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PARKING
FALL 2008

Northeastern University School of Architecture

ARCH G691 Graduate Degree Project Studio

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FALL 2008

PARKING
Northeastern University School of Architecture
ARCH G691 Graduate Degree Project Studio

MARIA BABYAK CHRISTOPHER GODFREY

ALETA BUDD BRITTANY LEVINE
CAVIN COSTELLO MICHAEL PRATTICO
CHRISTOPHER CROCKER BRIDGETTE TREADO
JUSTIN DICRISTOFALO JOSEPH YACOBELLIS
arc G69 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k

INTROdUCTION
Introduction

8’-0” 18’-0”
1 Fundamentals
1.1 Basic Dimensions
96”
1.2 Stall Layouts

fundamentals
1.3 Accessibility

90°
1.4 Level of Service

2 Types
8’-0” A Two Way Single Helix

B Central Two Way

C One Way Double Helix

types
D Split Level

E Express Ramp

3 Planning and Design

S 3.1 Structure

PLANNING AND DESIGN

3.2 Enclosure Strategies

3.3 Economics

3.4 Ground Floor Planning

3.5 Pedestrian Access

3.6 User Behavior

SOURCES
Sources
Introduction
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Introduction

INTRODUCTION
fundamentals
The scope of this study has been carefully defined Considering the pragmatic nature of parking
to consider only multi-storied structured parking structures, their success is quanifiable.
garages which utilize traditional ramping Structural capacities, dimensional limitations,

types
technologies as a means of moving vehicles. and occupational demands can be calculated to
Single-storied structures and surface lots have define the most efficient structure for any given
been exluded, along with structures employing site. Parking garages are therefore valued less
mechanical lifts as a method conveying vehicles. for the aesthetic qualities, and more so for their
While surface lots and mechanical lifts are both economic and programatic efficiencies.
viable solutions to parking, they do not address

PLANNING AND DESIGN

the fundamental issues of ramping and pedestrian The purpose of this book is to define the essential
circulation as will be explored throughout this design criteria for architects conceptualizing new
guide. parking structures. There exists in the
marketplace a broad spectrum of parking design
Structured parking is a unique building typology. literature, from general graphic references to
Unlike typical buildings, parking structures exist to detailed specifications. What is missing is a
satisfy a singular need: to efficiently store a large middle ground, an appropriately comprehensive
number of vehicles in the smallest space possible. guidebook for architectural designers. This book
With population growing and urban centers is that middle ground.

SOURCES
becoming continuously more congested, the
demand for more efficient parking solutions is
exponential.
Fundamentals
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Fundamentals

INTROdUCTION
fundamentals
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
The following chapter of information will include
the basic information for parking garage layouts,
such as, parking stall sizes, drive aisle dimen-
sions, height restrictions, turning radii, and ramp
dimensions. Further information regarding acces-
sible parking and level of service are also included
within this chapter. The chapters following the
fundamentals chapter will probe further into the
design criteria required to successfully develop a

SOURCES
structured parking garage. Local codes and zon-
ing codes must be consulted for further
information.
 ’-6
M

”
IN
24’
-0”
INTROdUCTION

1.1 Basic Dimensions

Height & Parking Stall Size Turning Radius:

Flat & On-Ramp Parking
fundamentals

Figure 1.1.1 Height Clearance

Single Lane Minimum
Turning Radius in
7’-0”

Parking Area

18’-0”
Standard minimum clear height of a parking level Figure 1.1.3 Single Lane Turning Radius Figure 1.1.4 Two Lane Turning Radius
from finish floor to finished ceiling shall be 7’-0”.
Bottom of structure, finishes, and infrastructure
9’-0”

26 IN
must not project below 7’-0” clear. Refer to the

’6
M
rest of this chapter for further requirements.

”
types

8’-2”

14 IN
24’
’-6
M -0”
R
”
Figure 1.1.2 Parking Stall Size
24’
-0”
R
18’-0”
PLANNING AND DESIGN

6” CLEAR
24’-0

”
’-6

9’-0”
13

Standard stall sizes are 9’-0” wide and 18’-0” in Standard minimum single lane turning radius for Standard minimum two lane turning radius for flat
Two Lane Minimum
depth. Local zoning codes and level of service SingleorLane
flat surfaces Minimum
on-ramp parking areas is 24’-0” surfaces or on-ramp parking areas is 24’-0” for
Turning Radius in
(LOS) determine parking stall dimensions and for theTurning Radius
outside turning in The minimum clear
radius. the outside turning Area
Parking radius. The minimum clear dis-
must be consulted. Back up requirements as well
Parking Area
distance for a single lane single direction is 14’-6”. tance for a two lane single direction is 26’-6”.Refer
as orientation must be taken into consideration Refer to parking layouts in this section for mini- to parking layouts in this section for minimum
SOURCES

when laying out parking stalls. Refer to the rest of mum dimensions regarding back up conditions, dimensions regarding back up conditions, and
this chapter for further information. and ramp slopes for required minimum slopes for ramp slopes for required minimum slopes for on
on ramp parking. See Figure 1.3 ramp parking. See Figure 1.4
26 I
’6
M

”
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Fundamentals
1.1 Basic Dimensions

INTROdUCTION
9’-0”

8’-2”
Turning Radius:
Non-Parking Ramps

fundamentals
Figure 1.1.5 Minimum Single Lane Radius

Standard minimum clearance for a vehicle’s turn-

”
6” CLEAR

24’-0
ing radius on a non-parking ramp is 13’-6” clear.

”
’-6
The outside turning radius must me a minimum

13
24’-0”. A minimum clearance of 6” is required to
any obstruction along the outside minimum radius.
See Figure 1.1.5

types
Image 1.1.6 Minimum Two Lane Radius
”

6” CLEAR
12’-0

PLANNING AND DESIGN

Standard minimum clearance for a two lane vehi-
cle’s turning radius on a non-parking ramp is 13’-
”
13’-6

6” clear with an additional 12’-0” clear as the

”
’-0

passing lane. The outside dimension of the radius

36

must be a minimum 36’-0”. A minimum clearance

of 6” is required to any obstruction along the out-
side minimum radius. See Figure 1.1.6

SOURCES
 1
SLOPE:20
5% MAX
(2% CROSS SLOPE)
INTROdUCTION

SLOPE: 5% MAX
(2% CROSS SLOPE)

Ramping 30’-0” MAX

Figure 1.1.7 Non-Parking Ramp with
Pedestrian Circulation 30’-0” MAX
Ramps with a max slope of 12% can be a maxi-
fundamentals

mum of 30’-0” in length and are not considered an

accessible route for pedestrians with disabilities. 1
8.3331
Refer to Figure 1.1.9 Ramping Transitions for
ramps over a 10% slope and coordinate with turn- SLOPE: 12%1MAX
ing radius dimensions where turning occurs on 8.3331
(30’-0” MAX LENGTH)
ramping. See Figure 1.1.7. For ramp information
SLOPE: 12% MAX
regarding on-ramp parking refer to section 1.3
(30’-0” MAX LENGTH)
Accessible Parking.

