AGUASAN Workshop Series

Promising management models

of rural water supply services

Outcomes of the 24th AGUASAN Workshop

Gwatt, Switzerland, 13 to 17 October, 2008

A workshop for sector specialists and decision-makers

AGUASAN Workshop Series

Promising management models

of rural water supply services

Outcomes of the 24th AGUASAN Workshop

Gwatt, Switzerland, 13 to 17 October, 2008

A workshop for sector specialists and decision-makers

For further information please contact:

François Münger, Senior Water Advisor

Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC)
franç[email protected]

Roger Schmid, Water and Environmental Sanitation Specialist

Swiss Resource Centre and Consultancies for Development (Skat)
[email protected]

Albert Bürgi, Water and Sanitation Advisor

Swiss Association for International Cooperation (Helvetas)
[email protected]

Chris Zurbrügg, Director & Programme Officer

Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology
Department of Water and Sanitation (Eawag/Sandec)
[email protected]

Impressum

Published by SDC in collaboration with Eawag/Sandec, Helvetas and Skat

Orders The report is available for download on the publishers’ websites

(www.sdc.admin.ch, www.sandec.ch, www.helvetas.org, www.skat.ch)
or can be ordered at [email protected]

Compiled by Agnès Montangero (Skat)

Based on contributions by all AGUASAN Workshop participants

Peer review François Münger (SDC), Roger Schmid (Skat), Albert Bürgi (Helvetas),
Chris Zurbrügg (Eawag/Sandec), Bruno Valfrey-Visser (Hydroconseil),
Roland Schertenleib (Eawag/Sandec), Ken Caplan (BPD)

Language editing Adrian Coad

Layout Martin Läng (Skat)

Berne, Switzerland, August 2009

ii
Table of Contents

1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1

2 A brief overview of management models for rural water supply services.............. 2

2.1 Defining the field of investigation ......................................................................... 2
2.2 Towards a typology of Rural Water Supply (RWS) management models ........... 3
2.3 Overview of existing types of management models ............................................ 4

3 Enhancing the sustainability of rural water supply services – an analytical

framework for assessing the management models .................................................. 8
3.1 The Stakeholder Function Matrix.......................................................................... 8
3.2 The Stakeholder Map............................................................................................ 9
3.3 The “SWOT Diamond” .......................................................................................... 9
3.4 The Performance Criteria Checklist .................................................................... 10

4 Assessing a real rural water supply management model - The Senegal case:
From a “national-utility” model to a delegated model where semi-professional
water user associations are managing multi-village pipe networks ..................... 13
4.1 Institutional arrangements, main actors and features ........................................ 13
4.2 Stakeholders’ functions ...................................................................................... 15
4.3 Stakeholders’ map .............................................................................................. 16
4.4 Strengths and weaknesses................................................................................. 17
4.5 Model performance............................................................................................. 18
4.6 Conclusions......................................................................................................... 18

5 Enhancing the sustainability of RWS management schemes:

Key ingredients for success ....................................................................................... 19

References ............................................................................................................................ 22

Annex A Case studies.................................................................................................. 23

Annex A1 The Burkina Faso case: A sector reform towards delegated management .. 24
Annex A2 The Kosovo case: Management delegation to regional water utilities .......... 30
Annex A3 The Tanzania case: Private initiatives to provide water services................... 35
Annex A4 The Weinfelden / Switzerland case: A municipality-owned utility in
charge of the water supply network............................................................... 39

Annex B List of workshop participants...................................................................... 45

iii
Abstract

“Is community management enough to sustain the Millennium Development Goal efforts?”
This question was raised to initiate the debate at the Aguasan Workshop 2008, a five-day
event that brought together water specialists and development practitioners from all over the
world. Although the community management model is by far the most widespread approach
for rural water supply services in low-income countries, it has often failed to deliver the ex-
pected level of sustainability. Hence there is a strong need for re-examining this approach
as well as for investigating alternative management models.
This report synthesizes the main workshop outcomes. It describes an analytical framework
that can be used to assess the potentials and limitations of rural water supply management
models, as a first step towards enhancing the sustainability of rural water supply services. It
also highlights these key ingredients for success in managing rural water supply services:
n The existence of a legal framework clearly defining the roles and responsibilities of the
various stakeholders is one common element of successful models.
n In countries undergoing decentralization, local authorities should play a central role in
the management of water services. However, financial, material and human resources
have to be effectively transferred from central to local government in order to enable the
communes to fulfil their role.
n The private sector plays an important part in managing water supply services. In general,
the weak profitability of infrastructure maintenance and operation activities is mentioned
as a factor that limits private sector involvement. The combination of several water
systems or facilities, forming packages comprising profitable and unprofitable facilities to
be managed by private operators, could be a way to facilitate private sector participation.
Reducing fiscal charges, exempting taxes even temporarily, decreasing water tariff
subsidies, and contributing to extension costs could enhance the attractiveness for the
private sector.
n Capacity building is a crucial issue to tackle in order to improve the management of water
services, regardless of the type of management model. Involving NGOs or associations
could be a way to provide technical support.
n In most cases, the dependence on external funding for the replacement of long-term
assets or system extension is considered as a threat to sustainability.
n The case studies analysed during the workshop show a trend towards more involvement
of the private sector. This is considered as a way to professionalize the management of
water services.

Acknowledgements

This report is based on the background paper on rural water supply management
models prepared by the Aguasan Community, in collaboration with Bruno Valfrey-Visser
(Hydroconseil) as lead author. It is further based on the case studies presented and
analysed during the workshop. We would like therefore to thank the case study presenters
Bruno Valfrey-Visser, Jean Mathieu Bingbouré (Ministry of Environment and Water, Burkina
Faso), Astrit Vokshi (Community Development Initiatives, Kosovo), and Erich Baumann
(Skat). We also would like to thank all workshop participants for their active participation
and very constructive contributions. Moreover, the constructive comments prepared by the
peer reviewers François Münger (SDC), Roger Schmid (Skat), Albert Bürgi (Helvetas), Chris
Zurbrügg (Eawag/Sandec), Bruno Valfrey-Visser, Roland Schertenleib (Eawag/Sandec), and
Ken Caplan (BPD) greatly contributed to this publication.

iv
Acronyms and Abbreviations

AFD Agence Française de Développement (French Development Agency)

ANEPA Agence Nationale de l’Eau Potable et de l’Assainissement (Mauritanian
National Agency for Water Supply and Sanitation)
ASUFOR Association des Usagers du Forage (Borehole Users Association), Senegal
AWS Autonomous Water Station
CBO Community-Based Organization
CGS-AEP Cellule de Gestion et de Suivi des AEP (Unit of Water Supply Management
and Monitoring in Mali)
CoP Community of Practice
CSO Civil Society Organization
CWSA Community Water Supply Agency (Ghana)
DRAHRH Direction Régionale de l’Agriculture, de l’Hydraulique et des Ressources
Halieutiques (Regional Directorate of Agriculture, Water Resources, and
Fisheries), Burkina Faso
FAUEREB Fédération des Associations d’Usagers de l’Eau de la Région de Bobo-
Dioulasso (Federation of Water Users Associations in the Bobo-Dioulasso
Region), Burkina Faso
HP Handpump
KTA Kosovo Trust Agency
MAHRH Ministère de l’Agriculture de l’Hydraulique et des Ressources Halieutiques
(Ministry of Agriculture, Water Resources, and Fisheries)
MDG Millennium Development Goal
MoU Memorandum of Understanding
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
O&M Operation and Maintenance
ONEA Office National de l’Eau et de l’Assainissement (Burkina Faso National Water
and Sanitation Utility)
ONEP Office National de l’Eau Potable (National Water Utility in Morocco)
OSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
PEPAM Programme d’Eau Potable et d’Assainissement du Millénaire au Sénégal
(Millennium Water and Sanitation Program in Senegal)
RNET Régie Nationale des Eaux du Togo (Togolese National Water Utility)
RWC Regional Water Company
RWS Rural Water Supply
SDC Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC)
SDE Sénégalaise des Eaux (Senegalese Urban Water Utility)
SODECI Société Des Eaux de Cote d’Ivoire (Water Supply Company of Ivory Coast)
SONES Société Nationale des Eaux du Sénégal (Senegalese Urban Water Company,
asset holding company)
SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats
SWSS Simplified Water Supply System (small network)
UA Users’ Association
WBI World Bank Institute
WEDC Water, Engineering and Development Centre (UK)
WS Water Supply
WS&S Water Supply and Sanitation
WSP Water and Sanitation Program
WUA Water Users’ Association
WWRO Water and Waste Regulatory Office (Kosovo)

v
 Introduction

1 Introduction

Effective management of the operation, maintenance, replacement and upgrading of water

supply systems is essential to guarantee the sustainability of water supply services. Al-
though the community management model is by far the most widespread approach for rural
water supply services in low-income countries, it has often failed to deliver the expected
level of sustainability. Hence there is a strong need for re-examining the approach and its
institutional support, as well as for investigating alternative management models. 36 devel-
opment specialists from around the world gathered from October 13 to 17, 2008 in Gwatt
(Switzerland) for a week of intensive exchanges on this issue within the framework of the
24th AGUASAN Workshop.
This report builds on the background paper entitled “Management Models for Rural Water
Supply Services” prepared by the AGUASAN community in collaboration with Bruno Val-
frey-Visser (Hydroconseil) as lead author. It further builds on the case studies presented,
analyzed and synthesized during the workshop.
One of the main outputs of the workshop is an analytical framework that can be used to as-
sess the potentials and limitations of rural water supply management models, as a first step
towards enhancing the sustainability of rural water supply services. The proposed analytical
framework can be used as a decision-support tool. It supports the development of meas-
ures aimed at improving the sustainability of water supply services. This report has as its
objective the sharing of the workshop results – the analytical framework in particular – with
interested water professionals wishing to conduct a systematic analysis of the rural water
supply management schemes in their respective regions. However, this report does not an-
swer the question of what is the most appropriate model in a given context.
The report first gives a brief overview of management models for rural water supply services
(Chapter 2), then it describes a series of tools that can be used to assess rural water supply
management models (Chapter 3), illustrates the use of these tools based on a case study
(Chapter 4), and finally summarizes the main conclusions (Chapter 5).

AGUASAN is an interdisciplinary Swiss community of practice (CoP) bringing together a wide range of specialists to
promote wider and deeper understanding of key issues in water supply and environmental sanitation in developing and
transition countries. This CoP consists of committed sector professionals from diverse specialized institutions involved
in Swiss development cooperation and research. Since 1984, AGUASAN meetings have been held four times a year
to enable its members to share experiences and information related to the sector, to discuss successes, problems and
innovative solutions, and to develop practical recommendations. In this way, the CoP has, for 25 years, provided a func-
tioning multi-stakeholder platform serving the water and sanitation sector and it therefore constitutes an essential link in
the thematic knowledge management strategy of the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC).
Besides these regular meetings, members of the AGUASAN CoP (with members from SDC, Skat, Helvetas, and Sandec)
organize an international AGUASAN workshop in Switzerland every year, generally in June. At these workshops, project
field staff, desk officers, researchers, consultants, other sector specialists and development practitioners from all over
the world come together for five days to reflect collectively on a cutting edge theme of the sector. AGUASAN workshops
foster a mutual learning experience and aim to utilize the broad and multi-faceted knowledge gathered by participants
to collectively develop strategies and conceptual tools of practical use in development work. The year 2008 saw the 24th
consecutive workshop in what has become a very popular, successful and respected series of innovative events.

