Leonardo Da Vinci Programme Responsible author:

Second Phase: 2000-2006 EURO INNOVANET (Rome)

Co-authors:
MU.S.EU.M. Project EIL (Edinburgh)
I/03/B/F/PP-154061 Printed on: 21-07-2004
Supply To: MU.S.EU.M Consortium &
Arrangements
Enriching CEC
Innovation
The MU.S.EU.M consortium

(1) Allaxia-Consiel
(2) National Museum of History of Sofia
(3) Naturhistorisches Museum- Prähistorische Abteilung of Vienna
(4) Museum für Vor-und Frühgeschichte of Berlin
(5) National Archaeological Museum Athens
(6) Budapest History Museum
(7) Comital Srl
(8) Euro Innovanet Srl
(9) Museo Nazionale Preistorico ed Etnografico L.Pigorini
(10) UIL
(11) Muzeul National de istorie a Romaniei of Bucharest
(12) University of Alba Julia “1 Decembrie 1918” University – Pre- and
Protohistorical Research Centre
(13) Eddleston Innovation Ltd

Status Confidentiality

[ ] Draft [ ] Public – for public use

[ ] Deliverable [ ] IST – for IST programme participants only
[ ] Report [ ] Restricted – MU.S.EU.M consortium & PO only

Project ID: I/03/B/F/PP-154061

Deliverable ID D2

Work-package Number WP 2

Title Building a virtual museum: reference patterns of

professional skills, training requirements, social
dialogue and equal opportunity in training
strategies
Abstract
Page Section Content

3 Executive summary

4 Introduction, purpose and structure

5 1 Definitions, classification and typologies

5 1.1 The Internet revolution on the sector
6 1.2 The impact of computer graphics and virtual reality
6 1.3 Digital museum, online museum or virtual museum?
9 1.4 Virtual museums as e-services
14 1.5 Definition and criteria for MUSEUM project

17 2 Objectives and goals of the virtual museums

17 2.1 Mission and main constraints for actual museums
17 2.2 The mission of museums transmuted by Internet
18 2.3 Preservation goals
19 2.4 Personalisation of the virtual museum and accessibility
20 2.5 Tasks of virtual museum

21 3 Functional profiles required by a virtual museum

21 3.1 The project leader
22 3.2 The computer based expert
23 3.3 The content expert
24 3.4 The Web experts: designer, developer, manager
25 3.5 E-learning expert
26 3.6 The financial manager
26 3.7 The communication expert
27 3.8 The framework of the professional profiles

29 4 Role and skills of the selected functional profiles

29 4.1 Training needs analysis
30 4.2 Virtual museum project training

32 5 Impacts and chances for equal opportunities

33 6 Effects on social dialogue in training strategies

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The report is part of the second phase of activity of the MUSEUM Project. It
clearly defines the nature and character of the virtual museum, which it does in
relation to other e-services and in particular to e-services delivered via the
Internet. It then unpacks the objectives and goals of a virtual museum and
examines their likely role in preserving knowledge, is dissemination in
personalised and accessible formats and channels.

The main content of this report is to prepare the ground for MUSEUM partners to
each begin piloting a virtual museum. It does this by analysing the functional
profiles in a virtual museum pilot team and how such a team might work in relation
to the parent museum. It identifies four key functional roles: project leadership,
computing expertise, content expertise and web expertise. These functions are
supported by seven areas of competence: photography, finance, e-learning, web
designer, web developer and web manager and communications. These four
major functions and seven support functions is not necessarily a full jobs, these
are simply the function necessary to undertake the virtual museum project and are
likely to be performed by recombining the function of existing staff and training.

The report details the Training Needs Analysis (TNA) approach to evaluating
training needs for the project and suggests ways in which shared e-learning can
support the virtual museum project.

The report concludes by summarising the potential beneficial impact of the project
on equal opportunities and social dialogue.
INTRODUCTION, PURPOSE AND STRUCTURE

Online information channels especially the Internet and multimedia technologies

are an important opportunity for public museums to widen their access and using
e-learning to increase exposure to culture. The MUSEUM project is an EU-funded
project aiming to help public museums migrate into virtual museums by supporting
the training of professional staff in relevant competences using a transnational
training network. It does this using the prehistory knowledge base and artefacts of
its partner museums in Rome, Athens, Berlin, Bucharest, Budapest, Prague, Sofia
and Vienna.

The purpose of this report is to outline the nature and character of the virtual
museum and suggest ways in which training contributes towards its
accomplishment. In doing so, the report the touches on areas of change
management, team working, web design, marketing, cataloguing and databases,
e-learning and training needs analysis.

Section one of the report considers the definition, classifications and typologies
relevant to scientifically defining the virtual museum. In section two the goals and
objectives of the virtual museum are discussed and analysed with a view to
evaluating the functions required in a project team delivering a virtual museum
project. Section three of the report details these functions identifying four key
functional roles: project leadership, computing expertise, content expertise and
web expertise; supported by seven areas of competence: photography, finance, e-
learning, web designer, web developer and web manager and communications. In
section four, the report suggests a training needs analysis approach to identifying
training needs in each museum and ways in which relevant transnational e-
learning can be organised. The report concludes by summarising the potential
beneficial impact of the project on equal opportunities and social dialogue.
1 Definitions, classification and typologies

1.1 The Internet revolution on the sector

The development of the Internet associated technological progress in computer

graphics and diffusion of information and communications technology (ICT)
networks is enabling innovative exploitation of cultural goods. Although in the past
some museums have been slow adapters of new technologies, many are now
eagerly embracing web-enabled ICTs as a useful instrument to develop new
modalities of supply of their cultural heritage, which after a first period of
experimentation is becoming the main way of provision of culture throughout the
world.

Internet technology diffusion allows the development of museum sites and their
increasing sophistication in terms of interactivity in augmenting culture, meaning
that traditional physical museums are progressively being complemented by new
approaches and offers via virtual museums. Particularly important are applications
enabling the access of museum-based artefacts and museum-generated
knowledge for e-learning and widened access.

Computerisation has a long history in museums for inventories and cataloguing

and in numerous disciplines (especially archaeology), computers are widely used
in the analysis of objects. Often, however, these traditional uses of computers in
museums have been restricted to off-line usage by researchers. For example,
before the recent expansion of Internet access, in the United Kingdom from the
eighties the use of networks by museums has been restricted to a sample of high-
level users like university departments with access to the UK joint Academic
Network (JANET).1 The current challenge for museums is to widen (socially and
physically) access and improve the quality of cultural heritage experienced by
virtual museum visitors.2 Within museums, Internet and digital imaging
technologies are now becoming disruptive technologies supporting an
exponentially expanding quality and quantity of access. In addition to the Internet,
other ICT-enabled cultural products (CD-Rom and DVD for example) allow an
increase of the market for museums and allowed new applications revolutionising
their approach towards computer-based service offers.

This transformation creates new challenges for museums, especially for copyright
and for the funding of museums (in the absence of clear business models to
supplement physical ticket sales). Such challenges accompany opportunities to
increase access especially for small institutions and those located outside of major
visitor centres.

1
Gordon S (1997) The virtual museum – who needs it Proceedings of
the 25th anniversary conference of CAA – Archaeology in the age
of Internet Birmingham April 1997. BAR International Series
1999.S.
2
Gordon (1997) ibid.
In summary, the Internet is a fertile environment for cultural goods, with the
number of sites offering such products rising dramatically, using some of the
modalities listed below.3

• Cultural institution’s homepages closely aligned to a physical museum.

• Exhibitions that are available only on-line.
• Sites offering the virtual reconstruction of specific issues/subjects.
• Communities of museums.
• Inventories and repositories of artefacts.
• Downloadable software supporting the interrogation of cultural heritage.

1.2 The impact of computer graphics and virtual reality

Computer graphics enchantment and virtual reality (VR) are also important support
technologies for virtual museums. VR is the array of technologies allowing users
to enter into an artificial environment, based on computer software. Like many
computing technologies, VR has its origins in military research – in this case the
operation of aeroplane instruments via a helmet sensitive to eye movement and
voice command. Currently VR enjoys increasing use in training simulation and
design and the entertainment and the cultural sectors.

VR technology has three elements.

• tracking sensors for the interaction human-computer

• a reality engine for creating the virtual environment
• visualisation tools allowing to get an image sensation of the reality engine
graphic computations.

