1.

BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
Aristotle’s classification of cell wall. But prokaryotes and eukaryotes are widely
- Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more scientific differed in other characteristics.
basis for classification of organisms. It included the unicellular and the multicellular organisms
- He classified plants into trees, shrubs & herbs and in same group. E.g. Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra were
animals into two groups, those which had red blood and placed under algae.
those that did not. It did not differentiate between the heterotrophic fungi
and the autotrophic green plants. Fungi have chitinous
Two-kingdom classification
- In Linnaeus' time Two Kingdom classification (Kingdom cell wall while the green plants have cellulosic cell wall.
Plantae & Kingdom Animalia) was developed. Five Kingdom Classification
- It is proposed by R.H. Whittaker (1969).
Drawbacks of 2-kingdom classification
- It includes Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae & Animalia.
Prokaryotes (Bacteria, cyanobacteria) and eukaryotes
(fungi, mosses, ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms) - This classification is based on cell structure, thallus
were included under ‘Plants’. It is based on the presence organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction and
phylogenetic relationships.

Characteristics of the five kingdoms

Five kingdoms
Characters
Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Non-cellular
Present (without Present
Cell wall (polysaccharide + Present in some Absent
cellulose) (cellulose)
amino acid)
Nuclear membrane Absent Present Present Present Present
Multicellular, Tissue/organ/
Body organisation Cellular Cellular Tissue/organ
loose tissue organ system
Autotrophic
(photosynthetic & Autotrophic Heterotrophic Heterotrophic
Autotrophic
Mode of nutrition chemosynthetic) and (photosynthetic) (saprophytic or (holozoic,
(photosynthetic)
heterotrophic and heterotrophic parasitic) saprophytic etc)
(saprophyte/parasite)

1. KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)

- Bacteria are the most abundant microorganisms. II. Eubacteria (‘true bacteria’)
- Hundreds of bacteria are present in a handful of soil. - They are characterized by the presence of a rigid cell
- They also live in extreme habitats such as hot springs, wall and a flagellum (if motile).
deserts, snow & deep oceans. Many are parasites. - They include Autotrophs (photosynthetic and
- Based on the shape, bacteria are 4 categories: chemosynthetic) and Heterotrophs.
o Coccus (Spherical) o Bacillus (Rod-shaped)
a. Photosynthetic autotrophs (E.g. Cyanobacteria):
o Vibrium (Comma-shaped) o Spirillum (Spiral)
- They have chlorophyll a similar to green plants.
- Bacterial structure is very simple but they are complex in
- Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are unicellular, colonial
behaviour and show extensive metabolic diversity.
or filamentous, marine or terrestrial algae. The colonies
- Some bacteria are autotrophic (synthesize food from
are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath. They often
inorganic substrates). Majority are heterotrophs (they do
form blooms in polluted water bodies. Some of these can
not synthesize the food but depend on other organisms or
fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialized cells called
on dead organic matter for food).
heterocysts, e.g., Nostoc and Anabaena.
I. Archaebacteria b. Chemosynthetic autotrophs:
- They live in harshest habitats such as extreme salty areas - They oxidize various inorganic substances such as
(halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and use the released energy
marshy areas (methanogens). for their ATP production.
- Archaebacteria have a different cell wall structure for - They play a great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen,
their survival in extreme conditions. phosphorous, iron and sulphur.
- Methanogens are present in the guts of ruminant animals
c. Heterotrophic bacteria:
(cows, buffaloes etc). They produce methane (biogas)
- They are the most abundant in nature.
from the dung of these animals.
- The majority are important decomposers.

1
Impacts of Heterotrophic bacteria on human affairs:  Under unfavourable conditions, they produce spores.
 They are used to make curd from milk.  They also reproduce by a sort of sexual reproduction by
 Production of antibiotics. adopting a primitive type of DNA transfer from one
 Fixing nitrogen in legume roots etc. bacterium to the other.
 Some are pathogens causing damage to human beings, Mycoplasmas are organisms without a cell wall. They are
crops, farm animals and pets. E.g. Cholera, typhoid, the smallest living cells known. They can survive without
tetanus, and citrus canker. oxygen. Many are pathogenic in animals and plants.
Reproduction in Bacteria:
 Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission.

