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Hydrocarbon Plays and Global Basin Classification'

D. R. KINGSTON,' C. P. DISHROON,' and R A. WILLIAMS'

ABSTRACT ered hydrocarbon reserves for each of these productive

cycles, worldwide, may then be tabulated, and evaluations
Hydrocarbon plays and the global basin classification of the various cycle types can be made. Productive cycles
system have important connections. After a basin has in explored basins may be compared to similar cycles and
been classified, its similarities or differences with other tectonic events in unexplored areas. Assessment proce-
basins may be compared. Prolific hydrocarbon basins are dures for new basin areas are not discussed here. However,
categorized, and the plays are compared to specific tec- we point out general oil-play controls for each of the cycle
tonic and depositional events. Some plays are controlled types that we have found to be of value in basin-play pre-
by basin-initiating tectonic events, such as interior frac- dictions.
ture or interior sag, and the type of sedimentation inherent
in each basin type. In more complex polyhistory basins, oil Interior Sag (IS) Cycles/Basins
and gas plays are commonly associated with combinations
of various cycles, or by basin-modifying tectonics such as Interior sags are stable cycles, commonly remnants of
episodic wrenching, subsidence, foldbelts, and basin tilt. larger Paleozoic basins. Oil may have migrated up from
older preexisting larger basins into these sags when the
INTRODUCTION former were broken up by orogeny. These cycles have an
interior, restricted, depositional environment, normally
This article was written in conjunction with the preced- good for source rock development. Shallow marine and
ing paper in this issue, "A Global Basin Classification Sys- nonmarine conditions also promote the widespread extent
tem," by the same authors. Cross reference to the previous of blanket-type reservoirs and evaporite seals. Poor struc-
paper is made, especially to various basin types, basin for- tural focus is a common problem in interior sag cycles.
mulas, and figures. The principal purpose of this paper is Stratigraphic traps are commonly found in interior sag
to identify the main hydrocarbon associations and param- (IS) cycles. The oil plays in these cycles generally are asso-
eters coupled with each cycle type. Also, we describe some ciated with basement arches, noses, and other topographic
examples of complex polyhistory basins and how they may features within the basin.
be analyzed to identify their play-location cycles and Larger interior sag basins generally are more prospec-
events. tive; small ones commonly are too shallow to generate
Various authors. Weeks (1952), Knebel and Rodriguez- hydrocarbons, with too little burial for hydrocarbon mat-
Araso (1956), Halbouty et al (1970a, b), and Huff (1978), uration, especially for Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks. Inte-
have discussed hydrocarbon reserves in relation to various rior sag cycles/basins, though commonly large in size,
basin types. The habitat of giant oil and gas fields has been may be very shallow. Those larger and deeper basins of
the subject of numerous papers: Klemme (1971a, b, c; Paleozoic age generally are the most prospective for
1975), Nehring (1978), and St. John (1980). Various hydrocarbons. Most interior sag (IS) basins are very shal-
aspects of hydrocarbon accumulations, including tectonic low, have few structures, and in places have poor source
style and classification, have been reported by rocks. Most simple interior sag (IS) basins contain poor
Uspenskaya (1967), Harding (1973), Ziegler (1975), Bally prospects or few prospects in small fields. Polyhistory
(1975), and Huff (1978). The age and distribution of basins that contain interior sag (IS) cycles affected by later
petroleum reserves have been discussed by Bois et al structuring may become very prospective. Forty-nine per-
(1982). cent of all interior sag (IS) cycles studied worldwide were
found to produce commercial quantities of hydrocarbons.
OIL-PLAY PREDICTION
Interior Fracture (IF) Cycles/Basins
In the preceding paper, the methods of basin classifica-
tion are explained. After a basin is classified, it is possible
Interior fracture basins include some of the most prolific
to identify the productive cycle or cycles within it. Discov-
oil basins in the world, such as Sirte in Libya, west Siberia
in the USSR, and the Gulf of Suez in Egypt. Normally two
©Copyright 1983. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All
rights reserved. main plays are in an interior fracture cycle: (1) stage 1 non-
^ Manuscript received, February 22,1983; accepted. May 13,1983. marine sediments on basement block faults as are found in
^Esso Exploration Inc., Houston, Texas 77024.