1
 Management models

2 A brief overview of management models for rural

water supply services

2.1 Defining the field of investigation

Rural areas: There are various ways of defining “rural areas”. The population density crite-
rion is one of these, but a rather limited one (Satterthwaite, 2003). In the present context,
the easiest way is to define “rural areas” as the areas not expected to be served by the
main service provider in charge of urban areas. This definition enables the inclusion in “ru-
ral areas” not only of villages and scarcely populated areas but also of small towns. The
only disadvantage of this definition is that it excludes the cases in which the main “urban”
service provider also serves rural settlements. This was the case in Togo, for instance, with
the Togolese National Water Authority (RNET) and to a lesser extent in Ivory Coast with the
Water Supply Company of Ivory Coast (SODECI). However, the general trend is to restrict
the mandate (and the territory) of urban service providers to capital cities and secondary
towns, leaving rural areas to other actors. A good example of this phenomenon is the re-
engineering of Ghana Water and the subsequent establishment of the Community Water
and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) to take care of rural areas, including networks serving small
towns formerly managed by Ghana Water.
Technical options: There are significant differences between urban and rural water services.
One of these differences is related to technical options. Urban water supply usually relies on
piped networks, or tends to when a dominant service provider is involved in the management
of services. On the other hand, rural water supply draws on a range of technologies which
fall into three main categories: wells, boreholes fitted with handpumps, and small piped
networks relying on ground or surface water. This range of technologies and the variety of
situations governing access to water resources are typical of rural areas and have a strong
influence on the type and performance of management models. In Senegal, for instance, the
success of the “multi-village” model (in which medium-sized towns and very small adjacent
villages have access to water from a single network connected to one or more boreholes)
can be at least partly explained by the policy developed by the Senegalese government in
the 1980s, which resulted in the drilling of hundreds of deep and very productive boreholes
(Valfrey-Visser et al, 2002).
Rural water supply: Rural water supply has evolved over the last 30 years. What we call
rural water supply has gone through two major phases of “fragmentation” and can now be
divided into at least 3 categories. This evolution can be illustrated as follows:

1980-1990 The Golden Age of Rural Water Supply

The development Dominant technology: wells and cheap boreholes fitted with handpumps
of handpumps Dominant management model: self-sufficient community groups

1990-2000 Small Town Water Supply Village Water Supply

The inclusion Piped networks & standpipes Technology: as above
of small towns More complex models involving Management model: still community-based, but with touches of
formal Water User Associations private sector participation

2000-2010 Small Town Water Supply Village Water Supply Self supply and “semi-
The rise of Piped networks, standpipes & house The same as above, but restricted collective” water supply,
a new category? connections to public investment, boosted by cheap technologies
More complex models involving Management by water commit- and privately managed
delegation of management to the tees and/or the private sector
private sector

In terms of investment, small towns are likely to continue to rely on public finance for a
long time, as expensive equipment is required (deep boreholes, water tanks, and extensive
primary networks). Handpumps are currently very expensive – around US$1,000. They are

2
 Management models

mostly financed by donors, NGOs, and sometimes also by governments, and therefore
evade market rules, making it very difficult to create a market for very cheap versions (that
cost around US$100), although they would be technically feasible. It is likely that, in about
a decade, the market for cheap handpumps will become profitable, in rural areas, which will
therefore partly fall into the “self supply” category.
It is also likely that private actors will increasingly invest in rural water supply (handpumps
and networks). The phenomenon has already started in most countries, although it remains
difficult to quantify. In Benin, for instance, the last inventory conducted by the Water Di-
rectorate revealed that more than 500 unregistered boreholes were privately operated by
investors who installed a handpump or built a small distribution network around a motorized
borehole. This tendency is currently observed in urban areas, but considering the “market
share” that rural areas and small towns represent, it can be expected that investors will pro-
gressively invest in rural settlements also.
Management models: The term “management model” in this report does not only encom-
pass the theoretical set of arrangements governing the management of water services in a
village or in a small town. It also includes the relationships between key actors, however
informal these relationships might be.

2.2 Towards a typology of Rural Water Supply (RWS)

management models

Key actors in the management of RWS services

The actors involved in the various management models play different roles and have differ-
ent influence – some actors are even completely absent in some models. However, in all the
models basically the same key actors play significant roles: (i) the central government (in
most cases, the ministry in charge of water and its regional/local branches); (ii) local authori-
ties (which in many countries are formally in charge of managing water services); (iii) water
user groups or associations (more or less community-based); and (iv) private operators
(pump mechanics, spare part retailers, network managers, etc.).

A first typology of models based on the dominant actor

The typology developed in this section is not based on the functional or contractual relation-
ships between actors but on the main (dominant) actor involved and three other distinguish-
ing criteria: (i) the scale at which the model is applicable (local, regional or national); (ii) the
extent of delegation; and (iii) the level of private sector involvement. On the basis of these
criteria, four main models were identified in the examples analysed and assessed during the
workshop. The following table lists also three other models which are possible and used in
other cases:

Brief description of the model Key actor Scale of model Extent of delegation Private sector
The four main models
Community management models Community Local 0 0
Municipal management models Municipality Local + +
The delegated management models Operator Variable +++ +++
The privately-owned management models Investor Local 0 +++
Other existing models
Nationwide or “national utility” models Utility National 0 Variable
Maintenance-oriented “packaged” models Supplier National + ++
The “regional” management models Federation Regional Variable +

3
 Management models

2.3 Overview of existing types of management models

Some of the identified models encompass several sub-models and the models are not mutu-
ally exclusive. For instance, the Mauritanian model is a combination of the nationwide model
(ANEPA, the Mauritanian Agency for Water Supply and Sanitation, covers the whole territory
of Mauritania) and the delegated management model (ANEPA contracts private operators for
the management of water services in each town or village). The real-life examples described
and analysed in Chapter 4 and in Annex A also show that management usually evolves over
time, drifting from one model to another.

2.3.1 The community management model

In developing countries, the community management model is clearly the dominant one, and
will probably remain dominant in the coming years. Even if the terminology varies strongly
from one country to another, the main features of this model remain the same: a group of
users is established at the level of a village or small town, usually through an election proc-
ess, and this “water committee” manages all aspects of the water service – not only opera-
tion and maintenance, but in many cases also the improvement of the service: providing
house connections, extending networks, etc.

Advantages and limitations of community-based management *

Advantages Limitations
n Proximity to users and local capacity to manage conflicts n If members get no benefit from their involvement, the
n Flexibility in dealing with those who are in arrears with their impetus is lost
payments n No capital and therefore no guarantee in case of
n The structure is permanent (members come and go, but the mismanagement
committee stays) n Limited skills to manage technically complex equipment
n The status of an association reduces the risk taken by each n Tendency to reduce expenses rather than increase revenue
individual member from water
n Users have a better mechanism for expressing their n Difficulty in developing a strategic vision for network
demands and their concerns extension

What would be the most suitable role for a users’ association?

n A users’ group or water committee is suitable for managing users or clients who are not accustomed to an “urban” service
and whose willingness to pay is generally low.
n A users’ association (UA) is likely to face difficulties when managing the “production” side as this requires technical skills.
However, a UA easily manages the commercial side.

* Adapted from Savina, Vézina and Valfrey, 2002.

This model basically offers the possibility of increasing the level of ownership at community
level, however in practice central or local government remains in most cases the true owner
of the facilities. After a few years, a users’ committee often turns into a small group of per-
sons managing the water service in a private fashion – which is not necessarily a problem,
but is clearly in contradiction with their initial mandate and in most cases with their legal
status too.
Among the models described in this report, the community management model is definitely
the one that can be described as a family of sub-models, encompassing a range of possible
options. One of the main trends in community management is to consider the water commit-
tee or board as a (professional) operator rather than as a community body (see for instance
Brand, 2004, for an example in Latin America). This trend can be observed in rural Benin for
the management of handpumps under the concept of “reinforced community management”.

4
 Management models

The term “community management” represents an umbrella under which many institutional
arrangements can be found, including situations where a self-organised and almost “private”
entity manages the service.

2.3.2 The municipal management model

In this case, the water (or sanitation) services are managed directly or indirectly by a munici-
pality, commune or district council. This is the case in many countries. In both developed
and developing countries this is probably the dominant model for rural areas. However, in
developing countries, and especially in rural areas, there are rather few cases of successful
management of RWS services by the municipality. The drawbacks of municipal management
have been discussed and documented elsewhere (Ringskog, 2003). The three main disad-
vantages relate to: (i) the difficulty of retaining good professionals in the municipal depart-
ments; (ii) the difficulty of ring-fencing the revenue from water in a context where communes
struggle with insufficient budgets; (iii) the difficulty of creating incentives for the municipal-
ity to expand services and finance new facilities, when the municipal or district investment
budget is already under considerable stress. Examples of municipal management models
can be found in Colombia and other Latin American countries, among others.

2.3.3 The delegated management model

This category covers models with different forms and levels of management delegation. The
common point is the existence of a relationship (usually a contract) between the “owner” of
the system, usually the central or municipal government or a Water User Association (WUA)
and a privately-managed entity such as an individual, a company or a Community-Based
Organization (CBO). The conditions of the contract and the allocation of responsibilities
between the delegating authority and the operator can vary substantially from one case to
another; the figure below gives an overview of the model, taking into account different pos-
sible levels of delegation.
This management model has proven to be
very successful in the case of small towns
and piped networks, because it takes ad-
vantage of the capacity of the private sector
to boost access and manage services in a
dynamic way (the Mauritanian example is
a very good one in this respect). However,
it is more difficult to attract private provid-
ers into the management of village water
supply services that rely on handpumps). A
case study in Kisumu, Kenya demonstrated
that the critical principles for success are: (i)
transparency in the bidding process, (ii) clear
contractual arrangements, and (iii) the right
financial incentives for all parties (WSP, 2009).
The drawbacks of the delegated management
model are: (i) the difficulty of keeping a good
balance (in terms of transparency and accountability) between the owner and the provider
(especially in the situation where the owner is a WUA) and (ii) the difficulty of organizing
a system of regulation that helps to keep prices down while guaranteeing service quality.
(Pressure from the users is the best guarantee of such a regulation, but if there is a conflict
another entity needs to intervene.) Examples of the delegated management model can be
found in Rwanda, Mauritania, Niger, Colombia, Uganda and elsewhere.

5
 Management models

2.3.4 The privately-owned management model

This is not a type of delegated management model because of the complete absence of
delegation. In this case, a private investor decides to build and operate a water point or a
small piped network to serve a neighbourhood that does not have access to any kind of
water service. These private investments can occur spontaneously or be encouraged by
the government if it does not have the capacity to provide the required water services. Pri-
vately-owned management models are driven by competition and therefore often develop
in peri-urban contexts, where there is the possibility of offering an alternative to the service
provided by the dominant utility. Especially in an urban setting, a key issue is how to regu-
late the activities of the private investors without putting them out of business (Valfrey-Visser
et al, 2006). Examples of such models can be observed in Benin, Paraguay, and Nigeria.

2.3.5 The nation-wide or “national utility” model

This family of models encompasses all situations in which a national umbrella entity directly
or indirectly manages the RWS services. One option is when the main service provider (in
general the urban water utility) is also directly in charge of providing services for the rural ar-
eas. The obvious advantage of this option is that rural dwellers get access to a good quality
service. However, the urban utility generally operates in rural areas at a very high marginal
cost, and so the possibility for an “urban” utility to serve rural areas can only arise if a sig-
nificant cross-subsidizing system is organized at national level. This is typically the case in
Ivory Cost with the SODECI and to a lesser extent in Burkina Faso with the National Water
and Sanitation Utility (ONEA). Some attempts have been made to develop new franchising
contracts that reconcile these aspects, but very few examples are actually documented. The
National Water Utility in Morocco (ONEP) abandoned such an idea and is now implementing
a more classical form of delegated management.
A second situation is when a nationwide umbrella organization is established to host a cer-
tain number of management or lease contracts throughout the rural areas of a country. This
second option presents several advantages, the main one being the possibility of organizing
a cross-subsidizing system between small towns/villages and larger (and therefore more
profitable) settlements. The best example of such an umbrella organization is the ANEPA
in Mauritania; unfortunately, this example also shows the difficulties that arise when putting
into practice such an organization – charges are set at the national level and therefore sensi-
tive to political considerations.