Image 1.1.8 Non-Parking Ramp without

types

Pedestrian Circulation
Ramps with a max slope of 15% have no con-
straint to a maximum distance, however, are not
considered an accessible route for pedestrians.
Refer to Figure 1.1.9 Ramping Transitions for
1
ramps over a 10% slope and coordinate with turn- 6.6665
PLANNING AND DESIGN

ing radius dimensions where turning occurs on

SLOPE: 15%1MAX
ramping. See Figure 1.1.8. For ramp information 6.6665
regarding on-ramp parking refer to section 1.3
Accessible Parking. SLOPE: 15% MAX

Image 1.1.9 Ramping Transitions

Where a difference in slope of 10% or more occurs
between two sections of surface, a transition
10’-0”
10’-0”
slope is required. A transition slope of 1/2 the
SOURCES

slope difference must be provided. See Figure

1.1.9 10’-0”
10’-0”
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Fundamentals
1.1 Basic Dimensions

INTROdUCTION
fundamentals
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
INTROdUCTION

100’-0”

12’-0” 8’-0”
Stall Layouts

20’-0”
1.2
0° 0°
(Parallel) (Parallel)

11’-0” 19’-1”
fundamentals

30’-1”
45° 45°

Parking Stall Layout:

Minimum Dimensions

20’-0”
Standard single loaded parking configurations are

37’-0”
typically arranged at 45°, 60°, 75°, 90°, 0° (parallel
60° 60°
parking) angles. 30° layouts are typical, however

17’-0”
not efficient and therefore not shown. 5° incre-
types

ments between 45° and 90° are also possible for

non-typical conditions. Refer to Table 1.2.2 for
specific dimensions which factor in turnover rates 19’-5”
and car types. Parallel parking conditions are
non-typical conditions, but are shown for compari-
40’-5”

son to other angled parking types. 75° 75°

PLANNING AND DESIGN

21’-0”

The parking layouts in Figure 1.2.1 describes a

minimum dimension situation for five types of
parking angles. One way traffic patterns are
shown. Double loaded parking configurations are
possible and more typical than single loaded con-
18’-0”

figurations. A minimum of 22’-0” is required for

aisle ways where two way traffic is present and
41’’-0

23-0”-24’-0” is allows for safe pedestrian circula- 90° 90°

SOURCES

23’-0”

tion in drive aisles.

Figure 1.2.1 Minimum Stall Layout (right)
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Fundamentals
1.2 Stall Layouts

INTROdUCTION
Table 1.2.2 Minimum Dimension Area
Calcs

fundamentals
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
INTROdUCTION

12’-0” 8’-0”
AW VPw

20’-0”
W2
0°
Parking Stall Layout: (Parallel)
Variable Dimensions

11’-0” 19’-1”
VPw
fundamentals

Variable dimensions for drive aisles, vehicle park-

30’-1”
W2
ing depth and overall width relate to level of ser- 45°

AW
vice. Refer to Tables 1.2.5 and 1.2.6 for more
variable sizes regarding stall orientations shown
in Figure 1.2.3 and more orientation options not

20’-0”
shown.

VPw
Figure 1.2.3 Variable Stall Layout (right)

37’-0”
W2
60°
Figure 1.2.4 Interlock Parking Layout

17’-0”
AW
types

19’-5”
VPw

40’-5”
W4

75°
W2
PLANNING AND DESIGN

21’-0”
AW

18’-0”
VPw

One other possible parking stall layout is the inter-

41’’-0
W2

lock type layout, which is not typical, however can 90°

SOURCES

23’-0”
AW

be used in large area layouts with many different

stall orientations (45° Parking is shown). Refer to
Table 1.2.5 and 1.2.6 for more information.
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Fundamentals
1.2 Stall Layouts

INTROdUCTION
Table 1.2.5 Variable Dimensions

fundamentals
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
SOURCES PLANNING AND DESIGN types fundamentals INTROdUCTION

Table 1.2.6 Variable Dimensions

ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Fundamentals
1.2 Stall Layouts

INTROdUCTION
fundamentals
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
 18’-0”
INTROdUCTION

1.3 Accessible Parking 8’-0” 5’-0” 8’-0”

Figure 1.3.1 Van Parking Stall Size Figure 1.3.3 Parking Stall Size

18’-0”
18’-0”
fundamentals

8’-0” 8’-0” 8’-0” 8’-0” 5’-0” 8’-0”

Accessible parking refers to the parking provided Minimum width and depth for accessible van park- Minimum width and depth for accessible parking
for individuals with disabilities. Accessibility for ing stalls are 8’-0” and 18’-0” respectively. An 8’- stalls are 8’-0” wide and a depth of 18’-0”. A 5’-0”
disabled individuals must be taken into consider- 0” clear isle must be located directly adjacent to clear isle must be located directly adjacent to the

7’-0” 18’-0”
ation when designing a parking garage. All public the handicap accessible parking stall. Two van handicap accessible parking stall. Two accessi-

18’-0”
parking garages must accommodate disabled accessible parking stalls may share a single 8’-0” ble parking stalls may share a single 5’-0” wide
types

individuals. The following section includes acces- wide clear aisle way. Refer to Table 1.3.5 to deter- clear aisle way. Refer to Table 1.3.5 to determine
sible parking stall quantity and sizes, height mine the number of accessible parking stalls the number of accessible parking stalls required

18’-0”
restrictions, and ramp slopes. Refer to Chapter 3 required, and refer to local zoning code for more per number of parking stalls, and refer to local
Planning and Design for further information information. 8’-0” 8’-0” zoning code 8’-0” 8’-0” 8’-0”
for more information.
regarding accessible pedestrian circulation
around core elements such as stairs and elevator. Figure 1.3.2 Height Clearance Figure 1.3.4 On-Ramp Parking Slope
PLANNING AND DESIGN

Refer to the section 1.1 Basic Dimensions for 9’-0”

18’-0”
more information as well as local zoning and
8’-2”

handicap codes.
1
20

SLOPE: 5% MAX
8’-0”SLOPE)
(2% CROSS 8’-0”
Accessible minimum clear height of a parking Accessible on-ramp parking slopes can be a
level from finish floor to finished ceiling shall be no maximum of 1:20 (5%). The cross slope can be a
SOURCES

less than 8’-2”. Bottom of structure, finishes, and maximum slope of 2%. (Note: On-Ramp parking
”

6”
infrastructure must not project below 8’-2” clear in CLEAR
for non-disabled individuals must meet the criteria
24’-0

described above.) 30’-0” MAX

”

the location of an accessible route.