''ESSO Exploration Inc. (retired), 203 Pompano, Surfside, Freeport, Texas
the North Sea at Brent, and at Waha and Sarir in the Sirte
77541. basin, Libya; and (2) younger stage 2 marine reservoirs
The writers thani< the management of Esso Exploration Inc., for permission draped over block fauU structures as are found in the West
to publish this paper. We also acl<nowledge the helpful comments of T. A.
Fitzgerald, H. M. Gehman, Jr., D. S. McPherron, t H. Nelson, and J. B. San- Siberia and Sirte basins (see Kingston et al, 1983, Figure
gree, who advised us on content and revisions. 4).

2194
 D. R. Kingston, C. P. Dishroon, and P. A. Williams 2195

Active block faulting normally continues throughout the shale may be the best oil play in margin basins. Unfortu-
history of the basin, thereby constantly rejuvenating struc- nately, it is generally not at optimum drilling depth. In the
tural growth. Episodic wrench movements may also occur. basin center, it is probably buried too deeply (20,(X)0 to
Better reservoirs are associated with structural highs, and 30,000 ft, 6,000 to 9,000 m) to be drilled economically, or it
source rocks with the lows throughout the development of will be gas prone with low porosities at these depths. Near
the cycle—an ideal condition for local migration and the margins of the basin the play is normally too shallow
entrapment. The cycle 1 nonmarine play, with its built-in (< 6,000 ft, 2,000 m) and it is immature. This play must be
source, reservoir, and structure, attains its best develop- found at the proper depth to be considered feasible. To
ment in interior fracture (IF) cycles. date, not much drilling has been conducted for basal cycle
A semirestricted depositional environment, commonly interior fracture (IF) plays in margin sag (MS) basins.
found in basal interior fracture (IF) cycles, may produce Most cycle 1 fault blocks, the best potential structures,
widespread occurrence of evaporites, or blanket sand, and freeze or cease differential movements after continental
rich oil source rocks such as the Socna shale in Libya. No separation. Because there is no structural growth, there is
major regional tilting of interior fracture cycles/basins is normally no drape or closure of cycle 2 younger beds over
likely to occur as in margin sag basins, so there is much less the old blocks. This is different from other main cycle
chance of pooled oil spilling out of structures. A few small types, and the play must be downgraded as a result.
interior fracture basins have only one active side, however, Above the basal interior fracture (IF) cycle, younger
and in these a half-graben is formed with strong tilt. Size is units may consist of interior sag or margin sag cycles. Sim-
an important factor in interior fracture basins. Generally, ple margin deposition and sag with no other tectonic
the bigger basins have a better chance for exploration suc- movements appear to be detrimental to preservation of
cess, although a few smaller basins, like Vienna in Austria, hydrocarbons in these basins. Contemporaneous or youn-
and the Gulf of Suez, have good production. Several ger salt dome uplift, growth faults, and wrench faulting
smaller interior fracture basins are too shallow, and the appear to increase the incidence of oil discovery in these
source rocks are immature. The burial history of these basins.
basins must be studied carefully before maturation and The size of margin sag basins/cycles is an important fac-
migration of hydrocarbons can be assumed. Many smaller tor. If the continental shelf is narrow and small, the cycle
interior fracture basins contain red beds and volcanics that will be highly tilted. Most young Tertiary margin sag
do not appear to be good oil-generating rocks. cycles are deposited as thick sediment pods or clinoform
Interior fracture basins/cycles, whose development was wedges just off the outer shelf. They have a fairly low sedi-
arrested during the early initial rifting stage, are very high ment volume that does not prograde like a deka or keep
risk with minimal known production in other basins. pace with subsidence, and consists predominantly of deep-
These basins normally contain a thin sedimentary section water clinoform elastics. The subsidence and seaward tilt
of coarse elastics or volcanics. Some of the rift valleys of are perhaps the most important negative factors. In mar-
Africa are examples. The interior fracture basins, whose gin sag cycles, marine shales are located seaward, down-
development reached a more mature stage, are the most dip, and with porosity (sand) increasing updip to the
favored for hydrocarbon occurrence and accumulation in outcrop. In the Late Cretaceous and Tertiary, rapid sub-
either early rifting or middle graben stages. Interior frac- sidence of the outer basin margin tilted many gentle to
ture cycles are found commonly as simple basins. They moderate structural closures, and the oil has been lost
may also be found as cycles within polyhistory basins, par- updip. Margin sag basins with a strong oceanward tilt may
ticularly the initiating cycle. Interior fracture basins, have lost oil from both the older and younger structures.