2.3.6 The maintenance-oriented or “packaged” model

This model is usually only applicable to the management of handpumps or solar pumping
systems. The idea is to provide a package of services under a lease contract. These serv-
ices include – depending on the local situation – maintenance, repair (including the supply of
spare parts), fee collection from the users, and technical assistance to the WUAs. In some
countries (Mauritania, Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger), this package was marketed as a “total
warranty scheme” associated with a given manufacturer (the French company Vergnet). Un-
fortunately, although the rationale behind this model is promising, its implementation has not
seen great success. In Mauritania, for instance, within two years of the signing of the first
contract, the number of WUAs interested in renewing their contracts had dropped tremen-
dously, to the point that the local representative of Vergnet had to change their strategy and
increase the annual cost of the total warranty lease contract (Desille, 2004).
A pedal pump in Mauritania.
© Hydroconseil

6
 Management models

2.3.7 The „regional“ management model

The regional management model covers the situations in which an umbrella organization
provides services to a certain number of local managers or providers such as WUAs, co-
operatives or private providers. The extent of these support services is variable and can
range from technical assistance on issues such as maintenance, commercial management
or accounting, to a higher level of integration, for instance the common management of
saving funds, or a maintenance contract signed by the regional organization in the name of
all its members. These models can be seen as a sub-model of the “nationwide” model, but
there are two significant differences: (i) the regional organizations are usually Civil Society
Organizations (CSOs), with a loose link or no link to the government; (ii) the regional organi-
zations are less directly involved in the management of day-to-day services. Examples of
such regional umbrella organizations are the Federation of Water Users Associations in the
Bobo-Dioulasso Region (FAUREB) in Burkina Faso, the South Western Towns Umbrella Or-
ganisation in Uganda, and the Unit of Water Supply Management and Monitoring (CGS-AEP)
– and similar organizations – in Mali.

7
Analytical framework

3 Enhancing the sustainability of rural water supply

services – an analytical framework for assessing the
management models

A series of tools for understanding stakeholders’ roles and relationships, analyzing strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities and threats, and assessing the performance of rural water supply
management models is presented here. This assessment is an important step in enhancing
the sustainability of rural water supply services. These tools have been used to assess exist-
ing management models (see Chapter 4 and Annex A).

3.1 The Stakeholder Function Matrix

The management of water services is often characterized by the large number of stakehold-
ers involved. Clarifying stakeholders’ roles and relationships is therefore a key to a better
understanding of a management model and a basis for analyzing its strengths and weak-
nesses. Listing the roles played by the various stakeholders is a useful first step in analyz-
ing a management model. The key functions related to the management of water supply
services and stakeholder categories are represented in the following matrix. However, the
matrix must be adapted on a case-by-case basis. Important stakeholders must be identified
and additional functions or a more differentiated analysis of functions (e.g. differentiation
between ownership of water resource and of infrastructure) may be needed.

Stakeholders
Private sector

organizations
Communities

associations

International
government

government
Individuals

National
NGOs,

Local
Functions

Ownership
Financing construction
Managing funds
Setting tariff
Regulating
Controlling / Reporting
Operation
Maintenance
Replacement
External support

This matrix helps by visualizing information such as unclear or overlapping responsibilities

and how tasks are shared between government, private sector and civil society. It further
assists in identifying the key actors, the extent of delegation, and the level of private sector
involvement. As mentioned in Chapter 2.2, these are three of the main criteria used to clas-
sify water supply management models.

8
 Analytical framework

3.2 The Stakeholder Map

The stakeholder map visualizes the relation-
ships between the stakeholders. Stakeholders
can be linked to each other by the provision
of water or materials, transfer of money,
delegation, supervision or monitoring of
tasks, training, or a contractual relationship.
Stakeholders influence each other to varying
degrees.
Mapping stakeholder relationships helps
in getting a clearer understanding of the
situation and serves as a basis for identifying
weaknesses or challenges and discussing po-
tential improvements.

3.3 The “SWOT Diamond”

The diamond shows the six strategic fields
guiding SDC’s programs in the water sector.
They are the three pillars of sustainability: so-
cial, environmental, economic, and the three
thematic fields: institutional, technological,
and knowledge. A “SWOT Diamond” consists
therefore in analyzing Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities and Threats considering the six
strategic fields, thereby promoting a compre-
hensive assessment.

9
 Analytical framework

The table below contains selected issues related to the six strategic fields. This approach
contributes to a clearer understanding of the strategic fields and thus facilitates assessment
according to these fields. The list however is not exhaustive.

Social Economy Environment

n Equity of service: access for all or for n Costing (recurrent, n Water conservation
the poor replacement, expansion costs) n Resource protection
n Integration of socio-cultural context n Tariffs (incl. tariff setting n Precautionary principle
n Participation and demand mechanisms), ability-to-pay
n Environmental sanitation
responsiveness and targeted subsidies
n Empowerment of user groups n Financial management
n Gender equality
n User satisfaction and willingness-to-pay
Institutional Knowledge Technology
n Regulatory framework n Capacity building at all levels n Appropriate technologies and service levels
n Good governance n Learning and knowledge n Appropriate level of standardization and
n Sector coordination / multi-stakeholder transfer quality control
dialogue n Documentation n Operation and maintenance arrangements
n Institutional capacities n Performance monitoring and n Viable supply chains for goods & services
auditing n Flexibility and incentives for upgrading and
extension

The assessment results can be visualized as strengths, weaknesses, opportunities or threats

according to the strategic fields, thereby facilitating the identification of limitations and the
development of potential options to improve the current system. The clearer understanding
of stakeholders’ roles and relationships supports this assessment.

3.4 The Performance Criteria Checklist

Based on the above list of sustainability issues related to the six strategic fields, a set of
criteria is proposed for assessing the performance of the different management models:

Financial and management How autonomous is the operator in managing the cash flow, recruiting the staff, and paying for
autonomy O&M costs on a daily basis?
Demand responsiveness Does the management model encourage the service provider to meet users’ demands in the
most appropriate way?
Incentives for expansion Does the management model encourage investments aiming at meeting the future demand and
ensuring that all segments are served?
Professional support How easily can local actors (and especially service providers) have access to support for
technical or commercial issues and at what cost?
Regulation Are the customer’s rights protected against potential abuses by the provider? Are water tariffs
fair and easy to modify? Are monitoring data collected and transferred to the upper level for
benchmarking?
Transparency and Is the water service managed in a transparent way? Are accounts and contracts regularly
accountability audited by an independent body?

This checklist helps identify the strong and weak points of each model. However, when
assessing the models in practice, some criteria may be more relevant than others; it may
therefore be meaningful to weight them. Moreover, this list is not exhaustive and should be
adapted on a case-by-case basis. The four main models described in Chapter 2 are as-
sessed on the basis of these criteria (see the Table on page 11).

10
 Analytical framework

Performance Community Privately owned &

Municipal management Delegated management
criteria management operated

Financial and Water committees Financial autonomy is a When contracts are Financial and
management are usually financially very strong bottleneck in properly designed management autonomy
autonomy independent (when municipal management and negotiated, most of the water provider is
formalized, they have (revenue from water not providers under a absolute in this specific
their own bank account). going back to the water delegation contract case – the provider is
The autonomy of sector). Management have full management not meant to have any
the water committee autonomy is usually autonomy and substantial kind of relationship
depends on the strength weak, which can have a financial autonomy. with public authorities
of its leaders. Some positive effect (if there Providers may manage with regard to the
committees can be is a political will to a joint account with the management of his/her
politically influenced improve service provision, delegating authority for business. However, legal
or oriented, usually to management will have to renewal funds. Sound uncertainty or insecurity
the detriment of service follow); but usually there regulation can help (no contract) can limit the
provision. is a negative impact, improve the level of apparent autonomy of
leading to over-staffing. autonomy and protect the provider, by making
the service provider him/her more sensitive
from potential political to political pressure or
interference. influence.

Demand re- Despite their proximity In most developing Meeting the users’ Because of the nature
sponsiveness to users, community countries, municipal demands is normally the of their business,
managers do not have management has a best way for providers to self-funded providers
a strong incentive to poor record in terms of increase their revenue. always meet their
meet the demand of demand responsiveness. However, in delegated customers’ demands.
users, especially when Due to poor financial management, the They usually have a
the demand is for higher management and low demand responsiveness deep understanding of
levels of service such tariffs, investments needs to be embedded the levels of service that
as private connections. are not made in a in the contract and the consumers are expecting,
A general trend in timely manner and provider must have clear as well as their financial
community management it is very difficult for financial incentives to capacity. Private
is to offer only one the municipality to increase the consumer providers are creative
level of service (e.g. understand and meet the base and meet the users’ in inventing new ways
standposts in the case of demand. Clients are often demands. of meeting the demand
a piped network) in the seen as potential voters and in being flexible (e.g.
name of equity, which and not clients as such. in term of payments) so
makes it difficult to meet that a majority of users
the demand. can have access to the
service.

Incentives for Unless the community Unless the municipality If the contract is wisely Such a provider will have
expansion leaders have a sound has a good vision of designed, the provider a strong incentive to
vision, the community the future of WSS, or a will have a strong interest expand the services...
model does not strong political incentive in expanding the service. but not towards all user
encourage expansion, to do so, the model does It mostly depends on segments. However, the
by limiting investment not encourage expansion. the clauses governing incentive for expansion
and other risk-taking Absence of ring fencing the way that funds for depends on the size
decisions. Low tariffs makes it very difficult to expansion are secured of the operator. The
and savings do not allow use the water price as and who decides on the smallest operators might
committees to plan big an instrument to finance investing of these funds have a “niche” strategy
investments such as a expansion costs. for expanding service and be happy with a very
new handpump or a new coverage. Power must small consumer base,
line in the case of a piped be balanced between the without any real incentive
network. parties. to increase that base.

11
 Analytical framework

Performance Community Privately owned &

Municipal management Delegated management
criteria management operated

Professional Community managers Municipalities might Access to support Because of their informal
support have a hard time getting have good access to depends on the nature, providers do not
access to professional professional support institutional set-up and have access to such
support, if the support is – depending mostly therefore on the goodwill support, except in a very
not organized at national on their size and of central government. informal way. Very few
level or sub-national level remoteness. However, In some countries (Mali, projects or programs
or made mandatory. small (typically – rural) Niger and, to a lesser include the provision of
Experience shows that municipalities will have extent, Mauritania), support to privately run
professional support is difficulties in retaining delegated management is systems and to small
really the key ingredient professional staff and systematically associated informal operators.
to the success of in gaining access to with professional support, Most providers actually
community management. professional support which is a strong need, have the necessary
if there is no (partly especially when service management skills or can
subsidized) professional providers are local easily outsource them.
support organized at individuals with limited
central level or regional technical and accounting
level. skills.

