Running head: STUDENTS PARASOCIAL BELONGING AND RETENTION 1
Parasocial Relationships, Sense of Belonging and Retention
in First-year College Students
Holly Loberg
Oklahoma State University
Running head: STUDENTS PARASOCIAL BELONGING AND RETENTION 2
Parasocial Relationships, Sense of Belonging and Retention
in First-year College Students
Introduction
Background of Problem
A parasocial interaction is a sensed mutual relationship that viewers perceive to be real,
but the character or performer is unaware of (Horton & Wohl, 1956). These parasocial
interactions feel similar to an interpersonal interaction and can frequently go beyond the actual
viewing of the character or performer to create a lasting impressoin; this is a parasocial
relationship (Dibble, Hartmann, & Rosaen, 2015; Rubin & McHugh, 1987; Turner, 1993). The
parasocial interactions that individuals have can temporarily fulfill human’s need to be social
without having a real interpersonal interaction (Hoffner & Buchanan, 2005).
These parasocial interactions that develop into parasocial relationships relate to a
student’s overall sense of belonging to the institution they attend as sense of belonging is
affected by talking with and creating new friends, epecially within the first-year (Marshall, Zhou,
Gervan, & Wiebe, 2012). A sense of belonging is a sense of “identification and affiliation”
within a group or community (Hausmann, Ye, Schofield, & Woods, 2009, p. 650). Furthermore,
if a student is not connected socially and does not feel a sense of belonging, they are typically
less likely to be retained, meaning they are less likely to return for a subsequent term toward
completion of a degree (Han, Farruggia, & Moss, 2017). With this in mind, it is important to find
if first-year student’s parasocial relationships are affecting their sense of belonging to their
institution and the retention of these first-year students.
Running head: STUDENTS PARASOCIAL BELONGING AND RETENTION 3
Statement of Problem
Overall, a student’s sense of belonging and affinity for the institution they attend are
becoming noted to be incredibly relevant to their retention, it is important that more research is
done to see the effects of parasocial relationships on the student’s sense of belonging and
retention.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between parasocial
relationship(s) and sense of belonging along with parasocial relationship(s) and retention in
first-year college students.
Definition of Terms
• Parasocial relationship(s) – A parasocial relationship is a one-sided, non-mutually
developmental relationship under the character or performer’s control that is developed
by the viewer through apparent disclosure of the character or performer (Horton & Wohl,
1956 and Eyal & Rubin, 2003).
• Sense of belonging – A sense of belonging is a sense of “identification and affiliation”
within a group or community (Hausmann, Ye, Schofield, & Woods, 2009, p. 650).
• Retention – Retention is returning to an institution in a subsequent semester toward
completion of a degree (Morrow & Ackermann, 2012)
• Persistence – Persistence involves continuation of a process even through obstacles
(Hausmann, Ye, Schofield, & Woods, 2009)
Significance of the Study
This study hopes to impact the way that student affairs practitioners approach first-year
student retention. Overall, the research proposed in this study plans to bridge the gap between
Running head: STUDENTS PARASOCIAL BELONGING AND RETENTION 4
parasocial interactions and relationships, a phenomena that is becoming more prevalent through
the years, with the understanding that first-year students need to feel that they belong at an
institution in order to stay at it. The goal is for student affairs practitioners to use this information
to inform their practice and, thus, use the theory-to-practice loop to inform future research on
this topic (Reason & Kimball, 2012).
Assumptions
An assumption of this study is that most individuals have had some form of interaction
with the media. All in all, this study does not look at a specific type of media, therefore,
interaction with the media can be through radio, television, or cinema without regard to type.
Therefore, it is considered that most individuals in this study have had an interaction with a form
of media that could have the possibility of bringing about a parasocial interaction or parasocial
relationship.
Another assumption is that universities grant degrees. In other words, the study assumes
that universities are granting degrees of some kind and that students are wanting to attend the
university for the purpose of attaining that degree. Due to this, the study assumes that first-year
students that have declared a major or degree option are actively working toward the completion
of that degree.