which have been separated by continental "pull-apart" The updip flanks of some margin sag basins contain exten-
and now comprise the bottom cycle in margin sag basins, sive tar deposits at the outcrop, evidence of oil lost by
are largely unexplored at present. To date, production has basin tilting. Examples of this are found in the Upper Cre-
been established in these continental margin interior frac- taceous margin sag outcrops of Nigeria, Gabon, Camer-
ture cycles in Gabon, Angola, and Brazil. oon, Congo, and Angola.
The major plays in interior fracture basins are all related Some margin sag cycles have normal or gentle oceanic
to the horst and graben features that dominate the struc- tilt and subsidence. These cycles are commonly found in
ture and stratigraphy. The largest plays are found in reser- the middle stages of margin sag development. Sediments
voirs directly overlying high basement blocks; examples deposited in shallow-water margin sag cycles generally are
are sandstones (Samotlor in west Siberia) and carbonates thin-bedded platform deposits of sandstone, limestone,
(Romashkino in the Volga Urals), both in the USSR. Of all and shale. These thin cyclic units are normally not condu-
interior fracture basins studied worldwide, 35% of them cive to the generation and preservation of large volumes of
produce commercial quantities of hydrocarbons. oil.
Some margin sag cycles are major river dekas having a
Margin Sag (MS) Cycles/Basins high sediment volume which commonly fills the subsiding
basin (see Kingston et al, 1983, Figure 6). This resuks in
The divergent continental margin basins are a complex extensive shallow-water deposits in the delta area, which
group. They have a variety of potential plays, starting with prograde into deep water. Most explorationists believe
block faults and nonmarine deposition of the basal inte- that modern deltas are good places to look for hydrocar-
rior fracture (IF) cycle. This combination of basement bons. The writers have analyzed the 60 present-day major
block fault structure, good reservoir sand, and source river delta systems around the world, and only four of
2196 Hydrocarbon Plays and Global Basin Classification

them are able to produce more than marginally commer- tors can result in highly productive basins, such as the Los
cial quantities of hydrocarbons. The four major deltas are Angeles basin in California. However, optimum factors
the Mississippi, Niger, Mahakam, and Mackenzie. The are not always present, and basins may be too young and
other 56 deltas (most have been drilled at least once), have immature or too old and overstructured. In these situa-
produced only very small amounts. Older margin sag delta tions, the basins must be considered to be very high risk.
cycles, perhaps buried or structured by younger cycles or A critical factor in shear basins is the presence or absence
events, generally are prolific producers. Overpressured of quartz sand for reservoir rocks. Mesozoic and older age
shale sections are common features of margin sag river basement usually contains quartz sand sources. Tertiary
delta cycles. crust, however, is normally composed of oceanic basalt
Extensive carbonate banks with reefs are found in many and volcanogenic sediments, which substantially degrade
margin sag cycles; however, these carbonate bank edges, reservoir quality. Wrench basins must be situated on or
which appear to be so prospective in divergent continental adjacent to good quartz-sand yielding areas to insure the
margin basins, have had minimal success when drilled. existence of predictable quartz sand reservoirs; this gener-
Several broad carbonate platforms that have been struc- ally means Mesozoic or older crust. Carbonate rocks and
tured by younger tectonic events, occasionally may pro- chert, as in California, are also found occasionally as res-
vide reservoirs for substantial oil plays, as in the ervoirs in this type of basin.