Regulation Because of their local Central government is Existence of a regulation Self-funded providers
nature, community supposed to regulate framework entirely usually escape any kind
managers usually municipal WSS, but depends on the of formal regulation,
escape any form of in practice it does not willingness of central or sometimes to the
regulation, except for manage to do it except in regional government. detriment of users.
the pressure from the big urban centres. Since Formal regulation is However, they are
users themselves. Local water is a local service, not needed in most sometime regulated by
branches of the Ministry it is difficult to regulate cases, and would be local authorities like
of Water have a key role tariffs at national level. economically unviable. any other business. In
to play in implementing In some countries the The contract itself is some countries (e.g.
the regulation framework, government provides already a very powerful Mozambique) central
because no formal specific guidelines for regulation tool if it is government enforces
regulator will intervene in municipalities or has the carefully designed and if minimum standards
rural and remote areas. capacity to influence there is a body that can such as the quality of
municipal management enforce the arrangements water distributed, but
through conditional foreseen in the contract it is easier to do so in
grants or other kinds of with regard to regulation. (peri)urban areas.
financial instruments.

Transparency Water committees Budgetary confusion and Because of the existence Such providers are
and account- are transparent and political issues undermine of a contract, providers accountable only to
ability accountable when their the transparency are accountable themselves, unless the
leaders decide to be and accountability of to the delegating institutional framework
so or when users keep municipal services authority and obliged obliges them to
them under pressure. – in most situations. to ensure a minimum be accountable to
A key step towards Accountability can of transparency, but somebody. Transparency
accountability is the be improved if the information asymmetry is not an obligation for
general meeting at which municipality creates a can make it easy for the them, unless it is part of
the committees report public company that providers to by-pass the commercial strategy
on their management to is separate from the this obligation. External and public relations
all the users. Experience municipality and that oversight of reporting policy towards their
shows that GMs become reports directly to a obligations can be a customers.
rarer and rarer as time Board. key to guaranteeing
goes by, but this may be accountability.
because the committee is
getting more professional
in its management.

12
 The Senegal case

4 Assessing a real rural water supply management

model - The Senegal case: From a “national-utility”
model to a delegated model where semi-professional
water user associations are managing multi-village
pipe networks

4.1 Institutional arrangements, main actors and features

Historical development
The history of the institutional set up related to water supply in Senegal can be divided into
four periods, each transition between two periods corresponding to a new policy and legal
package, and leading to a new management model:

Situation 1 Completely state-owned and state-managed water systems.

(“National utility” model) Government covers all costs: fuel, repairs, staff, replacement, etc.

Transition 1 (1984) First reform package: 1) progressive withdrawal of the State from day-to-day management (except
for maintenance); 2) establishment of Water Committees; 3) transfer of running costs from the
State to the Committees.

Situation 2 Systems are managed by the Water Committees

(Community management Water Committees cover all running costs (including salaries)
model) Major maintenance remains under the responsibility of the State
During this period more than 300 new systems are constructed

Transition 2 (1996) First rural water management reform (first pilot project, then nationwide):
1) Water Committees become formal associations (Borehole Users Associations: ASUFOR); 2)
They are encouraged to outsource maintenance to licensed providers; 3) They can have access to
credit for pump or generator replacement or extension.

Situation 3 Systems are managed by the ASUFORs

(Partly delegated ASUFORs cover all running costs (including salaries)
management model) ASUFORs save funds for the replacement of short lifespan assets
Maintenance is outsourced to private sector in 10% of the cases
This is the situation today (~ 1000 systems in operation)

Transition 3 (2005) Second reform (Lettre de politique sectorielle – Sector Policy Letter): ASUFORs are encouraged to
delegate management to the private sector to increase efficiency in operation and maintenance.

Situation 4 Towards more delegation to the private sector, not only for maintenance, but also for more
(Towards a fully delegated comprehensive contracts (covering all O&M functions). This new trend has just started; very few
management model) contracts have been signed so far. According to the national MDG programme (PEPAM), 30 to 50
new piped systems will be constructed every year until 2015.

Since 1984, the government has been withdrawing progressively from investment and
operations responsibilities. In 2000 the management of rural systems was reformed by the
government and it is intended to achieve financial autonomy in the maintenance and replace-
ment of equipment. The reform entails greater empowerment of the population (involving the
rural communities in the planning, construction and management of facilities), improvement
in local resource mobilization (through community contribution to the financing of facilities)
and a greater involvement of the private sector in the supply of goods and services.

13
The Senegal case

Current situation
The country has today more than a thousand deep boreholes fitted with motorized or solar
equipment. From the early eighties, the Senegalese authorities focused on the technical op-
tion of small piped water supplies. Handpumps remain marginal and are almost exclusively
installed by NGOs in areas with poor groundwater resources.
Most small pipe network water supply systems in Senegal serve several villages. These are
generally small villages that are connected to a slightly bigger central village. 68% of the
connected villages have fewer than 500 inhabitants, and 14% have from 500 to 1000 inhab-
itants. The number of villages supplied from the same borehole is 7.5 on average – a sam-
ple of 900 villages were supplied by 119 small pipe networks. This feature has an important
impact on the type of management that is currently observed in Senegal in rural areas and
small towns.
Even small rural communities (with fewer than 500 inhabitants, sometimes only a few dozen)
are now served by “multi-village” networks, a Senegalese specificity that requires from the
water committee a minimum of professionalism in the management of facilities. After a few
years (and a few management crises), the original water committee usually turns itself into a
more professional body: more active members receive a (sometimes substantial) remunera-
tion, and technical functions are delegated to the private sector (especially the pump attend-
ant, who becomes progressively, in many cases, a network operator to whom all technical
functions are outsourced by the committee). In some cases, even commercial functions are
outsourced. All this is done under the loose supervision of the Ministry, which keeps an im-
portant role as provider of training.

© Hydroconseil

14
 The Senegal case

4.2 Stakeholders’ functions

Stakeholders

Local Branch of Ministry

Maintenance brigade

Directorate of O&M

Water Directorate
Ministry of Water
Pump attendant

Training centre
Private sector

Emigrants
Manager

ASUFOR

Donors

NGOs
Users

Functions
Feeling
Ownership Legal ownership
of OS

Capital Capital CAPEX

Managing funds OPEX OPEX Banks None
investment investment OPEX

Set the rules at

Setting tariff Decides Advises Advises
national level

National
Regulation Local
(policy, strategy)

Report to the To local To the To

Reporting
ASUFOR branch Ministry donors

Part of Part of
Operation
tasks tasks

Day- Spare Heavy

Maintenance
to-day parts* maint.

Short Long term Short

Replacement
term assets term

In some
External support Yes Yes Yes
cases

Notes: OS: Ownership, OPEX: Operational expenditure, CAPEX: Capital expenditure

* The private sector is supposed to take over the maintenance from the Regional Maintenance Centres managed by the Ministry. Maintenance
operators are licensed by the Ministry. So far, only 10% of the ASUFORs have contracted a private operator for major system maintenance.

15
The Senegal case

4.3 Stakeholders’ map

In the rural areas and in all towns not served by the public utility (SONES/SDE), the water
service is within the jurisdiction of the Directorate of Operations and Maintenance (DEM),
a body under the Ministry in charge of water, which is relatively well decentralized in the
country. Municipalities have played a very limited role so far – or rather, no role at all.
The key actor at local level is the Association des Usagers du Forage (Borehole Users
Association, ASUFOR), a legal entity officially recognized by the government, having the
capacity to hire staff, open a bank account, sign a delegation/outsourcing contract, etc.
The ASUFORs have full responsibility for providing the service to the users. There is a power
balance between ASUFOR and the government that should help the DEM refocus its mis-
sion on supporting the ASUFOR and benchmarking at national level.
To establish an ASUFOR, the representatives must send a letter to the regional government,
indicating when the general meeting was held and who the board members are. The rules
are specific to the ASUFORs and they establish de facto a delegation of responsibility be-
tween the government and the ASUFOR. If there is no answer from the regional level after
three months, the ASUFOR is considered as officially recognized.
In some regions, Federations of ASUFORs have been established. They are actually en-
couraged. They work as platforms for a dialogue with the government. Some of them set
up mutual revolving funds – each ASUFOR pays a fee and can access the fund in case of
major breakdown or replacement need. In some cases (Kaolack, Caritas) they even manage
a technical advisory service and a maintenance centre.
It is worth mentioning that the Ministry in charge of water is managing two specialized enti-
ties: three regional maintenance centres throughout the country (taking care of heavy
maintenance – pumps and generators) and one national training centre for the pump at-
tendants (there is a six-month mandatory training session for the pump attendants, part of
the cost of which is borne by the ASUFOR).
Emigrants play an important role in Senegal. In some cases, they contribute to the capital
cost investment, alone or with partners (NGOs, twinned cities, bilateral cooperation...). Very
often, they pay for part of the running costs
and for the replacement of short-term assets
(such as pumps and generators). Last but not
least, their remittances constitute a significant
boost to the willingness to pay for a good
water service.
The private sector is involved in mainte-
nance, mainly for replacing spare parts, but
not yet for major maintenance tasks.

16
 The Senegal case

4.4 Strengths and weaknesses

Area Strengths Weaknesses

Economic Clear cost sharing between the government and + Lack of regulation regarding tariff setting by
ASUFORs ASUFOR
Financial support from emigrants M External dependency for the replacement of
long-term assets
Institutional Gradually evolving concept « Ownership still with the State
Clear government support and sound policy + Vague contractual interrelations between actors
framework
Good control and monitoring
Environmental Availability of groundwater and database of Model is sensitive to hydrogeological conditions*
boreholes
Knowledge Mandatory capacity building (pump attendants) + Management skills still weak among the
Support available from NGOs ASUFOR members
+ Lack of capacity at the level of the local branch
of Ministry
Technical + Private sector already involved in operation and ä Private sector still very shy
maintenance
Social Participatory approach + Gender imbalance (ASUFOR)
ä Autonomy of the ASUFOR
ASUFOR accountable to users

Legend: M Major threat; « Major challenge; ä Major trend; + Potential for improvement
In bold: key aspects, according to group discussion.

* Especially the “multi-village” aspect of the systems, which is only feasible if the yield of the borehole(s) is enough to supply a few thousands
inhabitants (typically not the case in basement areas, where boreholes cannot produce more than about two cubic metres per hour).

17
 The Senegal case

4.5 Model performance

Criteria Rating Comments

Financial and management J Water committees are completely independent in their management
autonomy

Demand responsiveness K Water committees capture reasonably well the demand of the rural users

Incentives for expansion J Committees have an impressive record of expanding networks using their own
funds

Professional support K Professional support is limited but the Ministry still trains the pump attendants

Regulation L There is no regulation to speak of – the Ministry only advises on water pricing

Transparency and K Depends on the level of control by the users – usually not considerable
accountability

4.6 Conclusions
In the rural areas, there is a strong demand for a level of service higher than that of im-
proved dug wells and handpumps, including in the smallest villages. The increase in daily
consumption (which is now approaching 30 to 35 litres per day per inhabitant after a few
years of operation of the network, even in the very small villages) is a clear proof that the
demand is there. The Senegal case tends to prove that the multi-village scheme is emerg-
ing as an alternative to the traditional rural water supply system normally reserved for small
rural communities and to demonstrate that this alternative is economically viable.
The relatively satisfactory management of the systems studied could be due to the phased
development of the multi-village systems. The associations first make their mark with
the simple systems that are relatively easy to manage (small networks and supply through
standposts) and then move gradually up to more complex systems (extensions of the net-
work and an increase in house connections). The dynamics and lessons learnt by the old
associations as a result of the reforms highlight the fundamental needs to sell water by
volume with a meter and to increase the professionalism of the Committees.
The other lesson that can be drawn from the Senegal case is that the pragmatic approach
adopted by the Government might have been wise, in the sense that it created a middle way
between completely private delegated management (an option that Senegal was perhaps
not completely ready to face) and purely community management (an option that had clearly
shown its limitations). This semi-professional community management could be a very useful
model.

