional 2s and/or 5s to make any
power of 10.

1 1 1 5
5
5 125 1
   
   0.125  
8 2
2
2 2
2
2 5
5
5 1000 8

Fractions that are represented by repeating decimals have prime factors that do
not divide evenly into 10, 100, 1,000, or other powers of 10. ▲

Activity


Repeating Decimals

4 Objective: classify decimal expansions of unit fractions based on whether they

terminate, repeat without a delay, or repeat after a delay.
Some repeating decimal expansions repeat immediately: for example, the deci-
–
mal expansion of 23 is 0.6. Other repeating decimal expansions repeat after a
–
delay: for example, the decimal expansion of 16 is 0.16 (the 1 does not repeat, but
the 6 does). What patterns occur in the decimal expansions of repeating deci-
mals? In particular:
▲ Which unit fractions produce decimal expansions that repeat without a delay?
▲ Which unit fractions produce decimal expansions that repeat after a delay?
▲ When converting a unit fraction to a decimal, what is the longest possible
period?

Things to Think About

In the table below, unit fractions have been placed into groups based on whether
–
their decimal expansions terminate, repeat, or repeat after a delay (e.g., 0.06).
All of these fractions and decimals are rational numbers—the quantities can be
represented using both decimal and fraction notations.

FRACTIONS THAT FRACTIONS FRACTIONS THAT

TERMINATE THAT REPEAT REPEAT AFTER A DELAY

1 1 1
  
2 3 6
1 1 1
  
4 7 12
1 1 1
  
5 9 14
1 1 1
  
8 11 15

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FRACTIONS THAT FRACTIONS FRACTIONS THAT

TERMINATE THAT REPEAT REPEAT AFTER A DELAY

1 1 1
  
10 13 18
1 1 1
  
16 17 22
1 1 1
  
20 19 24
1 1
 
25 21

A fraction converted to a decimal will repeat without delay if the denominator of

the fraction does not have the factors 2 or 5. For example, 111, a unit fraction in
which the factors of the denominator are 1 and 11 (no 2s or 5s), is equivalent to
—
0.09. If the denominator of the fraction has at least one 2 or one 5 as well as
other prime factors, then the equivalent decimal will repeat after a delay (e.g.,
1 –
, or 0.16).
6
Some unit fractions have very long decimal periods: 117 has a 16-digit period, 119
has an 18-digit period, and 213 has a 22-digit period. The period for the decimal
representation of any fraction, 1n, is always less than n but can be at most n  1. ▲

3. Operations with Decimals

Given the mathematical complexities of decimal numbers and the difficulty some
students have understanding them, it isn’t surprising that students learn and execute
rules for performing decimal operations without knowing what the symbols mean.
How can we design instructional sequences that support more meaningful learning
about decimals?
First and foremost, in order to perform operations accurately and make sense of
these operations, students must know about and understand decimal quantities,
decimal symbols, and the connections that link the symbols to the quantities (see
Section 1 of this chapter). Students who are familiar with quantity usually have in-
ternal referents for decimal amounts (e.g., they visualize tenths in relationship to the
whole and to hundredths). They are able to order decimals and explain which num-
ber is the largest by comparing the sizes of the quantities represented by the written
numerals, not by simply stating a rule. They can provide detailed explanations of
why 1.4 and 1.40, for example, are equivalent.
The second condition that must be met in order for students to make sense of
decimal operations is that they have attached the correct meaning to operational
symbols (, ,
, ). Usually by the time students reach the upper elementary
grades, their understanding of addition and subtraction with whole numbers is robust
enough that they can generalize these operations to decimal numbers. However,
students’ understanding of multiplication and division of whole numbers (“multipli-
cation makes bigger and division makes smaller”) may have an effect on their under-
standing of decimal multiplication and division. Students have to suppress certain
whole number notions about these operations and extend the meaning of multiplica-
tion and division. As a result, multiplication and division of decimals are more prob-
lematic (in terms of meaning, not in terms of simply memorizing rules) than addition
and subtraction. Operation sense regarding outcomes when multiplying and dividing
small quantities must be developed simultaneously.

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Assuming that a great deal of instructional time has previously been spent helping
students understand decimal quantities and notation, one way to build meaning
regarding the decimal operations of addition and subtraction is to have students first
estimate problem solutions and then derive their own procedures or rules. For exam-
ple, fourth graders given this problem—Chris, who is on the track team, ran 5.3 km on
Monday and 6.9 km on Wednesday. How far, in total, did Chris run on these two days?—
estimated that he ran more than 11 km. They then used base ten materials to help
them think about the sum of 0.3 and 0.9 and concluded that this sum was 1.2 km;
thus Chris ran a total of 12.2 km. After solving many similar problems using estima-
tion and models, these students eventually came up with a generalized rule of group-
ing equivalent place values when adding, something they most likely would not have
been able to do if the decimal quantities were meaningless for them.