1.3 Digital museum, online museum or virtual museum?

A museum is an institution that collects, studies, exhibits and conserves artefacts

and exhibits for cultural and educational purposes. Originally funded by wealthy
individuals or church and royal organisations, the emphasis in the activity of
museums during the twentieth century began to place more emphasis upon public
access and to include everyday items in addition to rare or precious objects. Open
access and interest in social evolution widens the variety of museums to include
open air and mobile exhibitions in addition to grand buildings. Conventionally
museums specialise in art (Louvre, Prado, Uffizi, Tate, Guggenheim and
Pompidou), history (Budapest National and Versailles) or science (British, Mexico
City and Deutsches) – though many museums now avoid these distinctions and
folk or social museums tend to thematise social trends. Many museums now seek

3
More than 10,000 all over Europe and more than 3,000 in Italy Kim
H. Veltman (2002) – European Networks of Excellence and
Japanese/Unesco Skill Roads
to attract visitors with entertaining and interactive exhibitions, flexibly designed to
target both scholarly and less erudite visitors. Such shifts in emphasis have
important implications for the curatorial staff, tending to widen the competence
base from collecting and cataloguing towards exhibiting and interactive displaying.
Given the variegated nature of museums, it is not possible to definitively
characterise the virtual museum, it is however possible to describe it.

By 2001, the official definition of Museum supplied by ICOM (International Council

of Museums) includes digital creative activity.4 Many terms are used
synonymously to describe these activities. Here, we avoid the term electronic
museum since it emphasises technological rather than its socio-technical
application. On-line museum describes Internet connectivity, without necessarily
indicating a high degree of interactivity. Whilst digital museum can be interpreted
as giving interactive access to the knowledge stored in a museum, there are many
forms of digital access that are neither remote or nomadic, thus the term is of
limited applicability. Aligning with the ICOM statue,5 we prefer the term virtual
museum since it distinguishes museum offers from those physically available, yet
4
Article 2 - definitions of the ICOM Statutes, amended by the 20th
General Assembly of ICOM, Barcelona, Spain, 6 July 2001.
5
A museum is a not-for-profit making, permanent institution in the
service of society and of its development, and open to the
public, which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and
exhibits, for purposes of study, education and enjoyment,
material evidence of people and their environment. The above
definition of a museum shall be applied without any limitation
arising from the nature of the governing body, the territorial
character, the functional structure or the orientation of the
collections of the institution concerned. In addition to
institutions designated as "museums" the following qualify as
museums for the purposes of this definition: natural,
archaeological and ethnographic monuments and sites and
historical monuments and sites of a museum nature that acquire,
conserve and communicate material evidence of people and their
environment; institutions holding collections of and displaying
live specimens of plants and animals, such as botanical and
zoological gardens, aquaria and vivaria; science centres and
planetary; non-profit art exhibition galleries; nature reserves;
international or national or regional or local museum
organisations, ministries or departments or public agencies
responsible for museums as per the definition given under this
article; non-profit institutions or organisations undertaking
conservation, research, education, training, documentation and
other activities relating to museums and museology; cultural
centres and other entities that facilitate the preservation,
continuation and management of tangible or intangible heritage
resources (living heritage and digital creative activity); such
other institutions as the Executive Council, after seeking the
advice of the Advisory Committee, considers as having some or all
of the characteristics of a museum, or as supporting museums and
professional museum personnel through museological research,
education or training. (ICOM Statutes, amended by the 20th
General Assembly of ICOM, Barcelona, Spain, 6 July 2001)
suggests a high degree of connectivity and interactivity coupled to a positive
migration of the physical museum into a virtually accessible form. The term is
democratic, in that under this terminology many small or specialist exhibitor
become included under the umbrella term museum – taking it back to its original
Greek meaning of a store of knowledge designed to promote conceptual enquiry.

This characterisation of the virtual museum closely aligns with the recent work of
Forte (2003) on the cognitive impact of ICT upon cultural heritage. Forte (2000)
argues that without presentation in an information context, cultural goods revert to
objects of aesthetic contemplation.6 His view is that virtual access to cultural
goods can give greater control and access to information for the viewer, thus
enriching his/her cognitive interaction by reducing the barriers found in physical
museums. Thus, the virtual museum is cognitive space with the property of
rendering intelligible, (and potentially dynamic), its contents in the network of
relations reflecting or recreating their original context.

It is precisely the transacting of this intelligibility and (socially constructed) context,

which Davis argues virtualisation transforms from the offering of the tradition
(physical) museum.7 Thus, not only does the virtual museum invite visitors from
differing perspectives and levels of knowledge to construct different experiences of
a museum; the processes of virtualising, (as Garzotto, Mainetti, Paolini, 1996)
point out, is intrinsically one in which museums create flexible new contexts and
frameworks with which to exhibit objects. These new contexts and frameworks
include multimedia, logical and chronological linkages.8 The characterisation of
the virtual museum closely aligns with that of McKenzie (1997) who defines the
virtual museum as follows.

…. an organized collection of electronic artefacts and information

resources - virtually anything which can be digitized. The collection may
include paintings, drawings, photographs, diagrams, graphs, recordings,
video segments, newspaper articles, transcripts of interviews, numerical
databases and a host of other items which may be saved on the virtual
museum's file server. It may also offer pointers to great resources around
the world relevant to the museum's main focus….9

McKenzie (1997) goes on to differentiate two categories of virtual museum -

learning and marketing – based upon type of access.

6
Forte M, (2000) – About virtual archaeology: disorders, cognitive
interactions and virtuality.
7
B. Davis (1994) “Digital Museums”, in Aperture Magazine, Fall.
8
F. Garzotto, L. Mainetti, P. Paolini, (1996) Navigation Patterns
in Museum Hypermedia, International Conference on Hypermedia for
Museums, S. Diego (CA).
9
Jamie McKenzie (1997) – Building a Virtual Museum Community.
Paper presented to the “Museums & The Web Conference”, March 16-
19 1997, Los Angeles California.
• Learning museums - Based on web sites offering a wide knowledge base that
is aimed for multiple visits and in-depth studies.
• Marketing museums - Based on web sites developed with the main goal of
increasing the number of visits to the original museum and so offer information
on its activities, exhibitions and special events and usually have a virtual shop
too.

Whilst conceptually attractive, these distinctions seem rooted in differentiating the

quality of conceptual interaction and are less useful than Forte’s (2003) inclusive
approach based upon wide access, socially constructed learning environments.

1.4 Virtual museums as e-services10

We define e-commerce as commercially purposive systems or processes of

search, assessment and transactions, including post-transaction interactions,
enabled and supported by ICTs. In a variety of shapes and ratios, e-commerce
features physical and virtual constituents and its lifeblood are the communities of
customers and suppliers interconnected and interacting to constitute markets.
Connectivity and interactivity are fundamental features of e-commerce coupled to
a third feature agility - characteristics examined in detail below. It is worth noting
that e-commerce can involve interactions within and between at least three sets of
parties: private business (B), public administrations (PA) and consumers/citizens
(C). Figure 2 shows a classification of these types of interactions. Note that the
sequencing within titles is not important, thus PA2B equally represents B2PA.
Already the PA title is dated since it represents publicly funded not-for-profit
service traders. Since 20% of new employment in Europe is now in the important
third (or voluntary) sector, the PA category may require some re-designation.

B2B B2C B2PA PA2PA PA2C C2C

Business to Business to Business to Public Public Direct
business customers public administrationadministrationexchange
administrationto public to customers/ between
administrationcitizens consumers

Growth area, Mainly ‘buy,’ Public Joined-up- E-commerce, Consumer

currently 75%some ‘barter.’ tendering via government e-services andinitiated buys,
of value of Powerful for ecommerce, agenda. Alsotele- bids and
Internet information also paying foimportant in democracy barters with
ecommerce and difficult and accessingholistic and other
search/ PA services tointegrated ICT consumers.
assessment business innovation Often 25%
products planning commission.