’-6
13
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Fundamentals
1.3 Accessible Parking

INTROdUCTION
Table 1.3.5 Accessible Parking Stalls

fundamentals
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
INTROdUCTION

1.4 Level of Service

vis
i to
ru
high turnover

se
low turnover
fundamentals

familiar use
% FULL
100%
types

90%
80%
70%

60%
PLANNING AND DESIGN

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%
SOURCES

IN
12:00
10:00

11:00

4:00

6:00
8:00

5:00
7:00

3:00
2:00

7:00
9:00

1:00

OUT
AM/PM
PEAK HOUR PER USE
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Fundamentals
1.4 Level of Service

INTROdUCTION
Level of Service
Level of Service (LOS) is a standard utilized by highest level of service and representing a class a lower level of parking can be used where as a
traffic engineers to assess the quality of streets of user that is not familiar with the facility and LOS patron of a retail facility may not be familiar with
and its users and was later adopted by parking D the lowest level of service representing those the facility and so a mid level of service might be
consultants for parking design to assign a cate- highly familiar with the facility. LOS is also deter- appropriate. In high turnover situations such as at

fundamentals
gory of quality and use to structures. Walker mined by location. In a dense urban area affected an airport, a high level of service will be most
Parking Consultants of Boston pioneered this by scarcity of land, a lower level of service may appropriate to facilitate unfamiliar users pressed
cross application of assigning levels of service to naturally arise. LOS is virtually the first variable for time to catch their flight. While there is no one
parking facility design. LOS varies according to that should be considered when designing any standard that is used for each facility, many facili-
different circumstances and is essentially a factor kind of parking facility. Questions that will surface ties are a hybrid of levels of service, this chapter
of use, familiarity and turnover. Figure 1.17 gives initially such as who is the user and how long are provides a brief snap shot of the general consider-
an overall snapshot of use and turnover. Particular they generally expected to stay at their destina- ations and requirements of levels of service for
usage is mapped below. Within parking applica- tion will determine what level of service will be the architect to make informed decisions during
tions there are four recognized levels of service appropriate. For example, an employee is often the schematic phase of design.
ranging from A through D with LOS A being the very familiar with a parking garage and therefore

types
100% 100%
90% 90%
80% 80%

PLANNING AND DESIGN

70% 70%
60% Hospital Employer 60% Hospital Visitor
50% FAMILIAR 50% VISITOR
40% 40%

30% 30%

20% 20%

10% 10%

SOURCES
12:00
10:00

11:00

12:00
4:00

10:00

11:00
6:00
8:00

5:00
7:00

3:00
2:00

7:00
9:00

1:00

4:00

6:00
8:00

5:00
7:00

3:00
2:00

7:00
9:00

AM/PM AM/PM 1:00

PERCENT FULL PEAK HOUR PERCENT FULL PEAK HOUR

Figure 1.18 Figure 1.19

Turnover during morning and afternoon/evening peak hour per use
INTROdUCTION

100% 100%
90% 90%
80% 80%
70% 70%
60% 60%
fundamentals

50% 50%

40% 40%
Office General Retail / Restaurant
30% 30%
FAMILIAR VISITOR
20% 20%

10% 10%

12:00
10:00

11:00
12:00
10:00

11:00

4:00

6:00
8:00

5:00
4:00

7:00

3:00
2:00

7:00
9:00
6:00

1:00
8:00

5:00
7:00

3:00
2:00

7:00
9:00

1:00

AM/PM AM/PM
PEAK HOUR PERCENT FULL PERCENT FULL PEAK HOUR
types

Figure 1.20 Figure 1.21

100% 100%
90% 90%
80% 80%
70% 70%
60%
PLANNING AND DESIGN

60%

50% 50%
Residential Convenience Rateial / Banking
40% 40%
FAMILIAR VISITOR
30% 30%

20% 20%

10% 10%
12:00
10:00

11:00

12:00
10:00

11:00
4:00

6:00
8:00

5:00

4:00
7:00

3:00
2:00

7:00
9:00

1:00

6:00
8:00

5:00
7:00

3:00
2:00

7:00
9:00

1:00

AM/PM AM/PM
SOURCES

PEAK HOUR PERCENT FULL

PERCENT FULL PEAK HOUR

Figure 1.22 Figure 1.23

ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Fundamentals
1.4 Level of Service

INTROdUCTION
100% 100%
90% 90%
80% 80%
70% 70%
60% 60%
Airport Short-Term

fundamentals
50% 50%

40% 40%
Medical Office
30% 30%
VISITOR VISITOR
20% 20%
Airport Mid-Term
10% 10%
Airport Long-Term

12:00
10:00

11:00
12:00
10:00

11:00

4:00

6:00
8:00

5:00
7:00

3:00
2:00

7:00
9:00
4:00

1:00
6:00
8:00

5:00
7:00

3:00
2:00

7:00
9:00

1:00

PERCENT FULL

AM/PM PEAK HOUR PERCENT FULL

AM/PM PEAK HOUR

types
Figure 1.24 Figure 1.25

100% 100%
90% 90%
80% 80%
70% 70%

PLANNING AND DESIGN

60% 60%

50% 50%
Hotel / Motel Special Event
40% 40%
VISITOR VISITOR
30% 30%

20% 20%

10% 10%

12:00
10:00

11:00
12:00
10:00

11:00

4:00

6:00
8:00

5:00
7:00

3:00
4:00

2:00

7:00
9:00

1:00
6:00
8:00

5:00
7:00

3:00
2:00

7:00
9:00

1:00

AM/PM AM/PM

SOURCES
PEAK HOUR PERCENT FULL PERCENT FULL PEAK HOUR

Figure 1.26 Figure 1.27

INTROdUCTION

Parking Structure Anatomy

The components of the parking structure will vary
depending on what level of service is chosen.
fundamentals

Parking structure components include structure

as it relates to ceiling height, ramp slope, turning
radii and turning bay dimensions, among many
other components. Table 1.4 summerizes the
major design parameters with regard to its spe-
cific level of service.