18
 Key ingredients for success

5 Enhancing the sustainability of rural water supply

management schemes: Key ingredients for success

An analytical framework to assess management models

The analysis of the case studies confirmed that real management models are often charac-
terized by a mix of features from different theoretical models. They are very much influenced
by the context and their historical development. It is therefore difficult to draw universal con-
clusions regarding the appropriateness of a specific theoretical model in differing contexts.
Nonetheless, the proposed analytical framework supports the assessment of real models
and can therefore be used as a guide in the process of enhancing the sustainability of RWS
management schemes. Moreover, a series of success factors and trends can be highlighted
based, at least partially, on the case studies presented in this report (Chapter 4, Annex A).

The importance of defining clear responsibilities

The existence of a legal framework clearly defining the roles and responsibilities of the vari-
ous stakeholders is one common element of successful models. One of the strengths of the
Burkina Faso model, for example, is the clear definition of stakeholders’ responsibilities in
contracts, conventions, and protocols. Moreover, regulation and control of service providers
are based on these contractual documents. In the Kosovo case, the existence of a Memo-
randum of Understanding between the Regional Water Company (RWC), the municipality
and the village council describing their roles and responsibilities is also perceived as a
strength of the model. The fact that there is an independent regulatory body (WWRO) setting
the water tariff, as well as licensing and monitoring RWCs, is also considered as a positive
element.

Involvement of local authorities makes sense if there is a real transfer of

responsibilities and resources from the central government
In countries undergoing decentralization, local authorities should play a central role in the
management of water services. The Burkina Faso model, for example, in which the com-
mune plays a central role, is therefore well suited to Burkina Faso’s decentralization strat-
egy. The commune is recognized as the entity responsible for water supply. One of the main
water reform objectives in Burkina Faso is to accomplish the transfer of water supply infra-
structure to the communes. The central government transfers water supply and sanitation
competences and infrastructure to the communes. However, even though the communes
have been assigned the role of contracting authority, the process of decentralization is still in
progress and financial, material and human resources have yet to be effectively transferred
from the central to the local government in order to enable the communes to fulfil their role
as contracting authority. This is a common issue in many countries in the process of de-
centralization, and efforts must be made to develop new financing tools that would allow
local authorities to fully play their part in the management of rural water supply projects and
services.

Involving the private sector should not only be a policy principle, but a reality on
the ground
The private sector plays an important role in all the case studies analyzed. The Senegal wa-
ter reform entails greater involvement of the private sector for the supply of goods and serv-
ices (e.g. pump attendant, network operator, replacement of spare parts). However, partici-
pation of the private sector is still limited. In general, the weak profitability of infrastructure
maintenance and operation activities is mentioned as a factor limiting private sector involve-
ment. The possibility of combining several water systems or facilities and forming pack-
ages comprising profitable and unprofitable facilities to be managed by private operators

19
Key ingredients for success

is currently being discussed among water experts. The Burkina Faso water reform explicitly
aims at supporting the emergence of private operators (for management and maintenance
of the facilities). The Tanzania case also shows that, in order to enable a larger number of
private initiatives to develop, a conducive environment should be created in which such ini-
tiatives are encouraged and, at the same time, properly monitored. Reducing fiscal charges,
exempting taxes even temporarily, decreasing water tariff subsidies, and partly taking over
extension costs could enhance the attractiveness for the private sector.

No successful model without capacity building and professional support

Capacity building is a crucial issue to tackle in order to improve the management of water
services, regardless of the type of management model. In the case of Senegal, professional
support is limited but the Ministry trains the pump attendants during a six-month mandatory
training program at the national training centre). Moreover, support can be provided by NGOs.
However, management skills among the Borehole Users Association (ASUFOR) members
are still weak and there is a lack of capacity at the level of the local branch of the Ministry.
In Burkina Faso, the Regional Directorate of Agriculture, Water Resources, and Fisheries
(DRAHRH) provides technical support to the communes, but strengthening the capacity of the
municipal authorities and Water Users’ Associations (WUAs), as well as finding a sustainable
mechanism for advising the municipalities and private operators, are challenges that should
be tackled. Involving NGOs could help to strengthen DRAHRH support and also extend it to
service providers. In Kosovo, where capacity at local level is also weak, a promising feature is
the existence of an association of regional water utilities (SHUKOS), a lobbying organization
providing technical support to the RWCs. The example of Weinfelden also shows the benefit
of an association of water network caretakers providing training and opportunities for knowl-
edge exchange. Small-scale private initiatives are usually characterized by a lack of support in
technical and administrative issues. Support in fund management and system maintenance for
example is particularly needed.

Covering replacement and extension costs, a key issue for the sustainability of
services
In most cases, external dependency for the replacement of long-term assets or system
extension is considered as one of the threats. This issue is particularly critical in the case
of small-scale private initiatives as earnings are usually not sufficient to cover renewal or
expansion costs. In some regions of Senegal, Federations of ASUFORs have been estab-
lished. Some of them set up mutual revolving funds – each ASUFOR pays a fee and can
access the fund in case of major breakdown or replacement need. It is also interesting to
note that Water Committees in Senegal have an impressive record of expanding networks
using their own funds. The Burkina Faso model suggests sharing the costs of infrastructure
replacement between central and local government. In addition, replacement and extension
costs are taken into account when setting the water tariff. As unserved areas represent an
additional market for operators, the delegated or privately-owned management models cre-
ate incentives for system extension.

There is a general trend towards more delegation

The case studies show a trend towards delegation. In Senegal for instance, rural water
supply services are managed by community associations, the ASUFORs. However, a
trend towards more delegation to the private sector, not only for maintenance, but also for
more comprehensive contracts (covering all operation and maintenance functions) can be
observed. This is considered as a way to professionalize the management of water serv-
ices. The strategy in Burkina Faso is clearly for the communes as focal points of the water
supply services to delegate management of the water services to water user associations
(for management of handpumps) or to the private sector (for management of networks and

20
 Key ingredients for success

maintenance of handpumps). As mentioned above, the legal framework can clarify delega-
tion arrangements, for example between the commune and WUAs (delegation convention)
or between the commune and private operators (lease contracts). The Kosovo case can also
be described as delegated management as regional water utilities are in charge of managing
the water supply services on behalf of the municipalities.

The demand of rural users is evolving towards higher levels of service – including
users in rural areas
The demand in rural areas is evolving at different rates, depending on the country, but glo-
bally the trend seems to be the same: more networks and fewer handpumps. There is a
strong demand for a better level of service, and when a network already exists, users are in-
terested in increasing the number of house connections. The only limitations seem to be the
capacity to pay and the sustainability of the service offered by networks. This trend is likely
to reduce the market share of handpumps so that they will probably be increasingly limited
to scarcely populated areas or very small villages. The Government of Mauritania decided
in 2006 that the new objective for the sector was to build networks in all settlements of
more than 500 inhabitants, a policy orientation that is questionable in terms of sustainability
but reflects the current trend in the demand of rural water users. The Senegal case tends
to prove that the multi-village scheme (most small pipe networks in Senegal serve several
villages) is emerging as an alternative to the traditional rural water supply system normally
reserved for small rural communities, and making this alternative economically viable.

The handpump “system” becomes increasingly difficult to sustain and has

already collapsed in some countries
The failure of the handpump approach has been documented in a number of studies (Parry-
Jones, 2001 or Desille, 2004). There are several reasons for this failure; the most important
ones relate to the evolution of the users’ demand (see above), the very low cash flow gener-
ated by the spare parts resale business (the private sector is not interested in this activity)
and the difficulty of creating a market that could allow a mechanic to earn his/her livelihood
from handpump maintenance. Rural dwellers in Mauritania show more interest in wells than
in handpumps (Desille, 2004). In this context, after the failure or limited success of almost all
the models that have been tried so far (Village-Level Operation and Maintenance, total war-
ranty, etc.), the challenge consists of finding new ways of dealing with handpumps, including
permanent subsidizing mechanisms. In Burkina Faso, the rural water supply management
models take into account the specificities of both systems: handpumps and networks. Net-
work operators are given the opportunity of managing and maintaining handpumps in their
areas of operation.

21
References

References

Baumann, E. (2009). May-day! May-day! Our handpumps are not working! Rural Water Sup-
ply Network publication; www.rwsn.ch.

Brand A. P. (2004). Decentralization of rural water and sanitation services. New roles for rural
water associations and boards in Honduras. Field Note. Ed. WSP & SDC.

Carter, R. (2009). Operation and Maintenance of Rural Water Supplies - Challenging

the community-based O&M paradigm. Rural Water Supply Network publication;
www.rwsn.ch.

Desille, D. (coord.), Mokhtar Ould N’Taghri, M., Aly Moulaye Zeine, S. and Valfrey, B. (2004).
Etude sur la problématique du service de l’eau et de la maintenance des pompes à
motricité humaine en Mauritanie. Programme Eau et Assainissement, Dakar.

DWD (2004). Uganda National Framework for Operation and Maintenance of Rural Water
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Harvey, P. (2009). Sustainable Operation and Maintenance of Rural Water Supplies:

Are we moving in the right direction? Rural Water Supply Network publication;
www.rwsn.ch.

Hydroconseil (2009). Case studies on the potential of the private sector in rural water supply
(Niger, Cambodia, Senegal, Paraguay, Rwanda & Burkina Faso). Unpublished report
for WSP.

Koestler, L. (2008). Private Sector Involvement in Rural Areas: Case Studies from Uganda. In:
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Parry-Jones, S., Reed, R. A. and Skinner, B. H. (2001). Sustainable Handpump Projects in

Africa. A literature review. WEDC, Loughborough University.

Ringskog, K. (2003). Municipal Water Departments. Management Models Study. Town WSS
Initiative, BNWP Project #43, Banque Mondiale, Washington.

Saladin, M. (2002). Community Water Supply in Switzerland - what can we learn from a cen-
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Satterthwaite, D. (2003). Towns: their under-appreciated demographic, economic and social

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Savina, A., Valfrey, B. and Vézina, M. (2002). La gestion du service de l’eau dans les petites
villes, actes de la rencontre inter-Etats de Nouakchott. Ed. pS-Eau / WBI / WSP

Schmidt, W-P., and Cairncross, S. (2009). Household Water Treatment in Poor Populations:
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pp 986–992.

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de succès des systèmes multi-villages au Sénégal. Field note. WSP, Washington.

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Field Note.

22
 ANNEX A

ANNEX A
Case studies

23
The Burkina Faso case

Annex A1 The Burkina Faso case: A sector reform

towards delegated management

A1.1 Institutional arrangements, main actors and features

Burkina Faso has made significant efforts to provide each village and each neighbourhood
with modern water points. According to the national survey carried out in 2005, there were
around 48,000 facilities: handpumps (HP) fitted on boreholes (60%), modern large diameter
wells (35%), and simplified water supply systems (small networks) and autonomous water
stations (SWSS/AWS) (5%) equipped with solar or thermal pumping stations for large villag-
es. Prior to the reform, the predominant management model was community-based (Water
Point Committees, repair artisans, spare parts stock agents).
According to studies on water supply facilities, the average failure rates for handpumps and
simplified water supply systems are 23% and 65%, respectively. This unacceptable situa-
tion is partly caused by the water supply management system. Limitations of the community
management model include:
n malfunctioning management structures resulting from voluntary work and lack of
control,
n insufficient financial mobilization to cover maintenance and replacement costs, and
n the weak profitability of infrastructure maintenance and operation activities.