10
See Kinder T, 2002, Emerging ecommerce business models: an
analysis of case studies from West Lothian, Scotland, European
Journal for Innovation Management, Vol. 5, No. 3, pg. 130 – 151.
 Figure 1: Spectrum of ecommerce business transactions

Commercial activities revolve around exchange, which decomposes into three

elements: search, assessment and transaction (SAT). This is also valid for e-
commerce. Kinder (2000) uses this approach to analyse Internet-based
recruitment. Search, the purposive prospecting around options meeting an
effective demand and involves collecting, (at a cost), by current or previous study,
available options, their costs and consequences. Doing this in a virtual market-
space, as opposed to a physical marketplace may prove faster and less expensive
for customers. A second element of exchange is assessment: making a
judgement on information and options and their consequences. As Veblen (1953)
established, assessment is often socially patterned into bounded socio-cognitive
effort. Exchange processes are concluded by a transaction: a mutual interchange
of values resulting in a change of ownership or use and any after-care service,
usually this entails a monetary transfer and may be synchronous with or before
search and assessment. Each element of the exchange process contains at least
one decision node for the purchaser. This approach is similar to the reach,
richness and affiliation process developed by Evans and Wurster (1999). The
SAT decomposition of exchange is from a user-perspective focusing upon the
exchange rather than the person or organisations participating in it. A similar
approach to SAT is taken in the web site assessments conducted at
http://businessmedia.org.

Figure 2 summarises how the SAT elements of an e-commerce exchange differ

from off-line physical exchanges. Decomposing exchange into elements can not
only assists detailed analysis of business processes, this approach also highlights
the significance of the Internet’s connectivity and interactivity for e-commerce
business models.

SEARCH ASSESSMENT TRANSACTION

• Wider • Wider benchmarks • Speedier
• Deeper • Less expensive • Less expensive
• More thorough • Supports cognition • Audit trail of transaction
• Less expensive • Less time consuming • Use of Net community
• Less time consuming • Degree of interactivity • Accuracy of digital
• Segmentation of available during information and
markets and focus of assessment payment transmissions
searches • Irrelevance of distance

Figure 2: Showing how ecommerce exchange potentially differs from

off-line exchange in search, assessment and transaction elements

Figure 3 represents a simple Internet-based e-tail e-commerce business. Like any

business, its sustainability depends upon income exceeding costs. The main
costs under search are site construction, upkeep and marketing; for assessment
and transaction, the main costs are the product/service, distribution, administration
and support (such as call centre).

Hits

Hit to
Registration
ratio Registrations

Registration to
Hit to Transaction
Transaction ratio
Transactions
ratio

Transaction to
click-through Click-through
ratio transactions

Figure 3: Showing the importance of site ‘stickiness,’

conversion ratios and click-throughs

Some income may be made from advertising (typically very little) and commission
for click-throughs, however, the main income is from sales and after-sales
services. The sticky site is well-designed, easily navigable and directs visitors
towards making a purchase (it inspires confidence in security and privacy).
Conversion ratios vary with product and customer base. By way of illustration,
using figure 3, if one in ten hits register, and one in ten of these make a purchase,
then one in a hundred hits conclude a transaction. Important dynamics in Internet-
based e-commerce e-tail businesses are therefore attracting hits (search), keeping
interest (assessment) and concluding sales (transaction). This is, of course, little
different from many off-line businesses and supports the view of some authors that
e-commerce models are little different from conventional business models
(Treleaven 2000). On the other hand, others believe that all business models are
now affected by e-commerce (DTI, 1999). The two views may be more
complementary than contradictory, as new and established organisations must
take account of business developments associated with e-commerce, such as
those of intermediation/ re-intermediation and Internet communities.
As anticipated in the definition of e-commerce above, e-commerce businesses
each have the three dimensions shown in figure 4. The three variables
(interactivity, connectivity and agility) have each appeared many times in
ecommerce theory. Interactivity here refers to virtual and physical and the relation
between them (the 'click-and-brick' balance). The emphasis here is upon
functional integration i.e. qualitative deployment of knowledge, rather than simply
the multiplication of functions. Finally, interactivity here is purposive and not an
end to itself. Complex knowledge embodied within hidden computers may (for
commercial purpose) produce as rich an interaction as a learned e-forum
discourse.

Methodological dimensions of ecommerce

Interactivity Connectivity Agility

Definition Interdependent Technological and To learn from and
mutually agreed organisational contribute to
actions in pursuit of a openness and knowledge
common goal - the communications - the networks and to
richness and depth of breadth of effective speedily implement
shared mutual technological and the organisational
advantageous social networking. and technological
actions. results.
Description Effective interactivity Connectivity relevant Flexible, adaptable
results in deeply and appropriate to and risk taking in
integrated business fulfilment of business order to secure the
processes featuring strategy i.e. ability to advantages of
rich knowledge flows. exploit targeted value early adoption of
stream mediation. new technologies
and ways of
working.
Operational Efficient and speedy Enables and supports Responsiveness to
parameters search, assessment search, assessment market and
and transaction - and transaction with technology
purposive deployment social and changes in order
of relevant technological for product and
knowledge. communications and processes
interaction. (especially SAT) to
remain aligned.
Qualitative Trade-off between More focused in B2B Degree to which
degrees depth of knowledge and PA2B than B2C innovativeness is
interaction and or PA2C - social and within the
numbers of people technology conduits time/space which
participating in the between inside aligns and satisfies
interactions. business and its inter and intra-
constituency. organisational
players.
 Figure 4: Methodological dimensions of ecommerce

Just-in-time processes were powerful within manufacturing plants; however, their

potential was unleashed when inter-organisational relations were driven by JIT:
this is the same with connectivity. De-fragmentation of functions previously
separated by organisational boundaries is the simplest way to re-intermediate
value streams. Note that connectivity too is purposive. Breadth of connectivity is
not intrinsically of value; breadth of connectivity, which mines a profitable seam in
a propitious value stream, is significant. Connectivity is both technical and social;
it entails both communications linkages and knowledge networking via inter-
organisational links.

Nagel and Dove (1992) have used the term agile enterprises to mean a firm with
long-term inter-organisational relationships from which they learn in addition to
learning from environmental scanning. Here the term also means having the
absorptive capacity and/or knowledge generating ability to resourcefully participate
in knowledge networks. Critically, the term means the capability and desire to
continually innovate organisational or technological change in order to remain
aligned with unfolding business opportunities. Agility is knowledge and action,
agilmente.

Figure 5 represents these three variables constituting a framework of ecommerce

modelling in a three dimensional quadrant. Degrees of high and low interactivity
and connectivity correlate with degrees of agility. Unlike many models, which
suggest simplistic typologies and pre-determined actions to achieve each, figure 5
shows the variants of high/low interactivity and high/low connectivity crossing over
quadrant boundaries. There are two reasons for this. Firstly, such is the pace of
market, organisational and technological change in ecommerce it would be wrong
to suggest anything but the most dynamic model: re-configuration and change are
part of the life experience of successful ecommerce companies. Secondly, there
is no ‘stable equilibrium’ here. Even with a particular time-frame, poor interactivity
and connectivity (for example) may be overcome where agility (for example) is
exceptionally good.
 High
Agility Agility

High High
interactivity interactivity
low high
connectivity connectivity

Degree
of
Interactivity
Agility

Low
interactivity Agility
low
connectivity Low
interactivity
low
connectivity

Low
Degree of
Low Connectivity High

Figure 5: Connectivity, interactivity and agility in ecommerce models

From the point of view of becoming a successful business, virtual museums must
therefore carefully develop an appropriate model capable of meeting
customer/visitor expectations for search-assessment and transaction, with product
offers that capable of delivery using state-of-the-art connectivity and interactivity.
Undoubtedly, this will require service re-engineering: new products and products
accessible at the front end of a museum visit in addition to their availability at the
back end museum shop. The challenge of creating virtual museums is the
challenge of migrating a particular physical service into an e-service.

1.5 Definition and criteria for M.U.S.EU.M. project

In one sense the connectivity, interactivity and agility (CIA) framework represents
an e-services trajectory or socio-technical corridor. Museums, like many public
and private services, respond initially to the Internet by creating a web site –
digitally replicating opening times, location etc and perhaps non-interactive
pictures of key artefacts or exhibitions. Often such initial connectivity features
HTML/XTML pages and a mix of text and non-multimedia images and reflects the
limited resources available for virtualisation associated with a limited appreciation
of its potential. Developments in bandwidth, Java-related software and Internet
security support the interactive phase of virtualisation, during which emphasis is
upon customised web offers, perhaps including virtual visits or multimedia learning
opportunities. In short, higher levels of interactivity allowed museums to create
web-based products specifically designed to exploit this medium and no longer
merely migrated from the physical products.