Figure 1.28 gives a snapshot map of the major

design parameters to be considered that can be
used as a quick tool during the earliest stages of
types

preliminary planning. This section should be used

in collaboration with the parking structure overall
dimensions discussed later in this book.
PLANNING AND DESIGN

Figure 1.28
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Fundamentals
1.4 Level of Service

INTROdUCTION
LOS A LOS B LOS C LOS D
DESIGN PARAMETERS
Maximum Walking Distance 300’-0” 600’-0” 900’-0” 1200’-0”
Wayfinding Clear Height - Slab Beam 9’-0” 8’-4” 7’-8” 7’-0”

fundamentals
Clear Height - Other Construction Types 9’-8” 9’-0” 8’-4” 7’-8”
Ramp Slope 5% 5.50% 6% 6.5%
Maximum Distance to Open Side 100’-0” 150’-0” 200’-0” 250’-0”
Percent Spaces on Flat Floor 90% 60% 30% 0%
Lane Width Straight - One Lane
Nonpark Roadways Lane Width Straight - Multiple Lanes
11’-6”
10’-6”
11’-0”
10’-0”
10’-6”
9’-6”
10’-0”
9’-0”
Lane Width Turning - One Lane 13’-6” 13’-6” 13’-6” 13’-6”
Lane Width Turning - Each Additional Lane 12’-0” 12’-0” 12’-0” 12’-0”
Turning Radius 42’-0” 36’-0” 30’-0” 24’-0”
Circular Helix Outside Diameter - Single Threaded 102’-0” 88’-0” 74’-0” 60’-0”
Circular Helix Outside Diameter - Double Threaded 125’-0” 110’-0” 95’-0” 80’-0”
Clearance to Obstructions 2’-0” 1’-6” 1’-0” 0’-6”

types
Express Ramp Slope 8% 10.6% 13.3% 16%
Transition Length 13’-0” 12’-0” 11’-0” 10’-0”
360 degree Turns to Top 2.5 4 5.5 7
Parking Areas Turning Radius 30’-0” 28’-0” 26’-0” 24’-0”
Short Circuit in Long Run 250’-0” 300’-0” 350’-0” 400’-0”
Travel Distance to Crossover 300’-0” 450’-0” 600’-0” 750’-0”
Spaces Searched / Passed - Angled 400 800 1200 1600
Spaces Searched / Passed - Perpendicular 250 500 750 1000
Turning Bay - One Lane 18’-3” 17’-0” 15’-9” 14’-6”

PLANNING AND DESIGN

Turning Bay - Two Concentric Lanes 31’-0” 29’-9” 28’-0” 26’-6”
Straight Lane Drive Ramp - One Way
Flow Capacity Straight Lane Drive Ramp - Two Way
1858 1855 1853 1850
1853 1850 1848 1845
Circular Helix - Single Threaded 1715 1631 1473 1169
Circular Helix - Double Threaded 1793 1761 1704 1589
Turning Bays (no parking on end bay) 1345 1233 1097 936

Design Flow Capacity 0.6 0.7 0.8 NOT

RECOMMENDED
(Hourly Flow Rate v / Capacity C)

SOURCES
Table 1.4
INTROdUCTION

Clear Height
LOS A LOS B

Slab Beam 9’-0” 8’-4”

Construction
fundamentals

Other
Construction 9’-8” 9’-0”
Types
types

LOS C LOS D

7’-8” 7’-0”
PLANNING AND DESIGN

8’-4” 7’-8”
SOURCES

Figure 1.29
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Fundamentals
1.4 Level of Service

INTROdUCTION
Ramp Slope

fundamentals
LOS A
5%

LOS B
5.5%

types
LOS C 6%

PLANNING AND DESIGN

LOS D
6.5%

SOURCES
Figure 1.30
INTROdUCTION

Parking Areas

LOS A LOS B LOS C LOS D

fundamentals

30’-0” 28’-0” 26’-0” 24’-0”

TURNING RADIUS
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN

ONE LANE 18’-3” 17’-0” 15’-9” 14’-6”

TWO
CONCENTRIC
LANES 31’-0” 29’-9” 28’-0” 26’-6”

TURNING BAY
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Fundamentals
1.4 Level of Service

INTROdUCTION
Non-Park Roadways
and Express Ramps
LOS A LOS B LOS C LOS D

fundamentals
SINGLE 102’-0” 88’-0” 74’-0” 60’-0”
DOUBLE 125’-0” 110’-0” 95’-0” 80’-0”

CIRCULAR HELIX

42’-0” 36’-0” 30’-0” 24’-0”

types
TURNING RADIUS

PLANNING AND DESIGN

13’-6” 13’-6” 13’-6” 13’-6”

SOURCES
TURNING BAY
INTROdUCTION

Parking Stall Geometrics

Generally, LOS A is more generous in its distribu-
M
tion of space within a parking module. LOS B is
I
fundamentals

VP A VP O
usually assigned to retail use and situations simi-
lar to LOS A with the main difference being the
rate of turnover. LOS C is typically used for
employee situations and LOS D will usually only
be accepted in severe urban situations where
FACE OF CURB
space is limited.