Limitations
A perceived limitation of this study focuses on generalizability outside of Oklahoma
State University – Stillwater. Each of the participants of this study are first-year students
working toward degree completion at Oklahoma State University – Stillwater. Though the
sample size is large enough to have perceived generalizability, this may only be the case for
Running head: STUDENTS PARASOCIAL BELONGING AND RETENTION 5
Oklahoma State University – Stillwater students and not for students from other universities,
particularly those that are very different in size, location, and demographics.
Organization of the Study
This study will first include a literature review with explanation of parasocial interactions
and parasocial relationships, which are the theories used in this study. Furthermore, the literature
review section will include a presentation of sense of belonging and retention, which are two of
the other variables of interest. Finally, the literature will wrap up with the statement of the
hypotheses in question. Next, the study will dive into the method section where the research
design, participants, instruments, and data collection and analysis will be noted.
Literature Review
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between parasocial
relationship(s) and sense of belonging along with parasocial relationship(s) and retention in first-
year college students. The literature review will focus and hold the purpose of explaining each of
the variables and theories to provide a critical examination of each area of interest. The literature
review will be set up with (1) an explanation of the relevant theories of parasocial interactions
and parasocial relationships, (2) sense of belonging, (3) persistence and retention, and (4) the
hypotheses of the study.
Parasocial Interactions and Parasocial Relationships Theoretical Backgrounds
Parasocial interaction was first defined by Horton and Wohl (1956) as a one-sided, non-
mutually developmental interaction that is not under the viewer’s control, but rather the character
or performer’s control. Furthermore, it was found that parasocial interactions tend to mirror
Running head: STUDENTS PARASOCIAL BELONGING AND RETENTION 6
interpersonal experiences (Rubin & McHugh, 1987; Turner, 1993). Overall, parasocial
interactions can be personal to the viewer, but the character or performer sees the viewer in a
completely not personal way as a largely anonymous group (Horton & Strauss, 1957).
Four conditions that Auter and Palmgreen (2000) noted can predict if a parasocial
interaction is likely to occur or not. These four conditions are identification, interest, group
identification, and liking of problem solving. Identification refers to a commonground that the
viewer finds between themselves and the character. The next, interest, refers to the viewer taking
an interest in the ongoings of the character or performer. Group identification concerns viewers
feeling as though they are a part of the “television family,” that the character or performer is a
part of. The last condition is liking of problem solving skills, which focuses on viewers agreeing
with how the character or performer has handled a problem they were faced with. The final
condition is that viewers must like the problem solving skills of the character or performer. It is
most likely that a parasocial interaction will occur if all of the conditions are met, but it can
occur with none of the conditions.
Each parasocial interaction, regardless of if the conditions are met or not, can result in
opinions and feelings that carry between the separate parasocial interactions, creating a
parasocial relationship that is more enduring (Auter, 1992). Parasocial relationships tend to grow
when viewers feel a character or performer is disclosing more information, thus, making the
viewer trust them more (Eyal & Rubin, 2003). Overall, parasocial relationships develop when a
viewer creates strong feelings for the character or performer that last between separate parasocial
interactions or viewings of the character or performer (Auter, 1992).
Sense of Belonging
A sense of belonging is associated with a need to belong, to be respected, and to be
Running head: STUDENTS PARASOCIAL BELONGING AND RETENTION 7
valued that is thought of as a basic and “fundamental human need” (Marshall, Zhou, Gervan, &
Wiebe, 2012, p. 118). This sense of belonging is an incredibly important phenomenon that is
associated with positive effects for all types of students both mentally and physically (Freeman,
Anderman, & Jensen, 2007; Hausmann, Ye, Schofield, & Woods, 2009). If a student does have a
sense of belonging, they are likely to experience positive mental and physical effects, whereas if
they do not have a sense of belonging, they can experience detrimental mental and physical
effects (Hausmann, Ye, Schofield, & Woods, 2009). Some of these effects can relate to
motivation, persistence, and involvement among other things (Freeman, Anderman, & Jensen,
2007; Hausmann, Ye, Schofield, & Woods, 2009).