Agility – the ability to learn from the market and environment and internalise this
learning in the form of new products, new structures and new ways of working - is
arguably the latest phase in the e-services trajectory. From the perspective of
virtual museums, the challenge in this phase is to prioritise and exploit virtuality, in
order to create a learning environment superior to that of the virtual museum. This
learning environment will be widely accessible, feature a high level of
personalisation, with the site becoming a key vehicle for storing and cumulating
knowledge on behalf of the museum. The agility phase challenges previous
resource distribution and demands a significant increase in the computing and
communications competences in the museum. Additionally, during the agility
phase, posing challenges to existing hierarchies, spans of control and ways of
working. In short, in the agility phase of virtuality, ICTs and their exploitation,
begin to take centre stage and becomes embedded into the whole life of the
museum.

Note that progression through CIA (connectivity, interactivity and agility) phases is
merely a metaphor for change and does not suggest a deterministic pattern of
social and technological change. The heritage, context, opportunities and people
in each museum varies, as too will the particular shape of its virtuality and the
pace at which change management towards virtuality occurs. It is likely that in
most cases, change will be evolutionary in nature and build upon concrete
opportunities and the particular blend of competences available and taking
advantage of ICT diffusion and innovations.

From the above perspective, we are defining the virtual museum in terms of
connectivity, interactivity and agility. Physical museums too will increasingly use
ICTs for research, cataloguing, databases, displays and administration and to a
degree may converge with those of the virtual museum. The points of difference
are that the virtual museum’s access door is the Internet and its product is a virtual
rather than physical store of artefact data (including representations) and its
services (learning, viewing, researching, collaborating, and buying) are e-services
delivered via the Internet and featuring extensive databases, search facilities,
interaction via message boards and ecommerce.

The external relations of virtual museums (visitor interactions and inter-

organisational relations) are likely to differ markedly from those of the physical
museum. From the viewpoint of visitors, researchers and curators, the simplicity
with which communities are established and lower investment needed to exact
value from them (relative to physical networking) means that museums can
support numerous niché and generic communities, becoming centres for
knowledge and information exchange. Since much of the work of virtual museums
is ICT-based (digital environment, accessibility, indexes, metadata and networking
capabilities) their interactions with other museums are likely to feature more
sharing (resources, functions, administration and knowledge e.g. exhibitions) and
joint development of virtual resources, such as e-learning applications and
content. This latter point is particularly important, since only by reusing e-learning
materials in many different contexts and by different users, if the heavy sunk costs
of their development recouped.
2 OBJECTIVES AND GOALS OF THE VIRTUAL MUSEUMS

2.1 Mission and main constraints for physical museums

Traditionally museums gather, preserve, analyse, catalogue and display items of

cultural value and interest. The ability of most museums to gather, preserve,
analyse and catalogue is limited by physical space and staffing complement.
Their ability to exhibit is also limited by these factors, by security and by the
time/resources necessary to prepare exhibitions – a greater constraint the more
interactive the exhibition. Further constraints on exhibition access include hours of
opening and location: despite the growth of tourism location remains a major
constraint for many potential visitors.

For some museums, the balance between space used for storage or
administration and exhibition space, is a significant constraint. This is especially
so where museums are located in historic city centres and/or where the costs of
expansion are prohibitive. Few museums generate sufficient cash flow from
charges, sales and sponsorship to dramatically expand access by creating more
exhibition space. Sponsors in particular are likely to focus on one-off capital
grants and not on-going costs of curatorial, security and facility management staff.

2.2 The mission of museums in the age of the Internet

Virtual museums are complementary too rather than a replacement for physical
museums – a digital alter ego.11 One of the first aims of a virtual presence is to
attract increasing numbers of visitors to the physical museum using a virtual
brochure, details of location and opening times and of special exhibitions.

Virtual museum sites are often clicked-through from general tourist information
sites, travel sites etc. Visitors number to Melbourne, Australia are rapidly
expanding and a new site is designed to take tourists out of the city onto an art
trails through Victoria’s regional galleries.12 This is an example of what Adendorff
(2001) refers to as joining the dots - positioning cultural offers as an after-market
to mass tourism.13 In summary, the Internet is a marketing channel useful in
attracting visitors to physical museums.

11
Nevertheless the function of preserving cultural heritage is
still a goal of virtual museums.
12
http://amol.org.au/art_trails/
13
L. Adendorff (2001) Joining the dots – Museum trails and online
cultural tourism paper presented at Ozeculture conference in
Melbourne, June 2001.
2.3 Preservation goals

One of the main advantages of virtually preserving museum treasures is the re-
usability of this preservation. A single example will illustrate the point. Alessandro
Allori’s (1544) painting, Hercules and the Muses, is exhibited in the Museum of the
Goddess Athena, part of the Galleria degli Uffizi in Florence. As a simple
photographic image, the painting appears on number web sites. Allori’s painting
may appear as a knowledge nugget in information about Italian painters, portrait
painters, the Florentine school, his studentship under Angelo Bronzino, his study
of Michelangelo’s work, his training of his son Cristofano. In each case, the image
of Allori’s painting may feature in content aimed at primary school children
studying Greek myths, secondary age children studying Italian art or
undergraduates considering artistic families. Allori’s image may be reused in
numerous contexts and feature in books, slides, Internet sites, DVDs and even
(perhaps sadly) migrate to wallpaper, duvet covers and kitchen towels. The point
is that this one cultural artefact, once digitally preserved is re-usable an unlimited
number of times – a characteristic intrinsic to the nature of digital products.

Allori’s painting illustrates the importance of the virtual museum digitising artefacts
in forms that render them reusable. It is thus important that content is preserved in
open platforms, that with the appropriate intellectual property protection, can
migrate across platforms and is likely to have complementarity with new platforms
and applications.14 The costs of reproducing digital products is insignificant
relative to the sunk-costs of their original production, as all content providers who
suffer from piracy know to their cost. Nevertheless, digitising Allori’s painting (or
any other artefact) without reproducibility (over time, context and platform) may
mean that sunk-costs repeat. Choice of platform and compliance with industry
standards are critical factors when virtualising cultural artefacts. Complementarity
with ICT standards enables the originators of the digital version of Allori’s painting
to distribute it at negligible cost i.e. to use the ICT infrastructure as a (free) positive
externality or free network. As Cappellini (2000) points out, technological
complementarity also offers the opportunities of creating the impossible museum,
a virtual exhibition featuring in one (virtual) space, (for example) all of the paintings
of Allori’s extended family or of the Florentine school.15 Such an exhibition is likely
to be multimedia and feature sixteenth century music, moving images from opera,
theatre etc. In short, technological complementarity may give rise to cultural
products, impossible to deliver in the physical world.

Preserving digital representations of cultural artefacts that comply with accepted

standards is important is crucially important for researchers and especially trans-

14
B. Jackson (2001) – Collecting the virtual: acquiring digital
media. Paper presented at Ozeculture conference in Melbourne,
June 2001.
15
The term ‘not possible museum’ has been stated by V. Cappellini
(2000) La realtà virtuale per i beni culturali. Pitagora
editrice. Bologna
disciplinary researchers for who database mining is a rich source of cross-
references between disciplines. Mining the shared databases of the world’s
museums is also provides solid foundations upon which to build an ever-widening
array of international research and creative communities and networks.16

2.4 Personalisation of the virtual museum and accessibility

E-services, unlike physical services are characterised by their configurability to

customise the service towards the precise demands of the individual. In this
sense, e-services mirror the mass customisation processes currently enjoying
success in manufacturing. In terms of the virtual museum, instead of a curator
dictating a route and points of interest, the virtual visitor is able to prescribe his/her
own tour and to choose a deeper interrogation of those artefacts of most interest –
in short the visitor can create their own exhibition, emphasising those multimedia
modalities s/he prefers. From this viewpoint, museums shift from supply-driven to
becoming demand-led, from categorising potential visitors into sets towards
individual customisation and from generic marketing to one-to-one viral
marketing.17

Of course, patterns of usage tend to occur in all e-services whether the result of
habituation or predispositions to particular areas of interest or modalities of
delivery. Cherri, Paternò and Piras’ (2003) in the Museum of Carrara, suggests
that visitors often fall into one of three sets: experts, tourists and children.18 It may
be useful to hypothesise how each of these sets may use a virtual museum.