2. KINGDOM PROTISTA
- It includes single-celled eukaryotes. - They are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight.
- The cell contains a well defined nucleus and other When deprived of sunlight they behave like heterotrophs
membrane-bound organelles. Some have flagella or cilia. by predating on other smaller organisms.
- Protists are primarily aquatic. - The pigments of euglenoids are identical to those present
- This kingdom forms a link with plants, animals and fungi. in higher plants. Example: Euglena.
- They reproduce asexually and sexually by a process IV. Slime Moulds
involving cell fusion and zygote formation. - They are saprophytic protists.
- Protista includes Chrysophytes, Dianoflagellates, - The body moves along decaying twigs and leaves
Euglenoids, Slime moulds and Protozoans. engulfing organic material.
I. Chrysophytes - Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation
- They are found in fresh water and marine environments. called plasmodium which may grow and spread over
- They are microscopic and float passively in water several feet.
currents (plankton). - During unfavourable conditions, the plasmodium
- Most of them are photosynthetic. differentiates and forms fruiting bodies bearing spores at
- It includes diatoms & golden algae (desmids). their tips. Spores possess true walls. They are extremely
- Diatoms: They have siliceous cell walls forming two thin resistant and survive for many years. The spores are
overlapping shells, which fit together as in a soap box. dispersed by air currents.
The cell wall deposit of diatoms over billions of years in V. Protozoans
their habitat is known as ‘diatomaceous earth’. This is They are heterotrophs (predators or parasites).
used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups. Diatoms They are believed to be primitive relatives of animals.
are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans. There are 4 major groups of protozoans:
II. Dianoflagellates a. Amoeboid protozoans: They live in fresh water, sea
- Mostly marine and photosynthetic. water or moist soil. They move and capture prey by
- They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending putting out pseudopodia (false feet). E.g. Amoeba.
on the main pigments present in their cells. Marine forms have silica shells on their surface. Some of
- The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface. them are parasites. E.g. Entamoeba.
- Most of them have 2 flagella; one lies longitudinally and b. Flagellated protozoans: They are either free-living or
the other transversely in a furrow between the wall plates. parasitic. They have flagella. The parasitic forms cause
- Red dianoflagellates (E.g. Gonyaulax) undergo rapid diseases such as sleeping sickness. E.g. Trypanosoma.
multiplication so that the sea appears red (red tides). c. Ciliated protozoans: They are aquatic, actively moving
Toxins released by such large numbers can kill other organisms with the help of thousands of cilia. They have
marine animals such as fishes. a cavity (gullet) that opens to the outside. Due to the
III. Euglenoids coordinated movement of cilia, the water with food
- Mainly fresh water organisms found in stagnant water. enters into gullet. E.g. Paramoecium.
- Instead of a cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called d. Sporozoans: They include organisms that have an
pellicle which makes their body flexible. infectious spore-like stage in their life cycle. E.g.
- They have two flagella, a short and a long one. Plasmodium (malarial parasite) which causes malaria.

3. KINGDOM FUNGI
- It is a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms. - White spots seen on mustard leaves are due to a parasitic
- Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil and fungus.
on animals and plants. - Some fungi are the source of antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium.
- They prefer to grow in warm and humid places. - Some unicellular fungi (e.g. yeast) are used to make
- E.g. bread mould, orange rots, mushroom, toadstools etc. bread and beer.

2
- Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals. E.g. II. Ascomycetes (sac-fungi)
wheat rust-causing Puccinia. - They are unicellular (e.g., yeast, Sacharomyces) or
- Except yeasts, fungi are filamentous. Their bodies consist multicellular (e.g., Penicillium).
of long, slender thread-like structures called hyphae. The - They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or
network of hyphae is known as mycelium. coprophilous (growing on dung).
- Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with - Mycelium is branched and septate.
multinucleated cytoplasm. These are called coenocytic - Asexual reproduction: By conidia produced
hyphae. Others have septae or cross walls in hyphae. exogenously on the special mycelium called
- Fungal cell wall is made of chitin & polysaccharides. conidiophores. Conidia germinate to produce mycelium.
- Most fungi are saprophytes (absorb soluble organic - Sexual reproduction: By ascospores produced
matter from dead substrates). Some are parasites. endogenously in sac like asci (sing. ascus). The asci are
- Some live as symbionts – in association with algae as arranged to form fruiting bodies called ascocarps.
lichens and with roots of higher plants as mycorrhiza. - E.g. Aspergillus, Claviceps and Neurospora.
Reproduction: - Neurospora is used extensively in biochemical and
- Vegetative propagation: By fragmentation, fission & genetic work. Many members like morels and buffles are
budding. edible and are considered delicacies.
- Asexual reproduction: By spores called conidia or III. Basidiomycetes
sporangiospores or zoospores. - Includes mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs.
- Sexual reproduction: By oospores, ascospores and - They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living
basidiospores. They are produced in distinct structures plant bodies as parasites (e.g., rusts and smuts).
called fruiting bodies. - The mycelium is branched and septate.
- The sexual cycle involves 3 steps: - The asexual spores are generally not found, but
a. Plasmogamy: Fusion of protoplasm between two vegetative reproduction by fragmentation is common.
motile or non-motile gametes. - The sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy is brought
b. Karyogamy: Fusion of two nuclei. about by fusion of two vegetative or somatic cells of
c. Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores. different strains or genotypes. The resultant structure is
- When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae dikaryotic which ultimately gives rise to basidium.
of compatible mating types come together and fuse. Karyogamy and meiosis take place in the basidium
- In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells immediately producing four basidiospores. The basidiospores are
results in diploid cells (2n). exogenously produced on the basidium. The basidia are
- In other fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes), a arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps.
dikaryotic stage or dikaryophase (n + n i.e. two nuclei - E.g. Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut) and Puccinia
per cell) occurs. Such a condition is called a dikaryon. (rust fungus).
Later, parental nuclei fuse and the cells become diploid.
IV. Deuteromycetes
- The fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction - Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the
division occurs, leading to formation of haploid spores. asexual or vegetative phases of these fungi are known.
Based on the morphology of mycelium, mode of spore - When the sexual forms of these fungi were discovered
formation and fruiting bodies, Fungi are classified into they were moved into classes they rightly belong to.
various classes such as Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, - It is also possible that the asexual and vegetative stage
Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes. have been given one name (and placed under
I. Phycomycetes (Lower Fungi) deuteromycetes) and the sexual stage another (and placed
- They occur in aquatic habitats and on decaying wood in under another class). Later when the linkages were
moist and damp places or as obligate parasites on plants. established, the fungi were correctly identified and moved
- The mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic. out of deuteromycetes.
- Asexual reproduction: takes place by zoospores - Once perfect (sexual) stages of members of
(motile) or by aplanospores (non-motile). These are deuteromycetes were discovered they were often moved
produced in sporangium. to ascomycetes and basidiomycetes.
- Sexual reproduction: Zygospores are formed by fusion - Deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual spores
of two gametes. These gametes are isogamous (similar in (conidia).
morphology) or anisogamous or oogamous (dissimilar). - The mycelium is septate and branched.
- E.g. Mucor, Rhizopus (bread mould) and Albugo - Some are saprophytes or parasites while majority are
(parasitic fungi on mustard). decomposers of litter and help in mineral cycling.
- E.g. Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.