Tabasco-Salinas basin of Mexico. Cretaceous and Tertiary Normally a high heat flow exists in active wrench (LL)
paleoslope unconformities often are found that have cut basins. Some cycles may be too hot, and therefore gas
into sediment margins, exposing reservoirs to erosion, oil prone or overmature in the deeper parts. Because most
loss, or water contamination, as in Tarfaya, Morocco. The wrench basins are very young, the source shales generally
percent of productive divergent margin sag cycles world- are immature, even at intermediate depths (8,000 to
wide, compared to those nonproductive, is approximately 10,000 ft, 2,500 to 3,000 m). An exploration pitfall of this
20%. Most margin sag basins should be considered high type basin is the potential immaturity of the upper source
risk exploration ventures. shales, whereas the deep portion of the basin may be over-
mature, with shales cooked and sandstone porosity low-
Margin Sag-Interior Sag (MSIS) Cycles/Basins ered by diagenesis. This results in a very thin optimum
zone between rocks that are too shallow or too deep.
Margin sag-interior sag (MSIS) cycles/basins have Unless reservoir sands and structural closures are found in
many attributes of interior sag cycles, being found in the this optimum zone, dry holes or gas may be the result.
interior on continental plates and not associated with The composition of the two converging plates has a pro-
present-day continental margins. Most of the MSIS cycles found effect upon the sediment fill in the resulting wrench
were deposited on older continental plate margins, which basins. Two converging oceanic plates will result in volca-
appear to have been broad, flat, and only slightly tilted. nogenic and deep-marine sediments such as chert and
These stable shelves accumulated extensive reservoirs, pelagic material, with some carbonate. This type of basin
such as blanket sands and carbonates. Thick source rocks has had very little exploration success. A continental block
and seals commonly were deposited as well. Subsequent overriding oceanic crust can be good if the upper block is a
structuring produced the world's most prolific basin/cycle good source of sand; both marine and nonmarine rocks
type in the Persian Gulf, the MSIS cycle with wrench anti- may be deposited. Two converging continental blocks may
clines, blanket carbonate reservoirs, and evaporite seals. provide primarily nonmarine depositional conditions, in
Approximately 50% of the MSIS cycles produce commer- places with sah. Basins of this type are found within fold-
cial hydrocarbons, one of the highest ratios of cycles we belts and are sometimes called "foldbelt microplates."
have studied. The key parameters for giant field potential Wrench or shear basins presently in stage 1 may not be
in these MSIS cycles are large structures and extensive res- very prospective, because the sediments and structure are
ervoirs with effective seals. In the MSIS cycles of the Per- too immature (see Kingston et al, 1983, Figure 8). Stage 2
mian basin of Texas, the blanket reservoirs are missing, can be better. Sands may have been deposited on the fault
but the source rocks are prolific. Good evaporite seals are block highs and source shales in the lows. Wrench-
present, and although the MSIS cycle has almost 6 billion generated structures may have formed. At this stage, oil
bbl of oil equivalent, most of the fields are small. In west- fields may be associated with the tops of en echelon folds,
ern Canada, the Alberta basin has extensive reservoirs and the tops of flower structures, and stage 1 block fault clo-
source rocks, but the basin is primarily unstructured. Car- sures. At stage 3, some of the more active wrench zones or
bonate reefs, which are really stratigraphic traps, are the flower structures may have been uplifted and eroded, los-
main trap available in the cycle and are small. However, ing the oil on top. New fields may then be found on the
MSIS cycles should be examined carefully for they have an flanks of such features rather than on the wrench axes, on
enviable record of productivity. noses or the plunge of old en echelon fold sets, or on youn-
ger folds forming basinward of the wrench welt. Strati-
Wrench or Shear (LL) Cycles/Basins graphic traps and tear fault or trap-door fault structures
also may be productive. When the basin evolves beyond
Probably the most important factor affecting wrench stage 3, oil prospects generally are progressively destroyed
(LL) basins is timing. Many LL basins are formed, filled, by folding.
structured, and destroyed in a relatively short geologic In prolific shear basins, oil migrates from older to youn-
time. The optimum combination of these short-term fac- ger structures as the wrenching progresses. Older struc-
 D. R. Kingston, C. P. Dishroon, and P. A. Williams 2197

tures are deformed and destroyed, and the oil migrates or temperatures, poor volcanogenic reservoir rocks, and
is lost in the process. If convergence between the two plates probable lack of structure combine with the presence of
stops, the wrench faulting will cease, and the basins and deep water to make these basins extremely high risk. Some
potential plays could remain frozen in their last evolution- of the oceanic sags contain deep-water fans from river del-
ary stage. Examples of this are present in the Pennsylva- tas that have built out over oceanic crust, as are found in
nian wrench system in Oklahoma in the Ardmore, the south Caspian and Black Seas in the USSR. One oil
Anadarko, and Arkoma basins. Size is not a critical factor prospective area, possibly underlain by oceanic crust and
in LL shear basins, as most of them are relatively small. which has these features, is offshore from the Niger delta.
