2.

4_4 Material Removal Processes: Machining

• parts manufactured by casting, forming, or shaping
processes often require further operations before the
product is ready for use
• parts must be accurate (interchangability)
• machining is the broad term which describes the
removal of material from a workpiece. machining
covers:
cutting
abrasive operations, such as grinding
nontraditional machining processes using
electrical, chemical, and optical sources of
energy

Chap 2 , machining – p. 1
Importance of Machining
• closer dimensional accuracy may be required than is
possible with a casting, shaping, or forming process
alone
• parts may have external and internal profiles that cannot
be produced by forming or shaping processes
• heat treated parts may undergo distortion and require
additional finishing operations such as grinding
• special surfaces or textures may be needed

Disadvantages of Machining
• removal processes waste material
• require more energy, capital, and labor than forming
and shaping operations
• removing a volume of material is time consuming
• improper techniques can adversely affect the surface
quality or other properties of the product

Cutting Processes

• turning on a lathe
• drilling
• milling
• thread cutting
Chap 2 , machining – p. 2
Mechanics of Chip Formation

Variables in the cutting process:

• tool material and its condition
• tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness
• workpiece material, condition, and temperature
• cutting conditions (such as speed and depth of cut)
• use of cutting fluid
• machine tool characteristics (such as stiffness and
damping)

Changing the variables will impact:

• type of chip produced
• force and energy dissipated in the cutting process
• temperature rise in the workpiece
• wear and failure of the tool
• surface finish

Chap 2 , machining – p. 3
Types of Chips

Chap 2 , machining – p. 4
Cutting Tool Materials

A cutting tool must have the following characteristics in

order to produce good quality and economical parts:
• hardness (particularly at elevated temperatures)
• toughness, so that impact forces will not chip the tool
• wear resistance for a long tool life
• chemical stability and inertness

Tool materials:
• carbon and medium alloy steels
- used for drills, taps, and reamers since the 1880's
- inexpensive and easily sharpened
- do not have sufficient hot temperature hardness

• high speed steels

- developed to cut at high speeds
- first produced in the early 1900's
- good wear resistance, high toughness, and
resistance to fracture
- relatively inexpensive
- two types: molybdenum (M series) and tungsten (T
series)
- used in drills, reamers, taps, and gear cutters

Chap 2 , machining – p. 5
• cast cobalt alloys
- introduced in 1915
- cobalt (38-53%), chromium (30-33%), tungsten
(10-20%)
- good wear resistance at elevated temperatures
- not as tough as high speed steels (sensitive to
impact forces)
- used for special continuous cutting operations

• carbides
- introduced in the 1930's
- high hardness over a wide range of temperatures
- two types of carbides
tungsten carbide - used for cast irons
titanium carbide - higher wear resistance, but not
as tough as tungsten carbide

• coated tools
- developed since 1960's
- high strength, but chemically abrasive materials can
be coated with titanium nitride, titanium carbide,
or ceramics
- increases tool life

Chap 2 , machining – p. 6
• ceramics
- introduced in the early 1950's
- fine grained, high purity aluminum oxide
- very high abrasion resistance and hot hardness
- results in good surface finish
- lack toughness
- used in continuous cutting operations

• cubic boron nitride

- hardest material available, next to diamond
- introduced in 1962

• silicon nitride
- developed in the 1970's
- high toughness
- hot hardness
- good thermal shock resistance

• diamond
- hardest substance
- able to maintain a sharp cutting edge
- results in good surface finish
- diamond is brittle, so tool shape is important
- suitable for light, uninterrupted finishing cuts

Chap 2 , machining – p. 7
Cutting Fluids

• reduce friction and wear, thus improving tool life and

surface finish
• reduce forces and energy consumption
• cool the cutting zone
• protect the newly machined surfaces from
environmental corrosion

Machining to Produce Round Shapes

• usually produced by turning the workpiece on a lathe

• turning means that the workpiece is rotated while the
tool remains stationary
• starting material is usually a workpiece that has been
made by other processes, such as casting, shaping,
forging, extrusion, or drawing
• typical products
screws shafts
pistons cylinders
gun barrels turbines

Chap 2 , machining – p. 8
• operations that can be performed on a lathe
turning facing
form tool boring
drilling parting
threading knurling

Chap 2 , machining – p. 9
Lathe
• considered to be the oldest machine tool
woodworking lathes (1000 BC)
metalworking lathes (1700's)

• a lathe is defined by
(1) its swing (the maximum diameter of the
workpiece that can be machined),
(2) the maximum distance between the headstock and
tailstock, and
(3) the length of the bed

Chap 2 , machining – p. 10
Computer Controlled Lathe

CNC machine (computer numerical controls)

Chap 2 , machining – p. 11
Drilling

• high length to diameter ratio, capable of producing deep

holes

Chap 2 , machining – p. 12
• drill life is based on material removal rate
thrust force
feed speed
drill speed

Reaming
• an operation to make an existing hole dimensionally
more accurate than can be obtained by drilling alone
• reamer is a multiple cutting edge tool that removes very
little material

Chap 2 , machining – p. 13
Tapping
• method of producing internal threads
• range up to 4" diameter

Chap 2 , machining – p. 14
Milling
• first built in 1876
• workpiece remains stationary
• multitooth cutter that produces a number of chips in one
revolution
• most versatile machine tool

Chap 2 , machining – p. 15
Chap 2 , machining – p. 16
Planing

• simple cutting process where grooves and notches are

cut along the length of a workpiece

Chap 2 , machining – p. 17
Machining Centers
• each machine tool is traditionally designed to perform
one type of operation
• machining centers were developed in the 1950's
• computer controlled machine tool with automatic tool
changing capability
• workpiece is mounted on a module that can be oriented
in several different directions
• capable of repetitive accuracy of 0.0025 mm
• versatile
• no time wasted in loading and unloading the workpiece
or in the manual changing of tools
• machining centers are highly automated so that one
operator can attend two or more machines at the same
time
Chap 2 , machining – p. 18
Chap 2 , machining – p. 19
Vibration and Chatter
• machine stiffness is important to control dimensional
accuracy
• low stiffness affects the level of vibration and chatter
• vibration and chatter can result in the following:
poor surface finish
loss of dimensional accuracy
premature tool wear
objectionable noise
• chatter is self-excited vibration
• vibration and chatter are complex phenomena
• force vibrations can be caused by a periodic applied
force in the machine tool
gear drives
imbalance
misalignment

Chap 2 , machining – p. 20
Platform Based Milling Machines

top platform

actuated slider
passive ball joints

base platform

Chap 2 , machining – p. 21
Chap 2 , machining – p. 22
Chap 2 , machining – p. 23