Activity


Decimal Products and Quotients

5 Objective: highlight the effects of multiplying and dividing whole numbers by dec-
imal numbers that are close to one, equal to one half, and close to zero.
Fill in the table below. Pick a number and multiply it by 0.9, then divide the same
number by 0.9. Next, multiply your original number by 0.5, and divide it by 0.5.
Finally, multiply the original number by 0.1, and divide it by 0.1. Pick other num-
bers and perform the same multiplications and divisions. What do you notice
about the products and the quotients? Try generalizing your conclusions.
MULTIPLY DIVIDE MULTIPLY DIVIDE MULTIPLY DIVIDE
NUMBER BY 0.9 BY 0.9 BY 0.5 BY 0.5 BY 0.1 BY 0.1
18 16.2 20 9 36 1.8 180

Things to Think About

The product of a whole number and a number less than but close to one (e.g.,
0.9) is less than the original whole number. In fact, the closer the decimal is to
one, the closer the product is to the whole number. For example, 18
0.9 
16.2 but 18
0.99  17.82. What happens when we multiply a whole number
by one half (0.5)? The product is exactly half of the whole number. The operation
of multiplying by 0.5 is equivalent to dividing the whole number by two (e.g.,
18
0.5  9 and 18  2  9). Since multiplying any number by zero is equal to
zero, it might seem reasonable to assume that multiplying any whole number by
a decimal close to zero will give a product that is quite small relative to the whole
number. The closer the decimal is to zero, the closer the product will be to zero.
For example, 18
0.1  1.8 but 18
0.0001  0.0018.
Why does the multiplication of a whole number and a decimal number result in
a small product? If we look at multiplication as grouping, 6
0.4 means six
groups with four tenths in each group, or 24 tenths, or 2.4. If we look at multi-
plication as repeated addition, 6
0.4 means 0.4 plus 0.4 plus 0.4 plus 0.4 plus
0.4 plus 0.4, or 24 tenths, or 2.4.

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Similar relationships hold for division. The quotient of a whole number and a
number less than but close to one (e.g., 0.9) is a little more than the original
whole number. In fact, the closer the decimal is to one, the closer the quotient is
to the whole number. For example, 18  0.9  20 but 18  0.99  18.18. What
happens when we divide a whole number by one half (0.5)? The quotient is ex-
actly twice the whole number. The operation of dividing by 0.5 is equivalent to
multiplying the whole number by two (e.g., 18  0.5  36 and 18
2  36).
Since dividing any number by zero is undefined, you might have been surprised
by the results of dividing a whole number by a number close to zero. The closer
the decimal is to zero, the greater the quotient. For example, 18  0.1  180
but 18  0.0001  180,000.
Why do these division problems result in such large quotients? The interpreta-
tion of division as repeated subtraction provides some insight: a small amount
(the decimal amount) is repeatedly subtracted from the whole number. In 4  0.5,
for example, five tenths can be subtracted from four eight times. The quotient
tells us the number of groups of 0.5 that were removed (subtracted) from 4,
namely 8 groups. When a decimal divisor is very small, such as 0.0001, a large
number of groups of this small amount can be removed. ▲

Understanding how multiplication and division with decimals affect the resulting
products and quotients enables students to make sense of the rules that govern multi-
plication and division computations. Let’s examine some of these rules in order to
tease out the mathematical relationships used when computing.
First, when two numbers less than one are multiplied, why is the product smaller
than either of the numbers? For example, why is 0.5
0.1 equal to 0.05? One way to
interpret this equation is to find one tenth of 0.5. Imagine five tenths. To take one
tenth of these five tenths, we need to divide each of the tenths into ten pieces, which
would result in hundredths. One tenth of each tenth is one hundredth; since there
were five tenths to start with, there would be five hundredths.

.1 .1 of .5

.1

.5 .5

Notice how multiplying decimal numbers less than one is parallel to multiplying
fractions. This is because the terminating decimals used in the example can be repre-
sented as fractions, 150 and 110 . A similar explanation of fraction multiplication can be
found in Chapter 5.
Second, how do we explain the fact that when dividing two decimals that are less
than one (such as 0.5  0.1), the quotient is greater than either decimal? Using the
same interpretation of division as explained in Activity 5, think about subtracting

DECIMALS / 145