• Experts may particular wish to use tools supporting thematic and trans-
disciplinary searches, coupled to 3D applications and digital reconstruction: a
high degree of configurability and informed choice.
• Tourists (who are not experts) may prefer a recommend table d’hote rather
than al la carte and prefer limited configurability: more intuitive choices using
readily understood narratives explaining the context of artefacts.

16
Nwks are more purposive, reflected in govs
17
Interesting example are of systems for a segmented target are
described in: F. Amigoni, V. Schiaffonati (2003) – The Minerva
Multiagent System for Museum Organization. Paper presented to the
workshop Intelligenza artificiale per i beni culturali, Pisa 23
september 2003; and in C. Baracchini, P. Lanari, F.Tecchia,
A.Vecchi - La piattaforma multimediale Piazza dei Miracoli (2003)
Paper presented to the workshop Intelligenza artificiale per i
beni culturali, Pisa 23 september 2003.
18
An interesting experience regarding the Marble museum of Carrara
with this target has been documented by C. Cherri, F. Paternò, G.
Piras (2003) - Imparare Attraverso la Multimedialità i Processi
di Escavazione del Marmo in Età Romana. Paper presented to the
workshop Intelligenza artificiale per i beni culturali, Pisa 23
september 2003.
• Children (some of whom may be experts and/or tourists) may prefer
edutaiment or chatboxs modalities, or exhibitions featuring games designed to
simulate curiosity.19

Since an significant aim of virtualising museum is to increase content it is

important that the technology itself is not allowed to become a barrier. This can be
the case if platforms are only available on advanced (e.g. broadband or GPRS and
G3 networks). Whilst ICTs can be particularly useful for people with physical and
learning difficulties, if not properly planned, the digital world can become a barrier
for the deaf, blind or un-dexterous person.

Mono-linguality too is a barrier to cultural appreciation and multilingual content and

platform operation is an essential characteristic of cultural offers seeking to attract
international visitors.

2.5 Summary: the tasks of the virtual museum

Each museum and each virtual museum, based upon its heritage and
opportunities will create a unique mission, set of goals, strategies and structure
accompanied by transparent success criterion and key performance indicators.
The task facing each virtual museum, based on the discussions above, feature the
following points.

• maximise of information flows;

• preserve information over time;
• adopt ICT and conform with user and network standards for e-services;
• increase accessibility;
• personalise the organisation of the site and of the content according patterns of
a segmented demand of cultural goods;
• increase the visits to the real museum.

19
Interesting solutions for chatbots are presented in: P. de
Almeida, S. Yokoi (2003) – Interactive Character as a Virtual
Tour Guide to an Online Museum Exhibition
3 FUNCTIONAL PROFILES REQUIRED BY A VIRTUAL MUSEUM

An important part of establishing the capacity and competences needed to create

a virtual museum is to identify the necessary staff functions. The purpose of this
section of this report is to clearly set out staff functional competences necessary to
build and run a virtual museum.

To avoid any confusion, staff functional competences does not necessarily mean
jobs and new staffing costs.

• Some of these competences will already exist in the physical museum and with
adjustment of roles and re-combinations of functions, the virtual museum
competences may be identified amongst existing resources. Museums like all
other organisations can expect ICTs to improve staff productivity and to result
in the recombination of functions that constitute a person’s job.
• The particular combinations and re-combinations of functions will vary between
museums as the competence of individuals varies. Additionally, one museum
may in-source IT functions another may outsource, one museum may share a
IT or web expert with another museum or agency, another museum may not.
• The extent of training necessary will vary between museums. A small museum
may train an IT person in database management and web design, whereas a
larger museum may have the budget to recruit new staff.

To be clear, the functions and competences discussed in this section cannot be

taken to imply the need to increase budgets or recruit additional staff, these are
however crucial competences for the team charged with building the virtual
museum and fall under the following headings: project leadership, computing
expertise, web expertise and content expertise. Additionally, the virtual museum
needs financial, communications and training expertise.

3.1 Project leadership

Every ship needs a captain and every project needs a leader who takes
responsibility for setting out a strategic vision, communicating this vision and
managing the change necessary to operationalise the successful delivery of the
project. Project leadership involves the management of change as opposed to the
management of set resources within established systems and processes – s/he
must show leadership. Relationships between an innovation project and parent
organisation are always critical in order to ensure that the project meets the
expectations of its promoters in outputs and value for money. Especially in a
matrix organisation, the project leader is unlikely to work full time on one project.

• The project leader will take ownership of the project plan agreeing with the
Project Champion (e.g. the Director) in the parent organisation a series of
SMART targets (specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-related)
that migrate the project goals and resources into a practical plan of action. The
 Project Leader should be capable of conducting a critical path analysis of the
project, identifying key milestones and rolling targets and setting go/n-go
points.
• In doing so, the Project Leader will establish clear progress reporting
arrangements to the Project Champion and progress reports and any goal re-
negotiation with the Museum Board (or similar).
• The Project Leader is a budget holder and must establish systems that allocate
resources to tasks over time and measure their deployment and outputs.
• In e-service innovation, one of the Project Leader’s most important tasks is to
weld together the different disciplines (artistic, technical, social etc) necessary
for the project’s success.
• The Project Leader will suggest a project evaluation plan, method and
evaluators. This will include evaluation criterion and measurements.

3.2 Computing expertise

Creating a digital entity involves parallel tracking at least three multi-disciplinary

processes: digital capture, formatting and applications, and interaction/access
routing.20 Multi-functional sites - likely to feature free access, subscription services
and ecommerce purchases – a multimedia environment, will only successfully
avoid endless debugging and/or lack of complementarity, if built within a clear
system architecture. Computing expertise is an essential guide throughout this
process.

• Digitalisation includes computer graphics, meta/specific databases, search

engines and other off-line activities. Careful choices are necessary on time
spent in 3D imaging and virtual environment manipulation and on the work of
graphic designers and photographers.
• Whilst digital capture focuses upon the quality of image, formatting and
applications place content in a workable application (i.e. databases). It will be
especially important for a joint project between museums that a shared
database and classification system is agreed at the earliest stage and that this
is compatible with the overall application.
• Each learning environment is a framework aligning digitised content with
choices in the flow of learning prescribed by a content specialist.

20
Other authors stressed the three step process as: acquisition,
procession and publishing on the Web (D. Conte, L.P. Cordella, P.
Foggia, A. Limongiello, C. Sansone, M. Vento (2003) -
Acquisizione e Fruizione su Internet di Opere d’arte. Paper
presented at the seminary Contesti culturali e fruizione dei beni
culturali -Napoli, Certosa di San Martino 22-23 maggio 2003.
Another author resumed the process into: storage, retrieval and
interaction (B. Davis 1994 ibidem)
The task of computing expertise, is to continually reiterate between these three
sets of tasks and the people performing them - web designer, web manager,
systems designer, application provider and content specialist. Output from
computing expertise is a shared product between these disciplines and without
effective management costs will spiral and the project go out of control. From the
viewpoint of content practitioners (e.g. archaeologists), content is king, an
approach that tends towards hierarchic management rather than matrixed
teamwork.21

In summary, a computer expert’s role is to manage the parallel tracking of three

distinct processes (digitisation, formatting and interaction) ensuring that a variety
of disciplines work as a team to create a seamless joined-up product.

3.3 The content expert

The role of the content expert, who will be experienced and well qualified in the
chosen knowledge domain is to identify artefacts, provide or select content
material (including bibliographies) and oversee the flow and routing in the virtual
learning environment.

• S/he will guide decisions on classification systems and database fields,

suitable selection and search criteria and site mapping and routing.
• This content expert will also oversee site evaluation by peers or focus groups
and guide redesign processes.
• S/he will act to guarantee the quality of the content, mindful of the cost of
quality and budget/time constraints.
• Overall, the content expert will stipulate the boundaries of the knowledge
domain – in effect, the size of each exhibition or learning module. This is likely
to involve planning a series of small knowledge nuggets that eventually
constitute a whole learning environment.
• Different modalities of e-learning are appropriate to a variety of knowledge
domains and types/levels of learner.22 Part of the content expert’s contribution
will be to evaluate the relevance of particular applets and iteration systems to
the virtual museum, appraising in each case their relevance in a variety of
learning flows (e.g. researcher, tourist, student) and their place in the
attractiveness of the site.