SP

SP SP
types

WO
COLUMN
PLANNING AND DESIGN

ENCROACHMENT
SW
(2’ MAX)
WP

SO

SL
SOURCES

Figure 1.33
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Fundamentals
1.4 Level of Service

INTROdUCTION
fundamentals
STALL
WIDTH
DIMENSIONS ANGLE (WP) (M) (A) (I) (VP) (WO) (O) (SO)
45 12’-9” 49’-6” 14’-8” 3’-2” 17’-5” 10’-8” 1’-9” 16’-6”
LOS A 9’-0” 60 10’-5” 54’-0” 16’-6” 2’-3” 18’-9” 7’-2” 2’-2” 9’-6”
75 9’-4” 57’-6” 19’-10” 1’-2” 18’-10” 3’-10” 2’-5” 4’-5”
90 9’-0” 61’-6” 26’-0” 0’-0” 17’-9” 1’-0” 2’-6” 0’-0”
45 12’-4” 48’-6” 13’-8” 3’-1” 17’-5” 10’-8” 1’-9” 16’-6”
LOS B 8’-9” 60 10’-1” 53’-0” 15’-6” 2’-2” 18’-9” 7’-2” 2’-2” 9’-6”

types
75 9’-1” 56’-6” 18’-10” 1’-1” 18’-10” 3’-10” 2’-5” 4’-5”
90 8’-9” 60’-6” 25’-0” 0’-0” 17’-9” 1’-0” 2’-6” 0’-0”
45 12’-0” 47’-6” 12’-8” 3’-0” 17’-5” 10’-8” 1’-9” 16’-6”
LOS C 8’-6” 60 9’-10” 52’-0” 14’-6” 2’-2” 18’-9” 7’-2” 2’-2” 9’-6”
75 8’-10” 55’-6” 17’-10” 1’-1” 18’-10” 3’-10” 2’-5” 4’-5”
90 8’-6” 69’-6” 24’-0” 0’-0” 17’-9” 1’-0” 2’-6” 0’-0”
45 11’-8” 46’-6” 11’-8” 2’-11” 17’-5” 10’-8” 1’-9” 16’-6”
LOS D 8’-3”
60 9’-6” 51’-0” 13’-6” 2’-1” 18’-9” 7’-2” 2’-2” 9’-6”

PLANNING AND DESIGN

75 8’-6” 54’-6” 16’-10” 1’-1” 18’-10” 3’-10” Table 1.5 4’-5”
2’-5”
90 8’-3” 68’-6” 23’-0” 0’-0” 17’-9” 1’-0” 2’-6” 0’-0”

LEGEND

M Module
A Aisle Width
I Interlock Reduction
O Overhang
SP Stripe Projection

SOURCES
VP Vehicle Projection
WP Width Projection
SW Stall Width
SL Stall Length
WO Wall Offset
SO Stripe Offset
Types

Type A Type B
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types

INTROdUCTION
One of the most unique architectural element through architectural means, it does not fit into the This chapter will focus its analysis on five different
associated with the typology of the parking category of ramp, structured parking garages. ramping configurations, or types. Starting from
structure is the ramp. Its use can be both functional Therefore, it will not be addressed in this book. the simplest in form, the two-way single helix is a
and aesthetic, acting to facilitate the vertical well developed, widely used system which
movement of vehicles as well as define a building’s The ramp was first introduced in 1914, with a split maximizes space by using the sloped surface

fundamentals
structure or facade. Perhaps no other building level garage, where the length of the ramp is both for driving and parking. Type B, the one-way
typology can make claim to such a unique, shortened by half stepping the floors. (This ramp double helix, takes a similar approach to type A,
identifying element. type is shown below.) Parking garage ramps while using two interconnected ramps to allow
finally gained full acceptance in 1922, and the dedicated drive aisles for cars moving in different
As it has developed over the past several decades, elevator was phased out of use, when Albert Kahn directions. The split level ramp, type C, uses flat
the parking ramp has taken on various created the continuous ramp for driving and floor plates for parking and small ramps to connect
configurations, each searching for a different way parking for the Fort Shelby Garage in Detroit. This the different levels. Type D, the two-way center
to solve the same problem: moving cars. The ramp type maximized the number of parking ramp, also uses flat plates for parking with a
earliest ramps utilzed freight elevators, which spaces, eliminated parking attendents, and central ramp connecting each level. Perhaps the
originated in warehouses, to transport cars created a constant flow of traffic through the most unqiue coniguration, the speedway ramp,

types
vertically, which is interesting because garage. In 1935, the open-deck garage was type E, uses spiral ramps attached to a flat plate
mechanized parking is now on the forefront of invented and was widely accepted as the norm system, to minimize the footprint needed for the
structured parking. Mechanized parking is once gasoline and engines were made to ramping system.
extremely efficient spatially, but because it moves withstand extreme drops in temperature.
cars through mechanical intervention, rather than

PLANNING AND DESIGN

SOURCES
Type C Type D Type E
 INTROdUCTION

A Two Way Single

Helix
Type A, or the Two Way Single Helix ramp garage, vehicular conflicts and it needs wider parking
is a continuous ramp that rises one tier every 360 modules. Wider parking modules are necessary
degrees. The main benefit of the Two Way Single because of the two lanes needed for traffic and
fundamentals

Helix ramp is that the single continuous ramp is because 90 degree stalls are best suited to avoid
easy to navigate for unfamiliar visitors. Type A difficult parking maneuvers. Vertical pedestrian
garages should not be designed for high peak vol- circulation is most often placed in the corners of
ume use or large capacity parking. The problem the flat areas, in the space unusable for parking.
with the single ramp is that it forces Type A to This allows for all accessible parking to be located
have two way traffic. Two way traffic can be neg- on the flat areas, and eliminates the need for more
ative because it creates more opportunities for gradually sloped ramps and a large floor plate.
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
A Two Way Single Helix

INTROdUCTION
fundamentals
90 degree stalls are best suited
for two way traffic to avoid difficult
parking maneuvers.

types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
Typical Vertical Pedestrian Circulation
 INTROdUCTION

Type A Planning Formula

2 [18cosine(SA) + 8.75tangent(SA)] + (2)AW + [100(HH + SD)]/RS = L

fundamentals

The formula above determines the overall length

of a Type A, Two-Way Single Helix parking garage
ramp. All lengths are in feet and all abbreviations
are represented in the top row of the matrix to the
right. This matrix calculates three garage
configurations, taking into account the variables
in the equation above in order to convey small,
typical, and large parking garages.
types

This turning radius verifies the vpW AW RL

minimum aisle width first listed in
the Fundamentals section 1.x.
L
PLANNING AND DESIGN

SD

RS
HH
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
A Two Way Single Helix

INTROdUCTION
Type A Matrix

STALL ANGLE STALL DEPTH AISLE WIDTH STRUCTURAL DEPTH HEAD HEIGHT RAMP SLOPE LENGTH

fundamentals
SA
VPw AW HH
SD RS%

MINIMUM
(PLAN SIZE) (SA) (DEGREE) (VP w) (FT) (AW) (FT) (SD) (FT) (HH) (FT) (RS) (%) (L) (FT)