For college students, their sense of belonging and affiliation with the institution they
attend is specifically related to their interacting with and making friends with peers (Marshall,
Zhou, Gervan, & Wiebe, 2012). If a college student does not feel that they have bonded with
their peers, they are less likely to feel as if they belong at the institution with which they are
attending. Furthermore, if a college student does not feel this sense of belonging, they are less
likely to be motivated, be involved, and less likely to persist toward degree completion, meaning
they are far less likely to go out to create that sense of belonging (Freeman, Anderman, &
Jensen, 2007; Hausmann, Ye, Schofield, & Woods, 2009). In other words, college students that
do not feel a sense of belonging are also less likely to put themselves into situations to help their
own sense of belonging.
Not only is there importance to focus on sense of belonging in college students as a
whole, but particularly with first-year college students. Overall, a first-year college students first
few weeks are the most important when looking at their overall sense of belonging and eventual
retention at the institution they attend (Morrow & Ackermann, 2012). Therefore, a large focus
Running head: STUDENTS PARASOCIAL BELONGING AND RETENTION 8
should be placed on first-year students’ sense of belonging as it can overall affect their degree
completion and retention (Morrow & Ackermann, 2012).
Persistence and Retention
Persistence and retention to an institution are two very closely intertwined terms.
Persistence relates to the ability to continue on with something even with obstacles present
(Hausmann, Ye, Schofield, & Woods, 2009). Retention to an institution, on the other hand,
focuses on the returning to an institution in a subsequent semester toward completion of a degree
(Morrow & Ackermann, 2012). To put this together, the something noted in the persistence
definition could be degree completion, thus, the ability to persist can result in retention of a
student toward degree completion.
College students that are not retained at an institution typically leave prior to their second
year, which depicts the importance of the first year in college student retention (Morrow &
Ackermann, 2012). Typically, a first-year college student’s retention is affected most by their
connections made socially in the first six weeks (Hoffman, Richmond, Morrow and Salomone,
2002); Morrow & Ackermann, 2012). Therefore, a first-year college student may unconsciously
decide or know if they plan to attend the institution again the next semester or next school year
within their first six weeks. This means that if they do not feel a sense of belonging within six
weeks of attending an institution, they are likely to not return. Colleges and universities spend
billions on students that end up not returning for a subsequent semester or year, meaning that
there is less money for students that are actually retained (O'Keeffe, 2013). Therefore, there
should be a focus on why these students are not being retained within their first year.
Running head: STUDENTS PARASOCIAL BELONGING AND RETENTION 9
Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1: First-year college students with parasocial relationships are less likely to
report a sense of belonging at the institution they attend.
Hypothesis 2: First-year college students with parasocial relationships are less likely to
be retained at the same institution for a second year.
Summary
In all, parasocial interactions focus on a felt interpersonal interaction that is completely
one-sided, which can later develop in a longer lasting parasocial relationship with feelings lasting
between each interaction (Horton & Wohl, 1956 and Auter, 1992). Furthermore, it is evident that
interactions are needed to create a sense of belonging, which is a “fundamental human need” for
everyone (Marshall, Zhou, Gervan, & Wiebe, 2012, p. 118). This need is clear in every student,
but is incredibly important for a student’s first few weeks as those first few weeks can decide if a
student can and will complete their degree and be retained in the long run (Morrow &
Ackermann, 2012).
Method
Introduction
This section of the study focuses on detailed descriptions of how the study will take
place. The main point of this section is to expressly layout how the study will be conducted and
the thoughts of the researcher when putting together the study. The method section will begin
with (1) a brief description of the research design, (2) the participants for the study, (3) the
collection of the data, (4) the instruments used, and (4) analysis of the data.