In order to overcome these limitations, the water supply sub-sector in rural and semi-urban
areas embarked on a Reform of the management system aiming at guaranteeing the sus-
tainability of investments (pumps, simplified water supply systems and autonomous water
stations). The main reform objectives are to
n transfer water supply infrastructure to the communes (decentralization),
n support the emergence of private operators in water supply (management and
maintenance of the facilities),
n reduce the Government expenditures,
n create Water User Associations in each village,
n manage in an integrated way the water facilities of the village.

In the new decentralization scheme, rural communes are at the core of the management
system. Central Government transfers competences and facilities to the communes. They
delegate management of the water services to water user associations (for management
of handpumps) or to the private sector (for management of simplified water supply systems
and handpump maintenance). Water user associations (WUAs) are constituted at the level
of a village or sector and are in charge of managing handpumps in an integrated way and
defending the common interests of the users.
In order to bring about the targeted improvements, communes, WUAs, repair artisans, and
private operators have to fulfil their roles. Moreover, the central government must also play
its part in assisting the communes in their function of contracting authority. It must further
ensure that communes become the focal point by transferring to them real decision-making
power regarding the management and implementation of new WS&S facilities.
The Reform implementation programme (2002-2009) has been realized in 33 communes and
developed the tools needed for replication of these changes in the entire country.

24
 The Burkina Faso case

A1.2 Stakeholders’ functions

Stakeholders Users Community Private actors Local National International

government government actors

- WUA - Operator - Municipal - DRAHR - Bilateral

- Manager - Maintenance official - Ministry cooperation
worker - Municipal (MAHRH) - ONG
council

Functions HP SWSS HP SWSS HP SWSS HP SWSS HP SWSS HP SWSS

Ownership X X

Management of funds X X X X

Tariff setting X X

Regulation X X

Controlling / Reporting X X X X X X

Operation X X

Maintenance X X

Replacement X X X X X X

External support X X X X

Notes: DRAHRH Regional Directorate of Agriculture, Water Resources, and Fisheries (Directions Régionales de l’Agriculture,
de l’Hydraulique et des Ressources Halieutiques), HP handpumps fitted on boreholes, MAHRH Ministry of Agriculture, Water
Resources, and Fisheries (Ministère de l’Agriculture de l’Hydraulique et des Ressources Halieutiques), SWSS simplified water
supply systems/autonomous water stations, WUA Water User Association

A1.3 Stakeholders’ map

A1.3.1 Handpumps
In the case of handpumps, the Reform does not call into question the community manage-
ment model but attempts to improve it by
n assigning the role of contracting authority to the commune that will be in charge of
contracting one or more maintenance workers for monitoring and maintaining the
handpumps
n establishing Water User Associations (WUAs) in each village or sector to which water
services will be delegated by municipal authorities and who will manage handpumps in
an integrated way.
n setting up a control mechanism through the WUAs and maintenance workers for
the following tasks: water fee payment (according to volume or as a fixed fee) and
harmonization of handpump management at the level of a village.

25
 The Burkina Faso case

The central government transfers water supply and

sanitation competences and infrastructure to the
communes. They delegate the management of water
services (handpumps) to legally recognized WUAs
representing the village or sector population through a
handpump management delegation convention.
The WUA gathers representatives of each village neigh-
bourhood and is led by an executive committee elected
in the General Assembly. The WUA manages the water
service – all handpumps in the village – in an integrated
way and mutualises the water fee revenue to ensure
maintenance and replacement of handpumps.
The handpump managers (water point committee or
any other natural person or legal entity mandated by
the WUA) ensure water point management. They sell
water to the users according to the water tariff and
modalities defined by the WUA (on the basis of the
communal decision on water price) to whom they have
to transfer the revenue. A collaboration protocol be-
tween the WUA and the handpump managers defines
their respective obligations.
The commune hires one or more regionally author-
ized maintenance workers (according to the number of
pumps and their types) on the basis of a price offer and
signs with them a communal handpumps monitoring
and maintenance contract. The commune remuner-
ates their monitoring rounds (with the WUA license fee)
and the WUA covers repair costs.
The Reform implementation programme has shown
that the price of a monitoring round varies between
3000 and 4000 FCFA per handpump. It recommends
conducting two rounds per handpump each year. This
can be used as the basis for determining the fee to be
paid by the WUAs to the commune.
The commune sets the water price. This should include
HP maintenance costs, maintenance workers’ monitor-
ing rounds, HP managers’ allowances, WUA’s oper-
ating costs, and HP replacement costs. The Reform
implementation programme recommends generating at
least 75,000 FCFA per year for a handpump being used
by 300 people, corresponding to approximately 2500
FCFA per household each year. However, it suggests
WUAs should set the payment modalities to take into
account local practices.

Handpump in action, Nagréongo, Burkina Faso. © G. Aubourg / pS-Eau

26
 The Burkina Faso case

A1.3.2 Simplified water supply systems

and autonomous water stations
(SWSS/AWS)
In the case of small piped water systems or autono-
mous water stations, the Reform excludes the commu-
nity management model and recommends delegating
management to a competent private operator. The
Reform comprises the following points:
The central government transfers competences and
infrastructure in the field of water supply and sanitation
to the communes. The communes delegate manage-
ment of water services to a professional private op-
erator hired by the commune on the basis of a service
offer by means of a lease contract.
WUAs are not in charge of managing the water serv-
ices but ensure the control of public water services
(equity, quality, availability, and accessibility).
The operator manages all SWSS/AWS located in the
area of the communes with which he has signed a
contract. He ensures water production and delivery to
the users, equipment maintenance according to the
contract with the commune, and financial management
of the system.
The commune sets the maximum water price (often
500 FCFA/m3). This price comprises operating costs
and possibly also a communal tax. The operator pays a
monthly fee (according to the volume sold) to the com-
mune to cover replacement costs of short-term (< 15
years) installations and reinforcement or extension of
installations.

27
 The Burkina Faso case

A1.4 Strengths and weaknesses

Area Strengths Weaknesses

Economic Transparency of tariff setting (handpump Weak profitability of management and
model) maintenance tasks: lack of incentive for the
Gradual transfer of costs (to avoid putting a private sector
burden on operator)
Financing of infrastructure replacement is
shared between central and local government
Institutional Strong legal framework (actors’ responsibilities Incomplete decentralization (insufficient
clearly defined) transfer of money)
Decentralization is a national strategy: Local government not involved in handpump
commune’s responsibility regarding water replacement
supply is recognized. Insufficient effectiveness of DRAHRH to
Regulation and control of service providers support communes
Environmental Environmental aspects are not yet taken into
account
Knowledge Decentralised administration (DRAHRH)
provides technical support to the communes
Capacity building for communities
Technical Quality control of service providers Large variety of handpump models within
(certification of repair artisans, maintenance the same area: challenge regarding technical
workers and small network managers) know-how and financial mobilization
Existence of service for preventive
maintenance
Incentive for upgrading (political, commercial)
Social Handpumps: high degree of user ownership Small networks: low level of user ownership
Empowerment of user groups through WUAs Decreasing role of WUAs
Equity of service (access for all) Users not involved in tariff setting
Willingness to pay

A1.5 Model performance

Criteria Rating Comments

Financial and management J WUAs are independent in managing cash flow, recruiting staff and paying O&M
autonomy costs (except for maintenance workers who are hired and paid by the communes)

Demand responsiveness J Local government is responsive to community needs and possibilities; organized
consumers control service quality (transparency)

Incentives for expansion J Unserved areas represent an additional market for operators, communes should
use part of the operator fee for extension

Professional support K Technical support from the DRAHRH to the communes. However, effectiveness
should be enhanced, possibly through NGO support, and extended to service
providers

Regulation J Strong legal framework, regulation and control of service providers. In the case of
small networks, WUAs control service provided by operator

Transparency and K Water service is managed in a transparent way, control by WUAs (transparency)
accountability

28
 The Burkina Faso case

A1.6 Conclusions
This model, in which the commune plays a central role, is well suited to Burkina Faso’s de-
centralization strategy. The commune is recognized as the entity responsible for water sup-
ply. However, the process of decentralization is still in progress and financial, material and
human resources must be effectively transferred from central to local government in order
to enable the communes to fulfil their role of contracting authority. The DRAHRH provides
technical support to the communes but reinforcing the capacity of the municipal authori-
ties and WUAs, as well as finding a sustainable mechanism for advising the municipalities
and private operators, are challenges that should be tackled. Involving NGOs could help to
strengthen DRAHRH support and also extend it to service providers.
The responsibilities of each stakeholder are clearly defined in contracts, conventions or
protocols. The regulation and control of services provided are based on these contractual
documents. Moreover, the mechanism of certification enables the evaluation of the technical
and financial capacities of potential service providers (repair artisans, maintenance workers,
and network managers).
With regard to water networks, the current trend is for one operator to take over network
construction, management and maintenance based on a longer-term contract with the com-
munes (7 years). Network operators are given the opportunity to manage and maintain hand-
pumps in their areas of operation.
One of the challenges is to make this work attractive to the private sector, as the profitability
of management and maintenance of water supply infrastructure is still weak. This could be
done for example by reducing fiscal charges, exempting taxes (even temporarily), decreas-
ing water tariff subsidies, and partly taking over extension costs. Moreover, ways to finance
the renewal of infrastructure and equipment should be evaluated.
Cooperation between communes enables economies of scale, sharing means and risks, but
it also represents a challenge with regard to operation and organization. Principles and regu-
lations for management models involving a group of communes should therefore be further
developed.
In this transition between community and delegated management, care must be taken to
maintain effective user representation in the new management models.

29
The Kosovo case

Annex A2 The Kosovo case: Management delegation to

regional water utilities

A2.1 Institutional arrangements, main actors and features

The water sector in Kosovo has undergone significant changes since the 1999 conflict.
Water supply used to be managed by 35 municipal water utilities mainly covering urban
areas. The water supply reform introduced in 2002 by the Kosovo Trust Agency (KTA)
– the UN interim government’s agency responsible for water supply in Kosovo – resulted in
the merging of the 35 utilities into 7 Regional Water Companies (RWCs). External donor
funding enabled the construction of around 150 water supply systems in various villages.
However, achieving sustainable management of these rural water supply systems remains a
challenge.
The RWCs have often been reluctant to incorporate these new water supply systems due to
the difficulty of obtaining payment from the users. The systems have therefore often been
left in the hands of local government. Municipalities, however, do not have the necessary
capacity to manage and maintain them. This has resulted in village residents being respon-
sible for maintaining their water systems until adequate and professional maintenance can
be put in place.
Following Kosovo’s independence, KTA was disbanded in June 2008, and a new framework
is currently being established. According to OSCE, “it remains to be seen what effect the
closure of the Kosovo Trust Agency, i.e. the withdrawal of the only international regulatory
institution supervising the water sector in Kosovo, will have on the level of functioning and
professionalism of the regional water management after June 2008.” Responsibility for wa-
ter utilities is now with the new Kosovar institutions, currently the Ministry of Economy and
Finance. However, in the longer term, municipalities are likely to be responsible for water
utilities.
In order to ensure professional management and maintenance of the rural water supply
systems, as well as to guarantee access to safe and affordable drinking water, a new man-
agement model has been developed in the South East of Kosovo. It consists of entrusting
licensed RWCs with the management and maintenance of the rural water supply systems.
A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) has been formulated to establish the rules for
incorporation of the rural water supply systems into the RWCs. It defines roles and respon-
sibilities of each stakeholder – municipality, RWC, and village water users – who must all
sign it. The MoU specifies that the RWC will take over system maintenance while the benefi-
ciaries will pay for water consumed according to water meter readings. The municipality is
responsible to ensure that both parties (RWC and village users) respect the agreement.
One of the standards set by the RWCs regarding rural water supply is to reach a fee collec-
tion rate of at least 80%. A lower rate would not allow RWCs to have the financial capacity
to maintain the water supply systems. In villages where the MoU has been signed, the 80%
benchmark has been successfully achieved.