MINIMUM 90 18.0 24.0 2.0 7.0 6.5 152.6

types
TYPICAL 90 18.0 24.0 2.0 8.5 6.0 166.2

LARGE 90 18.0 24.0 2.0 10.0 5.0 204.0

PLANNING AND DESIGN

The matrix calculates three different overall -place concrete structure. See the structure the minimum and maximum heights. The ramp
lengths based upon changing variables processed section in Part 4 for design considerations. The slopes range from 5% to 6%, which are all allowed
through the given equation. Since Type A is a head height ranges from a minimum of 7’-0” for ramps in which cars drive and park, which is
two-way traffic ramp, stall configurations must be required by in the International Building Code the case for Type A. Each of these configurations
at 90 degrees. Vehicular projection is based upon (IBC) to a maximum of 10’-0” to prevent oversized are diagrammed in the following pages. In
the equation stated before. The aisle width for vehicles from entering the garage. A head height addition, the efficiency of each option is described
ramp Type A is always 24’-0” because the traffic of 8’-2” is required to accomodate accessible by the number of square feet per stall. This

SOURCES
is two-directional. The structural depth of 2’-0” is vehicles, but 8’-6” has been used here as a typical number is determined by dividing the total square
based upon a typical beam and slab, poured-in head height because it falls precisely between footage by the number of parking stalls.
 INTROdUCTION

Type A Plans and Sections

fundamentals

Typical Plan_90°

62 Stalls
Per level of parking
122’-0”

20,271 GSF
Per level of parking
types

90°
326.92 SF
Per parking stall
PLANNING AND DESIGN

This number defines the

18’-0” 22’-0” efficiency of the plan, given the
166’-2” parking stall configuration, ramp
slope, and floor to ceiling height.
Compare this number to those
of other configurations within a
ramp type to determine the most
efficient parking and dimensional
2’-0”

configuration given the ramp type.

SOURCES

8’-6”

6%
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
A Two Way Single Helix

INTROdUCTION
When designing a two-way, 90
degree parking ramp, the longer
the ramp, the more efficient the
ramp because the ratio between
wasted corner space and usable
parking space is reduced.

fundamentals
Minimum Plan_90° Large Plan_90°

90°
122’-0”

122’-0”

types
90°

PLANNING AND DESIGN

152’-7 1/2” 204’-0”
2’-0”
2’-0”

6.5% 5%
7’-0”

10’-0”

SOURCES
54 Stalls 18,629 GSF 344.98 SFper stall 78 Stalls 24,888 GSF 319.08 SFper stall
 INTROdUCTION

Type A Valet Parking

fundamentals
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN

The previous three plans convey the efficiency of It should be noted that valet parking is not typically
different floor plates in respect to the allotted used for new structures. Retro-fitted garages
parking stalls. Every parking structure, however, often take advantage of valet parking because of
can utlize valet parking in order to maximize the odd configurations and an inefficient floor layout.
number of cars in a given space. The plan on the However, the number of employees necessary to
following page diagrams where extra cars could valet park an entire garage is most often not as
be located if parking attendants parked and cost-effective as choosing the correct ramp type
controlled all vehicles. and designing the garage to maximize the number
of stalls. Nevertheless, valet parking is
SOURCES

diagrammed for each ramp type to demonstrate

how efficiency of floor space is increased, without
regards to any other factors.
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
A Two Way Single Helix

INTROdUCTION
Valet Plan_90°

fundamentals
78 Stalls
Per level of parking

26 Extra Cars
Per level of parking 122’-0”

24,888 GSF
Per level of parking

types
239.31 SF
Per parking stall
(with added valet)

PLANNING AND DESIGN

By adding a level of valet parking, 204’-0”
the efficiency increases by
25% for 90 degree parking stall
configurations.
2’-0”
10’-0”

SOURCES
5%
 INTROdUCTION

B Central Two Way

Ramp
Type B, or the Central Two Way Ramp garage, is bays, which create a wide parking module, and
usually configured 3 bays wide, with the central they are not great for high peak volume use.
bay being the ramp between tiers. The main ben- Parking can be on the central two way ramp if the
fundamentals

efits of Type B garages are that they can be made slope and width of the garage allows it. This cre-
to very large sizes while still being fairly intuitive ates a much higher efficiency. Vertical pedestrian
for infrequent visitors, and the flat floor plate circulation is most often placed in the unusable
allows for some flexibility in vertical pedestrian parking areas in the corners, but there is flexibility
circulation and accessible parking. The negatives because of the flat floor plate.
of Type B garages are that they need at least 3
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
B Central Two Way Ramp

INTROdUCTION
fundamentals
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
Many Type B garages do not
have parking on the central ramp
because of the steep slope that
is necessary to span the distance
between floors.

SOURCES
Typical Vertical Pedestrian Circulation
 INTROdUCTION

Type B Planning Formula

2 [18cosine(SA) + 8.75tangent(SA)] + (2)AW + [100(HH + SD)]/RS = L

fundamentals

The formula above determines the overall length

of a Type A, Two-Way Single Helix parking garage
ramp. All lengths are in feet and all abbreviations
types

are represented in the top row of the matrix to the

right. This matrix calculates three garage
configurations, taking into account the variables
in the equation above in order to convey small,
typical, and large parking garages.
PLANNING AND DESIGN

vpW AW RL
L
SD
HH

RS
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
B Central Two Way Ramp

INTROdUCTION
Type B Planning Matrix

STALL ANGLE STALL DEPTH AISLE WIDTH STRUCTURAL DEPTH HEAD HEIGHT RAMP SLOPE LENGTH

fundamentals
SA
VPw AW HH
SD RS%

MINIMUM
(PLAN SIZE) (SA) (DEGREE) (VP w) (FT) (AW) (FT) (SD) (FT) (HH) (FT) (RS) (%) (L) (FT)

MINIMUM 45 19.1 11.0 2.0 7.0 15 119.75

types
TYPICAL 60 20.0 17.0 2.0 8.0 14 145.0

TYPICAL 75 19.4 21.0 2.0 9.0 13 165.3

LARGE 90 18.0 24.0 2.0 10.0 12 172.75

PLANNING AND DESIGN

SOURCES
 INTROdUCTION

Type B Plans and Sections

Minimum Plan_45°
fundamentals

45°
28 Stalls
Per level of parking

18,629 GSF
Per level of parking
122’-4”

344.98 SF
types

Per parking stall

Notice the efficiency for 45

degree parking is extremely low.
Therefore it is not recommended
PLANNING AND DESIGN

for parking structures.