LL shear basins are moderate risk prospects. They have Its seismic signature, indicating oceanic crust, is one of
many constructive and destructive features to consider, flat, featureless overlying sediments in deep water. Unless
and they are short lived. The main plays in LL shear basins these sediments are activated by structural movement,
are sandstone reservoirs and wrench-generated block they do not show gravity tectonic features. Because of this
faults or anticlines. Most fields are moderate in size; the lack of structure, and thermal histories of low tempera-
largest we have listed is Minas in central Sumatra, with tures, most oceanic basin areas associated with continental
almost 5 billion bbl of oil equivalent. Some LL shear blocks must be considered high risk. Most sediment
basins have prohfic source rocks, such as those in Califor- wedges filling oceanic sags are classified with margin sags
nia and Sumatra; producible stratigraphic traps are (basin flank) and not with the basin center.
found, as well as structures, as the oil seeks to fill all avail-
able porosity. Approximately 47% of all wrench (LL) Polyhistory Basins
cycles studied worldwide were found to produce commer-
cial hydrocarbons. Most large hydrocarbon-producing basins are the poly-
history type, containing numerous and perhaps varied
Trench Associated (TA) Cycles/Basins cycles and tectonic events. The oil-play controls of single
cycles apply in a general way to polyhistory basins, but
Trench associated (TA) cycles/basins are found along they are commonly modified by tectonics. The evaluation
ancient or modern subduction zones at convergent plate of polyhistory basins is a complex subject, and only a few
boundaries. Trench associated cycles are commonly devel- salient points are discussed here.
oped on the continental, or high side of the oceanic trench, Classification and the writing of formulas are very use-
and oceanward of the first volcanic or magmatic arc. The ful in the evaluation of complex polyhistory basins. The
source of the sediment is mainly the landward side with formulas provide a shorthand history of each basin, per-
shallow-water elastics or carbonates, and some deep- mitting identification of the geologic events that form the
marine deposition offshore. Volcanogenic sediments com- basis for the oil plays. Once the plays are identified, they
prise the bulk of the clastic rock, and may be compared with those in other similar polyhistory
porosity/permeability is likely to be destroyed by dia- basins. Change in structural genesis appears to enhance oil
genesis at depths above the hydrocarbon maturation zone. prospects. In Kingston et al (1983, Figure 13), a series of
Only a few of the trench associated cycles, worldwide, restored cross sections shows the evolution of the Persian
contained any quartz-prone reservoirs (e.g., Sabah, Gulf. In this diagram the main events are: (1) basin forma-
Malaysia). Carbonates and chert are also found on occa- tion, (2) subsidence and fill, (3) structuring, and (4)
sion. Structuring, if present, is related to subduction, and renewed subsidence and "loading" of the structures. This
wrench fault features are commonly present. The crust sequence is common to many productive polyhistory
under these basins is composed of tectonized or folded basins. The loading of the structures by more subsidence
trench sediments (FBjT). Trench associated cycles will and fill, commonly appears to be critical. Polyhistory
eventually self-destruct and become FBjT folded trench basins ending with interior sag (IS) appear to be the best
foldbelts. situated for the generation and preservation of oil and gas.
To date, only a few commercial fields have been found The final interior sag generally does not cause tiking of the
in trench associated cycles. Most of these fields are in structures, but commonly provides the sediment loading
sandstone or chert reservoirs and wrench anticlines. The which triggers maturation and migration of hydrocar-
fields are small and have poor producing characteristics. bons. Too much structuring at the end of the polyhistory
Trench associated basins are numerous and are found on basin formation is generally more destructive than con-
most convergent margins. Exploration drilling in basins structive to the pooling and preserving of hydrocarbons.
such as Mentawi and south Java in Idonesia, Abukuma in
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2198 Hydrocarbon Plays and Global Basin Classification

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