3
 4. KINGDOM PLANTAE (PLANT KINGDOM)
- It includes all plants (eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing - Life cycle of plants has two distinct phases – the diploid
organisms with cellulosic cell wall). sporophytic & the haploid gametophytic – that alternate
- Some are partially heterotrophic such as the with each other.
insectivorous plants (e.g. Bladderwort and Venus fly - The lengths of the haploid and diploid phases, and
trap) or parasites (e.g. Cuscuta). whether these phases are free living or dependent on
- Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, others, vary among different groups in plants. This
gymnosperms and angiosperms. phenomenon is called alternation of generation.

5. KINGDOM ANIMALIA (ANIMAL KINGDOM)

- They are multicellular, heterotrophic, eukaryotic - They have a definite growth pattern and grow into adults
organisms without cell wall. that have a definite shape and size.
- They directly or indirectly depend on plants for food. - Higher forms show sensory and neuromotor mechanism.
- They digest their food in an internal cavity and store food - Most of them are capable of locomotion.
reserves as glycogen or fat. Their mode of nutrition is - The sexual reproduction is by copulation of male and
holozoic – by ingestion of food. female followed by embryological development.

VIRUSES, VIROIDS AND LICHENS

- In the five-kingdom classification, acellular organisms - W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses could be
(viruses & viroids) and lichens are not mentioned. crystallized and crystals consist largely of proteins.
- Viruses are not truly ‘living’. So they are not included in - In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic
five-kingdom classification. material (RNA or DNA). No virus contains both RNA &
- Viruses are non-cellular organisms having an inert DNA. A virus is a nucleoprotein and the genetic material
crystalline structure outside the living cell. is infectious.
- Viruses are obligate parasites. - In general, viruses that infect plants have single stranded
- When they infect a cell they take over the machinery of RNA and viruses that infect animals have either single or
the host cell to replicate themselves, killing the host. double stranded RNA or double stranded DNA.
- The name virus (means venom or poisonous fluid) was Bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) are usually
given by Pasteur. double stranded DNA viruses.
- D.J. Ivanowsky (1892) recognized certain microbes that - The protein coat (capsid) made of small subunits
cause mosaic disease of tobacco. They were smaller than (capsomeres) protects nucleic acid. Capsomeres are
bacteria because they passed through bacteria-proof filters. arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric forms.
- M.W. Beijerinek (1898) demonstrated that the extract of - Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, herpes,
the infected plants of tobacco could cause infection in influenza and AIDS. In plants, the symptoms can be
healthy plants and called the fluid as Contagium vivum mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and
fluidum (infectious living fluid). vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.

MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Based on the relationship. Fill in the blanks.
a) Sac fungi: Ascomycetes Imperfect fungi: ................................
b) Cytotaxonomy : Based on cytological information ........................ : Based on chemical constituents.
c) Ciliated Protozoans: Paramecium Flagellated Protozoans: ................................
d) Round shaped bacteria : …………… Rod shaped bacteria : Bacillus
2. Louis Pasteur named virus which means venom or poisonous fluid.
a. Who crystallized virus for the first time?
b. Name one plant disease caused by virus
3. Arrange the organisms given in brackets under two categories, prokaryotes and Eukaryotes.
(Rhizopus, Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Nostoc, Bacteria, Yeast, Paramecium, Mycoplasma, Anabaena)
4. Select the odd man. Justify your answer.
a) Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Mycoplasma, Euglenoids
b) Oscillatoria, Spirulina, Ascomycete, Nostoc