Subsequently, it will not be shown
for subsequent ramp types.

19’-1” 11’-0” 59’-10”

119’-9”
2’-0”
SOURCES

7’-0”

15%
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
B Central Two Way Ramp

INTROdUCTION
Typical Plan_60° Typical Plan_75°

fundamentals
60°
75°

138’-0”
138’-0”

types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
20’-0” 17’-0” 71’-0” 19’-4” 21’-0” 84’-8”
145’-0” 165’-4”
2’-0”
2’-0”

9’-0”
8’-0”

14% 13%

SOURCES
54 Stalls 18,629 GSF 344.98 SFper stall 54 Stalls 18,629 GSF 344.98 SFper stall
 INTROdUCTION
fundamentals

Large Plan_90°
90°

54 Stalls

18,629 GSF
142’-0”
types

344.98 SF
per stall
PLANNING AND DESIGN

18’-0” 23’-0” 90’-9”

172’-9”
2’-0”
SOURCES

10’-0”

12%
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
B Central Two Way Ramp

INTROdUCTION
Type B Valet Parking

fundamentals
Valet Plan_90°

54 Stalls

24 Extra Cars

142’-0”
18,629 GSF

types
238.83 SF
Per parking stall
(with added valet)

PLANNING AND DESIGN

By adding a level of valet parking,
the efficiency increases by 18’-0” 23’-0” 90’-9”
31% for 90 degree parking stall
configurations. 172’-9”
2’-0”

SOURCES
10’-0”

12%
 INTROdUCTION

C One Way Double

Helix
Type C, or the One Way Double Helix garage, is garage only once, with no retracing of their paths.
composed of two interlocked ramps that create a The main negative of One Way Double Helix
continuous loop. The main benefits of the One garages is that they are not very intuitive for infre-
fundamentals

Way Double Helix is that users can enter and exit quent visitors, and should be planned for facilities
without ever retracing their path and the configu- with regular users. Similar to Type A, vertical
ration minimizes congestion and conflicts between pedestrian circulation and accessible parking is
vehicles. A driver in a Type C garage will have most often limited to the unusable space for park-
roughly have half the turns and circulation dis- ing in the corners on the flat areas. Vertical
tance of a driver in a Type A garage with the same pedestrian circulation can be placed in other
floor plate. This makes the One Way Double Helix areas if the slope of the garage is gradual enough
very efficient in facilities with high peak volumes. to allow for accessible movement.
It also allows users to pass every space in the
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
C One Way Double Helix

INTROdUCTION
fundamentals
Crossover aisles between adja-
cent ramps provide shortcuts for
exiting.

types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
Typical Vertical Pedestrian Circulation
 INTROdUCTION

Type C Planning Formula

2 [18cosine(SA) + 8.75tangent(SA)] + 2(AW) + DA + 2[(100(HH + SD)] / 2(RS) = L

fundamentals

The formula to determine the overall length of a

Type C, double helix parking ramp is slightly
different than the previous two. The drive aisle
(DA) is introduced as the flat surface at least 24’-
0” to provide a cross-over point for vehicles on the
one-way ramp to switch direction. Also, the ramp
must be calculated in two parts, since the drive
aisle breaks the ramp in the middle. The last part
of the formula takes this into consideration.
types

vpW AW da
PLANNING AND DESIGN

RL
L
SD

RS
HH
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
C One Way Double Helix

INTROdUCTION
Type C Planning Matrix

fundamentals
STALL ANGLE STALL DEPTH AISLE WIDTH DRIVE AISLE STRUCTURAL DEPTH HEAD HEIGHT RAMP SLOPE LENGTH

SA
VPw AW HH
DA RS%
SD

MINIMUM
(PLAN SIZE) (SA) (DEGREE) (VP w) (FT) (AW) (FT) (DA) (FT) (SD) (FT) (HH) (FT) (RS) (%) (L) (FT)

types
MINIMUM 45 19.1 11.0 24.0 2.0 7.0 6.5 221.25

TYPICAL 60 20.0 17.0 24.0 2.0 8.0 6.0 254.5

TYPICAL 75 19.4 21.0 24.0 2.0 9.0 5.5 321.8

PLANNING AND DESIGN

LARGE 90 18.0 24.0 24.0 2.0 10.0 5.0 346.0

SOURCES
 INTROdUCTION

Type C Plans and Sections

Typical Plan_75°
fundamentals

114 Stalls
75°

39,517 GSF
122’-7”
types

346.64 SF
per stall

19’-4” 21’-0” 241’-3”

321’-10”
PLANNING AND DESIGN

2’-0”

5.5%
9’-0”
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
C One Way Double Helix

INTROdUCTION
Minimum Plan_45° Typical Plan_60°

fundamentals
45° 60°
101’-4”

117’-4”

types
19’-1” 11’-0” 161’-3”
221’-3” 19’-1” 11’-0” 180’-6”
245’-6”

2’-0”
2’-0”

PLANNING AND DESIGN

6.5% 6%
8’-0”
7’-0”

46 Stalls 22,419 GSF 487.38 SFper stall 76 Stalls 28,797 GSF 378.91 SFper stall

SOURCES
 INTROdUCTION

Large Plan_90°
fundamentals

90°
121’-0”
types

18’-0” 23’-0” 264’-0”

PLANNING AND DESIGN

346’-0”

5%
SOURCES

136 Stalls 41,866 GSF 307.83 SFper stall

ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
C One Way Double Helix

INTROdUCTION
Type C Valet Parking

Valet Plan_90°

fundamentals
121’-0”

types
18’-0” 23’-0” 264’-0”

PLANNING AND DESIGN

346’-0”

By adding a level of valet parking,

the efficiency increases by
23% for 90 degree parking stall
configurations.