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Research Design
It was found that the best design for this research study would be through a quantitative
effort. Specifically, an online cross-sectional survey would result in the easiest way to observe
the phenomena of parasocial relationships as they are not observable through daily-life
interactions (Mills & Gay, 2016). In other words, a survey results in being able to capture the
feelings of the participants without having to explicitly observe and follow-up with a specific
interaction.
Participants
Population. The study population is first-year students attending a four-year, degree-
granting institution in the United States. This population does not include students in any year
other than their first year, which pertains to students that are either in their first or second full-
time semester at a four-year, degree-granting institution in the United States. The age of the
students is not a factor for this study, so traditional versus non-traditional students will not be a
factor considered.
Sample. The study sample is first-year students attending Oklahoma State University –
Stillwater with the purpose of obtaining a degree. This sample does not include students in any
year other than their first year, which pertains to students that are either in their first or second
full-time semester at Oklahoma State University – Stillwater. Furthermore, this sample does not
include first-year students that are not attending for the purpose of obtaining a degree. In fall
2017, it was expected that 11.5 million females and 8.9 million males would attend colleges and
universities in the United States, thus putting the numbers at about 56% female and 44% male,
with the sample hoping to pull similar numbers (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017).
In 2015, the percentage of Black college students sat at around 14% and the percentage of
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Hispanic college students sat at around 17% in the United States, with the sample hoping to pull
similar numbers (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017). Overall, these characteristics
are relevant in gaining the best sample to best describe the overall population of first-year
students attending a four-year institution in the United States with a purpose of obtaining a
degree.
Sampling method. This study does not have an intervention, so there is not a pre-
test/post-test or anything of the sort, rather it is simply to gather data on the phenomenon. The
data will be collected from first-year students working toward obtaining a degree at Oklahoma
State University – Stillwater. The students can have any demographic characteristics and be in
any program, but must be within their first year of undergraduate college and working toward
obtaining a degree. Participants will be chosen using a random sample of first-year students at
Oklahoma State University - Stillwater using the Department of Research at Oklahoma State
University – Stillwater. Each individual that could be chosen for the sample will be provided
with a random number combination and a random number generator will be used to select the
participants for the study. The preferred a sample size would be 400, which is the adequate
number as listed for populations around or over 5000 (Mills & Gay, 2016). Once all 400
participants are chosen, the Department of Research would be given the list of the
participants. Once the emails of the chosen individuals have been obtained, these individuals
will receive an email from the researcher of the study asking for their participation in the
short survey.
The survey can be done at the participants leisure and does not need to be completed
during a specified time or location. The survey will close at the end of the fall semester in
which it is administered. Therefore, the email asking for participation will be sent out from
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the researcher at three different times throughout the fall semester to act as reminders after the
first email is sent. The first will be the first week in October, then the third week in October,
then the first week in November.
Data Collection
The survey will be administered online through an online survey machine such as
Qualtrics. The survey will begin by telling the participants that there are no foreseeable risks
nor benefits to taking the survey and asking for their consent in taking the survey. If they
decline, they will be unable to take the survey. If they accept, they will be brought to
questions asking their demographic information such as age, race, and gender. Following this,
they will see the Audience-Persona Interaction (API) 22-item scale developed by Auter and
Palmgreen (2000). Then, they will see Bollen and Hoyle’s (1990) 3-item sub-scale on sense of
belonging in their Perceived Cohesion Scale. Finally, they will see the retention question:
“Are you planning to return for another semester at Oklahoma State University?” After this is
completed, they will submit and close out of the survey.
Overall, each of the quantitative scales have a great deal of validity due to the use of
them as cross-sectional surveys. Furthermore, two of the three scales have been used in the
past cross-sectionally (Auter & Palmgreen, 2000 and Bollen & Hoyle, 1990). The only scale
that has not been validated is the retention question as it is not a previously tested question.