21
Forte points out the relevance of the content expert when
thinking to the construction of aercheological 3D environments.
Aercheologists should manage the efforts architets, computer
scientists, graphic artists and multimedia experts M. Forte
(2000) – About virtual archaeology: disorders, cognitive
interactions and virtuality
22
Kinder T, 2002, Are Schools Learning Organisations – the
innovation of computers into secondary school classrooms and
their affect upon attainment, Technovation, Vol. 22, pg. 385 -
404.
• As a qualified practitioner, the content expert is well-placed to advise the
Project Leader on training opportunities for project team members and how the
final product can relate to existing educational courses. Additionally, the
content expert will advise the Museum Board, via the Project Leader on the
training needs of the museum, if it is to successfully expand its virtual
presence. This task is likely to involve a Training Needs Analysis covering all
museum staff.
• The virtual museum presence must be a multi-lingual and the content expert
may be able to advise on knowledge networks that the project can access able
to assist with translation and access content in a variety of languages.

Ideally, the content expert will then have sound e-learning pedagogic skills in
addition to expertise in the chosen knowledge domain.23 As such, s/he will be able
to evaluate the relevance of the numerous pedagogic software packages available
(the computing expert their compatibility with the system and platform).24

3.4 The Web experts: designer, developer, manager

The functions of the computing expert (especially applications) and the content
expert (e-learning applets and iteration systems) must closely align with the final
web site or portal product of the project. A central task of the Project Leader will
be overseeing this alignment: in effect, bringing together the technical and content
layers of the project. Web expertise also relates to the business model the site will
use in terms of access routing for subscribers, purchasing customers and casual
visitors. The project requires three areas of web expertise: design, development
and management of the live site.

• A web designer will work with the Project Leader and Content expert in
planning the site layout. S/he will design the structure of the site, indexes and
metadata, in close co-operation with the Project Leader. This task also
involves the style, feel and navigability of the site – in each case with target
users in mind and reflecting the values of the participating museums. It is a
great advantage of virtual museum that its routing need not mirror the
sequencing in the physical museum - it allows thematic routing and
experimentation. Finally, the web designer will advise on how the site can
facilitate the generation of new web communities, based around site content.

23
In M. Forte (2002) – Communicating the “Virtual” a pattern of
cognitive interaction is outlined and is developed the idea of
reticular spatial learning as typical feature of VR.
24
In A. Sbrilli Eletti (2003) – Immagini dense. Le riproduzioni
digitali d’opere d’arte come interfacce di esplorazione delle
opere stesse. Paper presented at the seminary Contesti culturali
e contesti dei beni culturali. Napoli, 22-23 may 2003 is
avalaible the presentation of some cultural product of the
edutaiment kind, for promoting learning through an easy approach.
• A web developer’s function (perhaps the same person as the designer) will
work with content and digitalisation experts to implement the web design. S/he
takes graphics and content fusing them into the online pages – always with an
eye to usability by target visitors (e.g. language, symbolic meaning) in a clean
and clear structure. An important aspect of usability will be compliance with
standards for disabled users (deaf, visually impaired etc). The developer will
participate in technical testing and user piloting of the site.

• The web manager’s tasks begin as the site goes live and involves site
maintenance, updating and support to Internet communities. Thus, the web
manager is the guardian of the site’s mission and design integrity over time and
liaises with technical and content experts as the site evolves. Additionally, s/he
manages site information tools such as mailing lists, website databases, search
features and on-line forums. Continual evaluation of the virtual museum site
(customer/visitor feedback and user logs) will be analysed by the web manager
and result in continuous improvement ideas and marketing initiatives.

3.5 E-learning expert

Section 3.3 above suggests that the content expert will preferably have pedagogic
expertise and ideally experience in e-learning. The e-learning functions may well
feature as part of a wider combination of functions and are not necessarily a
different job or person.

E-learning offers the use and reuse of multimedia, customised learning materials
the preparation of which involves high sunk costs (often a factor of six times the
staff time to prepare traditional materials).25 Thus, e-learning is only likely to be
justified economically where student numbers are high, core materials are often
reused and/or where materials are collegiately developed. E-learning (like all e-
services) opens up previously closed and localised markets to new competition
from overseas or between networks of providers, especially where certification and
validation is offered from prestigious organisations. E-learning assumes a high
level of sunk cost and investment in ICT infrastructure and staff development,
placing a premium upon collaborative development and the use of easily updated
and reused shells to structure courses.26 The advantages of e-learning are low

25
A useful selection of online papers on the advantages and
benefits of e-learning includes the following: Harris P, 2003,
ROI of e-learning: Closing in, at
www.learningcurcuits.org/2003/feb2003/roi.html and
www.careerjournal.com/hrcenter/astd/features/20030214-astd.html
Kettleborough J, 2002, Measuring the results of e-learning at
www.corollis.com/article_measuring.htm and Kruse K, 2002,
Measuring e-learning’s benefits at www.e-
learningguru.com/articles/art5_3.htm
26
Deeny E, 2003, Calculating the real value of e-learning,
Industrial and Commercial Training, Vol. 35:2, pg. 70 – 72.
cost, student control of learning pace, remote and nomadic access and ease of
assessment.

E-learning expertise is inseparable from content, design and computing expertise

integrally relates to each. It may be that e-learning modules can become part of
accredited courses and/or stand-alone as certified modules with study Diplomas
issued by museums. Where accredited and assessed modules are offered, then
the e-learning expert will arrange tutorial support, assessment marking and
certification.

3.6 The financial manager

Many museums have a strong public service ethos and judge success in terms of
visitors and the quality of exhibitions as adjudged by peers. These are important
success criterion. Value-for-money and return on investment are equally
important and can be significant factors in justifying investment in projects such as
a virtual museum. Thus, the virtual museum project needs the support of financial
expertise in order to track costs and income, in short the difference that the project
makes financially to the parent museum. This is particular important since the
virtual museum’s on-going revenue costs are likely to as significant as the original
capital costs.27 It may also be possible for a finance manager to suggest
opportunities for sponsorship, advertising revenue and product sales. Only where
income and costs are clear is it possible to benchmark between museums and
institute best practice exchange.

The finance manager is unlikely to be a full time or new post and more likely to be
part of the duties of an existing staff member. S/he will be an invaluable source of
management information to the Project Leader.

3.7 Communications expert

The communications expert is again unlikely to be a whole time job. These

functions are important if the virtual museum site is to be well-positioned in web
search engines, academic literature and in tourist literature. S/he can readily
position the site as a click-through on other relevant sites and feature its offers in
Internet networks and portals.

27
K. De Vorsey (2001) in MIT Communications forum, The digital
museum, 8 march 2001.
3.8 A framework of the professional profiles

Figure 5 illustrates a virtual museum project team (inside the circle) and its
reporting function to a Project Champion and eventually the Museum Board (or
equivalent). To repeat the points made at the beginning of this section, each of
these four major functions and seven support functions is not necessarily a full job,
these are simply the function necessary to undertake the virtual museum project.

Each team member will understand and flexibly work towards the project gaols, in
addition (perhaps) to performing other functions.

Museum Board

Communications
Project champion
Finance
expert

e-learning
expert
Project Computing
Leader expertise

Content Web
expertise expertise

Web
design

Photographer Web
developer

Web
manager

Figure 5: Virtual museum project team

Project management, particularly of multi-disciplinary teams containing

professionals is a complex task in itself. It may be that the first training in this
project is refresher or initial training in project management for the Project Leader.
Part of the challenge in managing a multi-disciplinary team is gaining respect for a
multiplicity of competences and acceptance that ICT enables staff to multi-task
and take responsibility for more functions – in short the challenge of the project
leader is to set style accepting new ways of flexible working. The example of the
Project Leader can be important is establishing the new style.
4 ROLE AND SKILLS OF THE FUNCTIONAL PROFILES

This section details the training needs analysis approach and suggests ways in
which, using e-learning, museums might use transnational co-operation to deliver
relevant training.

4.1 Training needs analyses (TNAs)

TNAs are a systematic assessment of the value-for-money of training expenditure

at the level of the company and are based upon three principles: firstly, that
training is an investment from which the company should receive a computable
return. Secondly, training is not a quick fix, this return is likely to both short-term
and long-term. Finally, training decisions, like those of all investments, are best
taken from an informed viewpoint and within the context of a company
development strategy.