30
 The Kosovo case

A2.2 Stakeholders’ functions

Stakeholders

Ministry of Economy and Finance

Water and Waste Regulatory

Ministry of Environment and

RWC’s Board of Directors
Regional Water Company

Institute of Public Health

Development banks
Spatial Planning
Village council

Municipalities
Household

SHUKOS

Donors
Office

NGOs
Functions
Planning X

Financing construction 25% 25% 50%

Water
Ownership Assets
resources

Operation
Construc- Constr. Constr.
Management of funds tion phase
Maintenance
phase phase
Extension

National
Tariff setting tariffs

National
Water Water
Regulation MoU MoU MoU legal
quality resources
framework

Controlling / Reporting X X

Operation X

Maintenance X

Replacement / Extension X

Lobby,
External support advice
Advice Advice Advice

A2.3 Stakeholders’ map

Currently, four Ministries are involved in the water supply sector:
n Ministry of Economy and Finance (Management of the Regional Water Companies)
n Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning (Owner of Water Resources / Law on
Water Resources)
n Ministry of Health (Setting and controlling of quality standards through Institute of Public
Health)
n Ministry of Local Government (Responsible for Municipalities)

The Water and Waste Regulatory Office is an independent body responsible for tariff set-
ting, licensing public companies providing water, monitoring the performance of RWCs, and
reporting to the national parliament.

31
The Kosovo case

The Municipalities are in charge of prepar-

ing and implementing the local development
plans, including for the WS sector. The rep-
resentatives are elected by the citizens. The
main task of the municipalities is to provide
services to the citizens. They collect taxes
that are used for capital investments. Mu-
nicipalities are owners of the assets (WS
infrastructure). About 25% of the investments
for construction in the WS sector are covered
by the municipalities (there is no contribution
from central government).
The Regional Water Companies are in
charge of the management, operation and
maintenance of WS infrastructure. They are
contracted (and licensed) for a certain period
by the Water and Waste Regulatory Office.

32
 The Kosovo case

A2.4 Strengths and weaknesses

Area Strengths Weaknesses

Economic RWCs have one common source of funds No participation of users in tariff setting
Lack of transparency regarding planning of
extensions
Institutional Existence of legal framework (incl. ownership and Relationship between the municipalities and the
roles) RWCs (the Ministry of Economy and Finance
Availability of “Strategy of Water and Health” manages the RWCs, not the municipalities)
(National Plan 2005-2015) Regulatory framework does not address the
Availability of mid-/long-term planning (-> local differences between the urban and rural situations
development plans) Lack of institutional capacity
Administrative flexibility allowing specific Low user influence. Very difficult to claim the right of
regulations (-> MoU between municipality, village access to safe water (especially for rural populations
council and RWC) and, in particular, for vulnerable people or groups)
Vulnerable people protected by the legal framework MoU does not define quality of service
Municipalities are represented in RWC’s Board of Reporting and documentation not in place yet
Directors
Knowledge Competence available (management, technical Weak local capacity
aspects)
Capacity building / lobbying organization
(SHUKOS)
Technical Availability of spare parts
Social Access for all Urban interests dominate
Social pressure for water fee payment Absence of pro-poor mechanism

A2.5 Model performance

Criteria Rating Comments

Financial and management J RWCs are independent in their management. They are advised and controlled by
autonomy the Board of Directors and by the WWRO.

Demand responsiveness L RWCs policy is to provide water for all. However, users are not represented in
the Board of Directors and there is no user association that could express a
demand

Incentives for expansion L RWCs now focus on urban areas. Expansion is hardly noticeable.

Professional support K SHUKOS (the RWC association) organizes training courses, workshops, etc.

Regulation K There is a regulatory body (WWRO) setting water tariffs, and licensing and
monitoring RWCs. However, this rather focuses on urban areas. In order to
fill this gap, the model presented developed a MoU between the RWC, the
municipality and the village council.

Transparency and K RWCs are monitored by WWRO, an independent body. However, rural water
accountability supplies are seldom managed by RWCs.

33
The Kosovo case

A2.6 Conclusions
The post-conflict institutional framework puts the Regional Water Companies at the core of
the water sector. They are responsible for management, operation and maintenance of wa-
ter supply systems. However, they mainly cover urban areas and are reluctant to take over
rural water supplies due to the difficulty in collecting water fees. Rural water supplies are
therefore often managed by village residents. In order to improve rural water supply, a new
framework has been introduced in the South-East of Kosovo. It is based on a Memorandum
of Understanding between the RWC, the municipality and the village council. It specifies the
roles and responsibilities of each party. It states that the RWC will maintain the system if a
collection rate of at least 80% is reached.
The main strengths of this water supply management model are the existence of a legal
framework clearly defining the roles and responsibilities of the various stakeholders, mid-
/long-term planning (local development plans) that includes water supply, an independent
regulatory body, a lobbying organization (SHUKOS: RWCs’ association) providing technical
support to the RWCs, a legal framework protecting vulnerable people, and social pressure
to pay the water fees based on the 80% collection target specified by the MoU. The main
weaknesses are the fact that the MoU does not specify the quality of the service to be pro-
vided, the lack of involvement of civil society actors, and the fact that the role of municipali-
ties appears to be weakened in the new water framework (in development since the KTA
withdrawal in June 2008) as the Ministry of Economy and Finance is now responsible for the
RWCs.
The preparation of the post-KTA water framework represents a good opportunity for extend-
ing aspects of the MoU to the national level (RWCs taking over the maintenance of rural
water supply systems), creating incentives for system extension, reviewing the tariff setting
procedure to enable cross-subsidizing of rural water supply systems, enabling civil society
actors to be involved in the water sector and participate in the decision-making process,
promoting employment and income generation (for example by using local human resources
in rural areas for operation and maintenance), improving coordination of external support
agencies, and promoting decentralization of service delivery (through stronger involvement
of municipalities).

34
 The Tanzania case

Annex A3 The Tanzania case: Private initiatives to

provide water services

A3.1 Institutional arrangements, main actors and features

In general, private initiatives to provide water services develop where public water supplies
do not exist. Private entrepreneurs selling water often have in common that they:
n are respected members of society,
n took the initiative to improve the water supply system,
n did this with very little support from the government agencies,
n invested their own money,
n make a (modest) profit,
n employ caretakers,
n and do not attempt to maximize profits.

Current problems are

n lack of security for their business. If the government or an NGO steps in, the business
might be endangered
n earnings are not sufficient to cover renewal or expansion costs
n the entrepreneurs could stop anytime, leaving the consumers without a supply.

Reaching 100% water coverage is an enormous task. The question is whether private Kennedy Masinga, owner of a
ownership and management is a viable alternative for effectively increasing coverage. The water point in Tanzania
potential of small-scale private providers is analyzed here, based on the case of Kennedy © Skat

Masinga in Berege, a rural village of Mpwapwa District in Tanzania.

A3.2 Stakeholders’ functions

Stakeholders

National Ministry
Private supplier

District Water
Village Water

Entrepreneur
Government

Department
Committee

of Water
Village
User

Functions
Ownership X
X
X
Management of funds Manage-
Rehab. Fund
ment, O&M
Advises on Approves
Tariff setting
tariff tariff
Policy
Regulation
Regulation
Controlling / Reporting Monitoring
Operation X
Service
Maintenance X repairs,
spare parts
Replacement / Extension X
External support

35
 The Tanzania case

A3.3 Stakeholders’ map

A3.4 Strengths and weaknesses

Area Strengths Weaknesses

Economic No subsidies Difficult access to capital
Cheaper & better than carrying water by No credit available for upgrading (renewal) of
donkey the system
Economically viable Weak financial framework
Income generation
Institutional Tariff set in consultation with water committee No quality control (water, facilities)
and village government No auditing of village share of the water
Contract between village government and income
entrepreneur Risk that initiative might be killed in future
Non-existing government function fulfilled when an NGO or the government again brings
water to the village
Weak legal framework
Lack of transparency, accountability
Lack of legitimate user representation
Dependency on one person
Limited scope for scaling-up and extension
Environmental Weak environmental framework
Knowledge Weak or little support in technical and
administrative issues
Technical Technology OK, supply chain possible, O&M Pump and engine very old
is done, extension possible
Adapted to the context
Social Social profile of entrepreneurs
Social control
Demand-responsive
Access for all, pro-poor, poor get water free

36
 The Tanzania case

A3.5 Model performance

Criteria Rating Comments

Financial and management J Entrepreneur is completely independent in his management (managing cash flow,
autonomy paying O&M costs, etc.)

Demand responsiveness J This model encourages the entrepreneur to meet the users’ demands.

Incentives for expansion L Earnings are not sufficient to cover extension costs.

Professional support L Professional support (for technical and administrative issues) is weak.

Regulation K Tariff is set in consultation with water committee and village government, there
is a contract between village government and entrepreneur, but weak legal,
financial and environmental framework.

Transparency and L Lack of transparency and accountability

accountability

A3.6 Conclusions
The Tanzania case shows that the model works despite all the weak points! However, it
needs an entrepreneur with initiative who is willing to provide a service to the community
and at the same time wants to make a living from his work and investment.
Because it is a personal initiative it cannot be initiated from outside, however if a conducive
environment can be created in which such initiatives are encouraged and at the same time
properly monitored, a larger number of local businessmen/women might take up water sup-
ply as a business.
Process steps for the implementation of small-scale providers and potential support are
summarized below:

Process steps Challenges Possible support

1. Get “inspired” We need more investors General business and management training
Consider multiple use of water (e.g. income Information campaigns that show that private
from sales of water for irrigation could be used service provision is viable
for drinking water)
2. Develop a business plan The enabling framework is necessary Hydrogeological maps will be helpful
The water context (water source and water A policy dialogue on different political levels
quality, available and affordable technology) is is necessary
important Business plan competitions or least subsidy
Low entrepreneurial skills might be a big chal- tenders are ideas for the future
lenge
3. Convince the community/ How to market the idea?
municipality
4. Find funding Legal status of service provider is crucial (as Consider:
well as) Investment grant,
Access to financial services Meso-Credit (see e.g. www.myC4.com)
Remittances from abroad
Basket funds for private operators
5. Contract with community/ Transparency and representation are important Capacity building of the community might be
municipality points to consider necessary
A contract might facilitate getting funding

37
 The Tanzania case

Process steps Challenges Possible support

6. Invest to build the Consider a continuous source of energy (for Professional trade associations might play a
infrastructure pumping) role
Supervise construction to secure quality Debt relief for failed entrepreneurs might help
them
7. Manage money Seasonal demand must be taken care of, cash Capacity building!
flow problems Technical support from technical department
in government
Monitoring water use, environment and quality
8. Maintain the system Environmental issues and water quality are Capacity building!
challenges
9. Scale up Water users’ interests determine further action Public-private hand washing campaign as a
Convince donors to finance media campaigns model?