Instruments
Parasocial relationships. The measurement used to measure parasocial relationships is
the Audience-Persona Interaction (API) 22-item scale developed by Auter and Palmgreen
(2000). All 22 items will be used to determine feeling of parasocial relationships in the
participants (Auter & Palmgreen, 2000, pp. 82-83).
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Validity. Criterion-related validity was reported for the API scale as it was
compared to Rubin, Perse, and Powell’s (1985) Parasocial Interaction (PSI) scale in Auter and
Palmgreen’s (2000) study. In their validity test, they found the API scale to be more valid in
comparison to the PSI scale (Auter & Palmgreen, 2000). Overall, they found that the API
scale better measured lasting parasocial relationships as compared to the PSI scale (Auter &
Palmgreen, 2000).
Reliability. The reliability used for the PSI scale is through internal consistency
reliability and has an alpha of .84 (Auter & Palmgreen, 2000, p. 83).
Sense of belonging. The measurement used to measure sense of belonging is Bollen and
Hoyle’s (1990) 3-item sub-scale on sense of belonging in their Perceived Cohesion Scale. The
Feelings of Morale sub-scale will not be used and only the Sense of Belonging sub-scale will
be used, as shown below (Bollen & Hoyle, 1990, p. 485). The blanks will be substituted for
Oklahoma State University - Stillwater.
Validity. Content validity was reported for the Bollen and Hoyle’s (1990) 3-item
scale on sense of belonging. The scale has been examined multiple times in multiple settings
including with Hurtado and Carter (1997), Museus, Yi and Saelua (2017), and is now a part of
a “Cooperative Institutional Research Program survey of the Higher Education Research
Institution at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)” (Museus, Yi, & Saelua, 2017,
p. 197). The scale is very straightforward in asking sense of belonging and, therefore, has been
found to be valid.
Reliability. The reliability used for the 3-item scale on sense of belonging is
through internal consistency reliability and has an alpha of .97 (Museus, Yi, & Saelua, 2017, p.
197).
Running head: STUDENTS PARASOCIAL BELONGING AND RETENTION 14
Retention. The measurement used to measure retention will be the simple question: “Are
you planning to return for another semester at Oklahoma State University?”
Validity and reliability. This measurement is a simple question to gather basic
data on if the students experiencing parasocial relationship(s) are retained. Therefore, the
question is stated in a straightforward fashion to ensure the most reliability and validity.
Data Analysis
The best method to analyze this data would be using t-tests. Both hypotheses use two
groups and are not correlational, therefore, it makes the most sense to analyze the data using
t-tests. Furthermore, t-tests focus on looking at the “expected by chance” number in relations to
the received outcome of the study (Mills & Gay, 2016, p. 515). Therefore, it appears relevant
to use a t-test to see if the data outcome of the study is closer to that of “expected by chance”
or to that of a true phenomenon occurring (Mills & Gay, 2016, p. 515).
Summary
Overall, the method for this study focuses on using a cross-sectional survey of first-year
students at Oklahoma State University – Stillwater working toward a degree. The overall
population will not be used, but rather a smaller, random sample at Oklahoma State University –
Stillwater. The online survey will use two scales, one of which from Auter and Palmgreen (2000)
and the other from Bollen and Hoyle (1990), with the final question being a straightforward
question about retention. The goal is to analyze the data through the use of a t-test to see if the
results explain a phenomenon occurring or a chance occurring.
Running head: STUDENTS PARASOCIAL BELONGING AND RETENTION 15
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Appendix A
Audience-Persona Interaction (API) 22-item scale developed by Auter and Palmgreen
(2000, pp. 82-83).
Running head: STUDENTS PARASOCIAL BELONGING AND RETENTION 19
Appendix B
Bollen and Hoyle’s (1990) 3-item sub-scale on sense of belonging in their Perceived
Cohesion Scale (p. 485).