Where carried out effectively, a TNA can be a valuable intervention tool, giving
focus to:

• Current business activity

• Options for the future
• Skills requirement
• Plan of action

TNAs are usually kicked-off by meeting key members of strategic-level staff

(owner or Chief Executive). This places the TNA in the context of a Strategic
Business Review, which clarifies and makes explicit current business activity and
issues, opportunities and markets, financial and HR overview. The strategic
overview then informs the format and content of the TNA, allowing it to focus on
relevant levels of need, such as the following.

• The business as a whole

• Specific departments (i.e. a particular manufacturing line or IT department)
• Key issues such as ecommerce, IIP, Succession Planning, Health & Safety or
Quality

Once the focus of TNA activity has been agreed with the management team, TNA
investigators turn to feedback from individual members of staff. Methods
employed usually include one-to-one discussion, focus groups feedback and
confidential questionnaires. From this exercise it is possible to identify:

• Establish an operational perspective

• Identify existing employee skills
• Establish perception of individual job roles
• Seek feedback on how employees measure their ability in relation to their
perceived job roles
• Identify current skills gaps
• Inform likely future skills gaps

In addition, employees are encouraged to identify their preferred learning styles

(e.g. classroom, project based, one-to one-support and mentoring, eLearning or
distance learning).
Business and employee feedback is then analysed and an Action Plan drawn up
which details:

• A summary of the current state of the business

• A statement of the TNA focus
• An overview of the issues and opportunities
• A skills analysis
• Identified training issues:

o Individual training needs matrix (detailing training requirements,

timescales – short, medium and long term)
o Preferred learning styles

• If appropriate, links to training agencies (e.g. local centres, eLearning

packages, Colleges etc.)
• Detailed action recommendations

It is important that the TNA Adviser, although working for a training agency,
maintains a degree of impartiality, recommending appropriate training and not
simply that which is most easily available.

The TNA should be considered and adopted at the highest level of the company,
taking ownership of its analysis and recommendations as a guide to future actions,
course selections and evaluation strategy.

Finally, success criteria will be agreed for evaluating the success of the
implementation of the TNA and a cycle of monitoring and evaluation set out.
Success criteria must include both qualitative and quantitative measures.

4.2 Virtual museum project training

Section 3.8 above concludes that a key part of launching a virtual museum project
is a clear job and person specification of the staffing complement necessary to
implement the project and section 4.1 suggests that a training needs analysis will
reveal gaps in the competence of existing staff and how these might be filled. Like
all innovation projects in established organisations, a key part of the innovation
processes is enabling staff to carry out new functions and work in new ways.
Training for the virtual museum project should begin with the pilot implementation
team (in this case on prehistoric exhibitions) with plans for the rollout of training
over time, that targets staff likely to become involved.

Competence training will be specific to each museum, since in each case the skills
profile of existing staff will vary. In one museum, more staff will be ICT literate
(e.g. ECDL level) than another; one will have pedagogic competence in-house and
another may not.

The availability of relevant training and cost is likely to vary between institutional
settings. It may be that where a training module is available to one museum, that
this itself can be digitised and offered across borders in a distance learning, e-
learning format. In this way, the MUSEUM Project itself may become a brokerage
for training. One added-value of the project, from a training perspective, can be
the establishing informal meetings of staff and cross-border interactions
(newsgroups and email discussions) in particular areas of training. In these ways,
the project itself will catalyse co-operation around training and exploit the use of
digital communities.28 A mission of museums is to store and disseminate
knowledge a facet of their work that should extend to their own staff. E-learning
for museum staff can become an important building block for promoting the virtual
museum vision and its own e-learning goal and encourage closer interaction
between the various disciplines working in museums.

Where museums do not have a Training Manager or Knowledge Manager, the

task of instigating a TNA and planning training for the virtual museum is likely to
help in the adoption of these advanced management structures.

28
In Jonathan Bowen, Mike Houghton, Roxane Bernier (2003) - Online
Museum Discussion Forums: What do we have? What do we need? is
available a relevant analysis of the resources for cultural
communities on the WWW.
4 JOB AND PERSON SPECIFICATIONS FOR VIRTUAL MUSEUM

Section three above began by explaining that the staffing competences

necessary to create a virtual museum may already exist in the physical museum
and that combinations and re-combinations of functions coupled with training are
likely to mitigate against the need to recruit new staff into each of the function
roles section three outlines. The purpose of this section is to unpack these
functional roles and suggest specific competences and attributes that the
function provider will require. The current report links closely with D 4
(Characteristics, extent, profile of European museums’ websites and case
studies on best practices) and later deliverables by informing MUSEUM’s training
programmes and business planning. The section suggests a set of person and
job specifications for each functional role in the virtual museum project team.

Each museum begins building its virtual presence with a particular heritage in
terms of staff competence and capacity. One museum may have a great deal of
(for example) archaeological content expertise but little in Web management and
finance. In this example, the virtual museum project team may redeploy existing
expertise and bring in new people to fill its competence gaps. Thus, its is not
possible to prescribe a particular staffing structure, since each museum’s team will
be differently configured, whilst each should contain the competences set out in
section three above.

Figure 6 outlines the person and job specification of the Project Champion. It is
likely that this person will be a Museum Board member, capable of supporting an
innovation process with ramifications for the overall museum strategy, structure
and product line.

Job outline: Project champion

Person • Authority of being part of Museum management team
specification • Commitment to virtual museum project
• Evangelist for project
• Understanding of project goals
• Guardian of budget and resources within Museum
management team.

Job • To support and sponsor the virtual museum project within

specification the Museum Board
• To liaise between the Board and the Project Leader -
especially in areas relating to museum strategy.
• To support the Project Team’s planning, implementation
and evaluation.

Figure 6: Project champion outline

Figure 7 outlines the person and job specification of the Project Manager. Note
that some museums operate hierarchically, privileging knowledge expertise above
other competences. It may be that the Project Manager breaks this mould and
appoints someone lower in the hierarchy who meets the appropriate person and
job specification or alternatively an outsider.

Job outline: Virtual Museum Project Manager

Person • Leadership and general management ability over a
specification complex innovation process required to deliver a specific
quality of outputs, on time and within budget.
• Problem solving ability.
• A deep understanding of the museums culture, its
approach to database creation and use and marketing.

Job • To manage and motivate a team that includes a variety of

specification professionals from mixed governances (i.e. in-house and
external) and disciplines.
• To plan the project and set SMART targets for its
completion including key milestones, go/no-go points and
rolling targets.
• To communicate effectively with the team, co-workers,
external funders, partner museums, network providers
and the Project Champion.
• To hold and control the project budget
• To create a project evaluation plan, method and
evaluators including evaluation criterion and
measurements.

Figure 7: Project Manager outline

Figure 8 outlines the Computing Expert role and particular person and job
specification. Note the assumption that this person will manage this function
beyond launch date.

Job outline: Computer expert

Person • The ability to work in a trans-disciplinary team.
specification • The ability to deliver a specified quality of output, on time
and within budget.
• Ability to manage the parallel tracking of three distinct
processes (digitisation, formatting and interaction)
ensuring that a variety of disciplines work as a team to
create a seamless joined-up product.
• Knowledge of relevant information and communications
technologies (including web technologies, applications
and devices), necessary to deliver the virtual museum.
• Ability to integrate video, text, audio, and graphics into
effective experiences.
• Knowledge of SGML, HTML, XML and http; of virtual
reality technologies and QTVR, JAVA and VRML.
• Ability to act as the guardian of the site’s mission and
design integrity over time, engage in continuous
evaluation and improvement and liaise with technical and
content experts as the site evolves.

Job • To manage within a team computing expertise that

specification creates digitisation of content, shared-use databases
supporting a learning environment.
• To manage the following functions: web designer, web
manager, systems designer, application provider and
liaise effectively with the content specialist.
• To ensure that the virtual museum project complies with
prevailing industry and EU standards in data storage,
retrieval, transmission and display.
• To manage the computing related development and
launch of the virtual museum, including piloting and its
first proving period including maintenance, updating and
support to Internet communities.

Figure 8: Computer expert outline

Figure 9 lists the main person and job specifications for the Web designer.