38
 The Weinfelden / Switzerland case

Annex A4 The Weinfelden / Switzerland case: A

municipality-owned utility in charge of the
water supply network

A4.1 Institutional arrangements, main actors and features

Weinfelden is a small town of about 10,000 inhabitants in the north-eastern part of Switzer-
land near to Lake Constance. Administratively Weinfelden is a municipality with a municipal
assembly of 30 members (elected for four years) as its legislative body. In the municipal-
ity, electricity, natural gas, communication services and drinking water are provided by the
Technische Betriebe Weinfelden (TBW), a multi utility company, organised in 2002 as a
public enterprise under private law with a share capital of 5 million Swiss Francs and fully
owned by the municipality. The 35 staff of TBW are responsible to ensure the water supply
in the municipality for 365 days a year and 24 hours a day. During the concession period
the TBW has the exclusive right to operate the water supply, together with private sector
providers. In return, they are obliged to serve all living and working areas in Weinfelden. The
TBW can define the water price, but it has to be endorsed by the municipal council. The
TBW is obliged to inform the municipality about all operations related to water supply.
The first water supply network was established at the end of the 19th century by a water
committee. Once the system was built, the water committee was dissolved and the whole
project handed over to the municipal administration. At that time TBW was organised as
the technical operations unit of the municipality. To meet the increasing demand, more res-
ervoirs and pumps were installed, leading to a decrease in groundwater level, putting the
supplies of neighbouring communities at risk. It was therefore decided in 1964 to create a
regional water supply organisation – a network of several villages managing the regional
water resources - to ensure that the most
feasible water sources are developed for the
group of communities (having about 30,000
inhabitants).
Before the reorganisation in 2002, the water
supply facilities were fully integrated in the
municipal administration. Daily politics influ-
enced the work heavily. Sometimes decisions
were taken by administrators and politicians
without the necessary experience and know-
how. The political processes caused signifi-
cant delays, hampering management. Long-
term planning was difficult because politicians
are elected for four year terms and every four
years the staff were given new instructions. In
order to allow for more autonomy and proac-
tive decision-making on charges in a dynamic
market, TBW was reorganised into a public
enterprise. Now the whole infrastructure has
been transferred to the new organisation. If
the TBW should become insolvent, the water
supply infrastructure would revert to the mu-
nicipality. UV water treatment plant
Burg Hard
© Technische Betriebe Weinfelden AG

39
 The Weinfelden / Switzerland case

A4.2 Stakeholder’s functions

Stakeholders

Municipality (Municipal

Regional water supply

Fire Insurance Bureau

National government
Technische Betriebe

State water analysis

laboratory (Canton)

protection agency
Weinfelden (TBW)
Service suppliers

Environmental
Households

Industries

(Canton)

(Canton)
council)

body
Functions
Planning X X
Financing construction X X X
Ownership (OS) X
Managing funds X X X
X
Setting tariff approves
tariff
Water
Regulating X X
quality
Reporting X
Operation X
Maintenance X X
Replacement X X
External support

A4.3 Stakeholders’ map

The main stakeholders in Weinfelden and their interactions. Source: Saladin, 2002

40
 The Weinfelden / Switzerland case

The TBW is the most important stakeholder for the water supply of Weinfelden. It is (by
concession) the legal owner of the network from the sources to the water meters. It is also
responsible for the management, operation and maintenance of the network. The person
responsible for the water supply network was originally a member of the community who
had no specialist technical knowledge and who was elected by the communal assembly.
However, nowadays, the caretaker is a highly specialized professional. Water meters in all
households are read twice a year by temporary staff hired for this purpose (mostly house-
wives). Households are charged for water according to their consumption. The manage-
ment of TBW consists of the director, the commercial director and the technical director.
The management is supervised by the board consisting of representatives of the municipal
assembly, the municipal council and selected other members. They are elected until they
resign and they are compensated for their work.
The regional water supply organisation is an association concerned with planning and
implementing a common water distribution network in the region. It was constituted by two
corporations (public water bodies outside the administration) and the municipal adminis-
trations of fourteen villages. The member villages paid for the construction of the regional
network and also split costs for the new infrastructure investments needed for the regional
network. The network consists of around 30 km of connecting pipes between the village
networks.
If the development of a new area is planned, the extension of the water supply network is
part of the planning procedure. Developers or their architects must submit their plans for
any new development to the TBW. The section decides on the technical details and charges
a one-time connection fee to the house owner based on the plot size. Once the house is
connected, ownership of the supply piping is transferred to the TBW which is then respon-
sible for operation and maintenance of the entire network.
The TBW reports to the municipality (municipal council). The council also approves the wa-
ter tariff and investments above a certain limit. The municipal council is elected by the citi-
zens. Citizens also have the possibility of influencing operations by making a complaint to
the municipal administration, for example if there is some concern about the water quality.
There are a number of private companies working in the water sector in the region. The
TBW mostly employs individual workers who are available when needed for repair jobs. As
required by quality management procedures, the workers must demonstrate their skills (by
means of certificates) before being engaged.
The process of industrialization was important for the water supply network in Weinfelden.
It enabled people to produce cast iron pipes, valves and pumps locally. Enterprise taxes
were an important source of income for the municipality, contributing to financing network
construction. Industrialization also created private wealth, which enabled the financing of the
start of the water supply network before the municipality stepped in.
The fire insurance bureau of the Canton (state), a semi-public institution, uses part of its
funds to subsidize the main distribution lines and reservoirs. It may cover 10-20% of the
capitall costs depending on the importance of a specific network component for fight-fight-
ing purposes.
There are two governmental organizations (at the level of the Canton) involved in the water
sector: the state water analysis laboratory and the environmental protection agency.
The laboratory is responsible for testing chemical and biological parameters of the water in
the supply network. The environmental protection department is responsible for the enforce-
ment of the groundwater protection regulations.

41
 The Weinfelden / Switzerland case

A4.4 Strengths and weaknesses

Area Strengths Weaknesses

Economic Fire insurance contributes to the financing of High costs
construction (US$800 connection fee + US$200 per flat;
US$125 yearly fee per flat + US$1.15 /m3)
Institutional Multi-utility (can use synergies to reduce
costs)
Technical Operations: lean staff structure (a
minimum of employees, additional tasks are
contracted)
Planning at regional level
Extension of water supply is integral part of
planning
Regulation: municipal council approves water
tariff and investments
Environmental Water quality control
Groundwater protection regulations enforced
Knowledge Personnel continuity
Regular training
Technical Quality control (certified qualifications needed
before engaging private suppliers)
Continuous network renewal (1-2% per year)
Social Citizens’ participation through municipal
council (elected by citizens) and direct
feedback
High level of public trust (direct contact with
customers)

A4.5 Model performance

Criteria Rating Comments

Financial and management J The Technical Operations unit is independent in its management (managing cash
autonomy flow, recruiting staff and contractors, paying for O&M costs)

Demand responsiveness J Direct contact between Technical Operations unit and customers (high public
trust), direct feedback from customers

Incentives for expansion J Water supply extension is an integral part of any new housing development plan

Professional support J Association of water network caretakers provides training and opportunities for
knowledge exchange

Regulation J Municipal council has to approve the water tariff, groundwater protection
regulations are enforced

Transparency and J Technical Operations unit is supervised by a committee which is elected by the
accountability village council.

42
 The Weinfelden / Switzerland case

A4.6 Conclusions
The factors of success identified in the Weinfelden water supply management model are:

Range of responsibilities of the Technische Betriebe Weinfelden: the combination of dif-

ferent tasks, in this case operation and maintenance of water, gas, electricity and television
cable networks, enables savings in time and energy.

Lean staff structure: the TBW employs only as many people as are needed to run the 24h
emergency operation plan (two people of the unit are specifically responsible for the water
supply network); contractors are hired for additional tasks.

Staff training: Staffs are trained in periodic courses by professional associations (Associa-
tion of Caretakers and Swiss Association for Gas and Water).

Standardized qualifications: Potential contractors have to show a qualification from a certi-

fied institution.

Continuous renewal of the network: Every year, 1-2% of the pipes are renewed in order to
keep water losses as low as possible.

Trust: All the TBW staff have direct contact with customers. Moreover, the unit organizes
guided tours around their facilities for schools and other interested institutions and groups.

Competition: Repairs and maintenance of house connections are carried out by small con-
tractors. The TBW contracts house connection repairs to the company which undertook the
initial construction of the house connection as the customers prefer to deal with only one
company. Competition amongst service provider is thus mainly based on quality of work and
reliability of service rather than on price.

Regional planning: There is a regional water supply organisation aiming at planning and
implementing a common water distribution network. This ensures that the most feasible
water sources are developed and made available to the group of communities, and costs
are shared.

In Switzerland, a decentralized system has been in place for a long time. Municipalities
therefore have the skills, as well as the financial and human resources necessary to man-
age their water supply systems. This model would thus be difficult to implement in a re-
gion where municipalities may have decision-making power but lack human and financial
resources to successfully manage their water supply system. Moreover, industrial develop-
ment played an important role in financing the system as enterprise taxes were an important
source of income for the municipality which could then use part of this income to subsidize
network construction.

43
44
 ANNEX B

ANNEX B
List of workshop participants

45
 List of workshop participants

Ttl. Firstname Lastname Institution E-mail 1

Mr. Md. Akhtaruzzaman WSP South Asia [email protected]

Mr. Khalid Azami Helvetas Afghanistan [email protected]

Mr. Erich Baumann Skat [email protected]

Mr. Jean Mathieu Bingbouré PAR [email protected]

Mr. Assefa Biru Ministry of Water Resources [email protected]

Ms. Sylvia Brunold Agridea [email protected]

Mr. Albert Bürgi Helvetas Zürich [email protected]

Mr. Francisco Carranza WSP Latin America [email protected]

Ms. Alice Chabi Guiya Helvetas Benin [email protected]

Mr. Yacouba Diallo Helvetas Mali [email protected]

Mr. Kaspar Grossenbacher Helvetas Zürich [email protected]

Mr. Reto Grüninger SDC Central America [email protected]

Mr. Hans Hartung FAKT [email protected]

Mr. Pierre-Olivier Henry SDC Mozambique [email protected]

Mr. Neil Herath Helvetas Sri Lanka [email protected]

Mr. Halidou Koanda CREPA Burkina Faso [email protected]

Ms. Ursula Kocher Caritas Switzerland [email protected]

Mr. Koussé Koné Helvetas Mali [email protected]

Mr. Tobias Mathis Lorenz Stiftung Wertevolle Zukunft [email protected]

Ms. Nicole Lovett Diageo [email protected]

Ms. Agnes Montangero Skat [email protected]

Mr. Chris Morger Intercooperation [email protected]

Mr. Christian Jaurès Mouloki Helvetas Burkina Faso [email protected]

Mr. François Münger SDC HQ [email protected]

Mr. Laurent Nicole Swiss Humanitarian Aid [email protected]

Mr. Olivier Normand International Secretariat for Water [email protected]

Mr. Jerome Rihouey WSP Africa [email protected]

Mr. Roger Schmid Skat [email protected]

Mr. Ahmad Shah Helvetas Afghanistan [email protected]

Mr. Ram Mani Sharma International Secretariat for Water [email protected]

Mr. Hendrik Smid Deutsche Welthungerhilfe [email protected]

Mr. Bruno Valfrey-Visser Hydroconseil [email protected]

Mr. Paul Van Beers WatSan Consult [email protected]

Mr. Antonio Manuel Vasco Helvetas Mozambique [email protected]

Mr. Astrit Vokshi Community Development Initiatives [email protected]

Mr. Christian Zurbrügg Eawag/Sandec [email protected]

46
“Is community management enough to sustain
the Millennium Development Goal efforts?”
This question was raised to initiate the debate
at the Aguasan Workshop 2008, a 5-day event
gathering water specialists and development
practitioners from all over the world. Although
the community management model is by far
the most widespread approach for rural water
supply services in low-income countries, it
has often failed to deliver the expected level
of sustainability. Hence there is a strong need
for re-examining the approach as well as for
investigating alternative management models.

This report synthesizes the main workshop

outcomes. It describes an analytical framework
that can be used to assess the potentials and
limitations of rural water supply management
models, as a first step towards enhancing the
sustainability of rural water supply services. It
also highlights key ingredients for success in
managing rural water supply services.