Job outline: Web designer

Person • The ability to work in a trans-disciplinary team delivering
specification a specified quality of output, on time and within budget.
• Ability to work with the Project Leader and Content expert
in planning the site layout.
• Suitable qualifications and experience in advanced web
site design.
• Professional training in photography, film and digital
presentations including image capture (high and low
resolution digital capture) and digital presentations (such
as HTML).

Job • To design the structure of the site, indexes and metadata,

specification in close co-operation with the Project Leader.
• Participate in interactive design processes and
evaluations featuring site style, feel and navigability.
• Advise on how the site can facilitate the generation of
new web communities, based around site content.

Figure 9: Web designer outline

Figure 10 lists the main person and job specifications for the Web developer.

Job outline: Web developer

Person • The ability to work in a trans-disciplinary team delivering
specification a specified quality of output, on time and within budget.
• Suitable qualifications and experience in advanced web
development.

Job • To work with content and web design experts to

specification implement the web design.
• To create a usable, navigable and attractive website
featuring prescribed content and given design.
• Address security issues, passwords, firewalls, payment
systems and in general against hackers.

Figure 10: Web developer outline

Figure 11 lists the main person and job specifications for the Content Expert.

Job outline: Content expert

Person • The ability to work in a trans-disciplinary team delivering
specification a specified quality of output, on time and within budget.
• Ability to identify artefacts, provide or select content
material (including bibliographies) and oversee the flow
and routing in the virtual learning environment.
• Qualified to PhD level, with a peer group reputation in
chosen knowledge domain.
• Sufficient computing skills to understand the
issues/options raised within the project.
• Skilled in cataloguing, records management,
documentation, data management and data analysis.
• Knowledge of exhibition design, graphics, principles of
visual presentations and the use of multimedia.

Job • Lead the content gathering, retrieval and presentation in

specification the project.
• Seek and represent knowledge appropriate in an e-
learning environment.
• access relevant resources such as literature and
information sources (including bibliographies, directories
and indexes.
• Help manage the museum’s collection and select items
for digitisation.
• Support the preparation of design, graphics and visual
presentations using multimedia.

Figure 11: Content expert outline

Figure 12 lists the main person and job specifications for the e-learning expert
(likely to be combined with other tasks).

Job outline: E-learning expert

Person • The ability to work in a trans-disciplinary team delivering
specification a specified quality of output, on time and within budget.
• Ability to create usable e-learning materials in a cost-
effective manner and use e-learning technologies.
• Ability to work with external organisations on module
accreditation, validation and certification and student
support.
• A professional with experience on training in computer
related issues and internet and associated pedagogic
techniques.
• Ability to elaborate e-learning programmes based on
thematic units; create e-tests to assess learning;
support student learning; oversee groups of users; load
files (articles, publications, manuals); and create live
events.

Job • To work with and support the Content Manager and Site
specification Designer in creating a digital learning environment using
the artefacts and materials generated by the project.
• To prepare and help implement and evaluate module
accreditation, validation and certification and student
support.

Figure 12: Content expert outline

Figure 13 lists the main person and job specifications for the Finance Manager
(likely to be combined with other tasks).

Job outline: Finance manager

Person • The ability to work in a trans-disciplinary team delivering
specification a specified quality of output, on time and within budget.
• Professionally qualified and able to keep management
accounts in a not-for-profit organisation.
• Experience of working with sponsors and negotiating
sponsorship.
• Ability to select and oversee the integrity of the virtual
museum payments systems.
• Ability to work with the Project Leader on financial
planning, monitoring and reporting.
Job • Financial planning, monitoring and reporting for the
specification project, including management accounts.
• Negotiate and manage sponsorship arrangements.
• Specify and oversee virtual museum payments systems.

Figure 13: Finance Manager outline

Figure 14 lists the main person and job specifications for the Communications
Manager (likely to be combined with other tasks).

Job outline: Communications manager

Person • The ability to work in a trans-disciplinary team delivering
specification a specified quality of output, on time and within budget.
• Experience of communication for cultural and or e-service
organisations.
• Skilled oriented in Internet use.

Job • Plan and implement PR for the project.

specification • Plan and implement Marketing campaign for virtual
museum.
• Work closely with relevant tourist, cultural and
sponsorship organisations.
• Generate and manage visit to the virtual and physical
museum.

Figure 14: Communications Manager outline

Figure 15 lists the main person and job specifications for the Training expert (likely
to be out-sourced).

Job outline: Training expert

Person • The ability to work in a trans-disciplinary team delivering
specification a specified quality of output, on time and within budget.
• Experience of training relevant to virtual museum project
and rollout.

Job • Plan, organise and implement training relevant to virtual

specification museum project and rollout.
• Work with associate museums to deliver shared training
and curriculum development.

Figure 15: Training expert outline

Figure 16 lists the main person and job specifications for the translation expert
(likely to be out-sourced).

Job outline: Translation

Person • The ability to work in a trans-disciplinary team delivering
specification a specified quality of output, on time and within budget.
• Translation skills in relevant target foreign languages with
 experience of working in cultural spheres and/or e-
services.

Job • To translate content and materials relevant to the project.

specification • To assist the project in its international work.

Figure 16: Translation expert outline

5 IMPACT ON EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES

The initial piloting of the virtual museum and plans for its subsequent rollout are
likely to impact positively on equal opportunities policies and actions in museums.

• Small institutions can gain advantage from sharing training resource with larger
institutions. This is particularly so where small institutions are located outside
of major tourist centres and/or are under-funded. The virtual presence allows
service providers to punch above their weight, in the sense of showcasing their
treasures with the same professionalism and settings available to larger and
better funded institutions. Technology can be a great leveller and offers the
smaller and perhaps less visited museum the opportunity of appearing
interesting and worthy of visiting.
• Like all innovations, the virtual museum is an opportunity to act positively
against gendered structures and staff profiles. In particular, virtual working can
be family-friendly if linked to opportunities for remote and flexible working. A
recent survey of virtual museums, shows that almost 50% (22 out of 50)
participants in projects by five museums were women and in three of the five
case the project team was headed by a woman.29
• By its nature, working with ICTs offers the opportunity to overcome physical
disability and often releases the potential of disabled employees.30
• Network participation is costly and the returns on investment may not be
immediately obvious. Participation in Internet communities of researchers and
specialists, by virtual museums enables museums to derive the benefits of
knowledge flows from advanced communities at a lower cost than participation
in physical networks.

In summary, as a set of tools ICTs can reinforce unequal opportunities and act as
another set of barriers to disadvantage sections of society. However, used
positively ICT tools can help to reduce barriers and strengthen equal opportunities.
This perspective can be introduced as a thematic to each virtual museum project
and evaluated as a key goal of each project.

29
The sample has been selected with a random process and the number
and the profiles of women arise from the analysis of the
information included into the site. The sites of the sample are
found at the following: Vivre au bord du Danube il y a 6500 ans
http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/arcnat/harsova/fr/index.html
A More Perfect Union: Japanese Americans and the U.S
Constitution. http://americanhistory.si.edu/perfectunion/
Van Gogh Museum http://www.vangoghmuseum.nl
Czech National Museum http://www.nm.cz/english/
Mysteries of Catalhoyuk http://www.smm.org/catal/introduction/
30
Even if the accessibility for disabled people is not yet common
in cultural sites. It is worth of mention the site Mysteries of
Catalhoyuk because it meets the requisites of accessibility of US
Government's Section 508 accessibility guidelines, see
http://www.smm.org/catal/introduction/
6 EFFECTS ON SOCIAL DIALOGUE IN TRAINING STRATEGIES

Qualified professionals occupy positions of privilege in the management of many

organisations delivering professional services. This can be to the detriment of
engagement with professionals from other governances. As services switch to e-
services models, tradition demarcations between sets of competences (in this
case such as archaeologists, accountants, pedagogues, support staff or
technicians) becomes blurred as the service package is taken closer to the
customer/visitor and integrated to suit the customer/visitor.

Such changes are an opportunity to promote social dialogue between groups from
different governances, led by the expectations of the customer. Some museums
have a tradition of hierarchic management by qualified professionals to the
exclusion of other groups of staff or their trade unions. An innovative project, such
as the virtual museum is an opportunity to shift towards a culture of team working
that is welcoming to the contribution from all groups of staff. It is especially
important when a project involves decisions on training and outsourcing that staff
can move forward with a shared vision.