SOURCES
136 Stalls 39 Extra Cars 41,866 GSF 239.23 SFper stall (wtih added valet)
 INTROdUCTION

D Split Level
Type D, or the Split Level garage, is formed by lation of a Type D garage is very similar to that of
staggered, level tiers that are connected by speed a Type A garage in which users must retrace their
ramps at the ends. The main benefits of a Split path to exit the garage, and two way traffic flow is
fundamentals

Level garage are that all parking is located on a necessary. Vertical pedestrian circulation is most
flat floor plate, it can be constructed on a highly often placed in the center between the ramps. It
constrained site, and like Type A it is easy to navi- can be placed at the corners but this would require
gate by visitors unfamiliar with the facility. The much more vertical circulation then is needed.
main negative aspects are that it does not do well Vertical pedestrian circulation is awkward in Split
with high peak volume, pedestrian circulation is Level garages because elevators must stop at
difficult, and two way traffic creates more driver every staggered tier. However, because no park-
conflicts and limits the designer to either 90 ing occurs on ramps, horizontal pedestrian circu-
degree stalls or more difficult parking. The circu- lation is very comfortable.
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
D Split Level

INTROdUCTION
fundamentals
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
Type C garages are the only types
of garages where vertical pedes-
trian circulation is often located in
the center of the garage.

SOURCES
Typical Vertical Pedestrian Circulation
 INTROdUCTION

Type D Planning Formula

2 [18cosine(SA) + 8.75tangent(SA)] + 2(AW)

+ SW + 100(HH + SD) / RS = W
fundamentals

The ramps in Type D are oriented perpendicular

to those of the previous three ramp types. Given
the nature of the garage, in that the floor plate is
sliced and staggered longitudinally, the ramps are
place at the shorter ends in order to move drivers
from one side of the floor plate up to the other.
types

Therefore, the formula above calculates the width,

instead of the length, because the changing ramp
length, given the varying head height and ramp
angles, effects the overall width of the structure.
All of the plans are rotated 90 degrees in this
vpW AW sw
section to show the relationship to the section.
RL
PLANNING AND DESIGN

Also, there is no minimal dimension for the length.

W
In the minimum plan, the length is set at 125’-0”
for proportional consistency to other ramp types sd
rs
and increased by 25’-0” for each consecutive
hh

plan. The length is increased because the width

changes only martinally and therefore does not
clearly express a difference in efficiency. As with
Type A, the drive aisles are two-way so only 90
degree parking stall configurations have been
SOURCES

shown. Also, the larger the plan, the more efficient

a garage, as will be shown in the following pages.
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
D Split Level

INTROdUCTION
Type D Planning Matrix

fundamentals
STALL ANGLE STALL DEPTH AISLE WIDTH STRUCTURAL WIDTH STRUCTURAL DEPTH HEAD HEIGHT RAMP SLOPE WIDTH

SA
VPw AW SW HH
SD RS%

MINIMUM
(PLAN SIZE) (SA) (DEGREE) (VP w) (FT) (AW) (FT) (Sw) (FT) (SD) (FT) (HH) (FT) (RS) (%) (W) (FT)

types
MINIMUM 90 18.0 24.0 2.0 2.0 7.0 15.0 122.0

TYPICAL 90 18.0 24.0 2.0 2.0 8.5 13.5 122.8

LARGE 90 18.0 24.0 2.0 2.0 10.0 12.0 130.2

PLANNING AND DESIGN

The width in Type D does not increase as previous page only applies to floor plans where the
drastically as the variables differ because the ramp length is greater than 36’-0”. Both the right
middle bay for parking is sometimes longer than and left side levels share a common structural
the length of the ramp. This is the case for the wall or location for columns. If the floor-to-ceiling
minimum plan. The length of the ramp in the height is great enough to overlap levels and fit cars
typical plan is slightly longer than the width of the underneath, this decreases the projection of the
central bay. Therefore, the difference between central bay of parked cars into the drive aisle of each
the overall width for the minimum and typical level. However, the floor plate does not decrease

SOURCES
plans is not simply the difference between the because the drive aisle still needs to fit
two ramp lengths, as is the case for other ramp between the ramp and outside parking lane.
types. Consequently, the formula listed on
 INTROdUCTION

Type D Plans and Sections

Minimum Plan_90°
fundamentals

36 Stalls

15,250 GSF
As previously described, the minimum floor plan
requires a different equation to determine the
125’-0”

overall width. The central parking bay expands

423.61 SF
types

past the ramps. Therefore, the drive aisle of 24’-0”

per stall occurs between the end and central parking stalls
for each level, instead of between the end parking
lane and the end of the ramp. The formula to use for
this plan and similar situations is described below.
The plans on the following page utlize the typical
“Type D Planning Formula” previously given.
PLANNING AND DESIGN

90°

18’-0” 24’-0” 2’-0”

30’-0”
122’-0”
2’-0”

4 [18cosine(SA) + 8.75tangent(SA)] + 2(AW) + SW = W

7’-0”

15%
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
D Split Level

INTROdUCTION
Typical Plan_90° Large Plan_90° Valet Plan_90°

fundamentals
175’-0”
175’-0”
150’-0”

types
24’-0” 38’-10” 18’-0” 24’-0” 46’-2” 18’-0” 24’-0” 46’-2”

PLANNING AND DESIGN

122’-10” 130’-2” 130’-2”

2’-0”
2’-0”
2’-0”

12% 12%

10’-0”
10’-0”

13.5%
8’-6”

48 Stalls 60 Stalls 60 Stalls / 16 Extra Cars

SOURCES
18,435 GSF 22,785 GSF 22,785 GSF

384.07 SFper stall 379.75 SFper stall 299.8 SFper stall

 INTROdUCTION

E Express Ramp
Type E, or theExpress Ramp garage, consists of layout. The main negative of the Type garage is
a large parking tier with either an internal or exter- that the ramps devoted to only circulation create
nal express ramp devoted to purely traffic flow. inefficiency in the garage, especially if it is of a
fundamentals

This express ramp can be a straight ramp or a spi- small scale. Vertical pedestrian circulation can be
ral ramp. The main benefits of the Express Ramp located essentially anywhere that is most conve-
garage are that ability to offer high capacities, nient because of the open, flat floor plate. As in
high user comfort, and to manage high peak every garage, the most efficient use of vertical
flows. It also can be used for infrequent visitors pedestrian circulation is in the corners where the
as well as regular visitors because of its simple space is unusable to parking.
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
E Express Ramp

INTROdUCTION
fundamentals
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
Type E garages include many
different alternative ramping con-
figurations, such as helical ramps.
Express ramps can be either

SOURCES
internal or external.

Typical Vertical Pedestrian Circulation

 INTROdUCTION

Type E Planning Formula W

vpW AW

4 [18cosine(SA) + 8.75tangent(SA)] + 2(AW) = W

fundamentals

2(AW) + (100(HH + SD) / RS = RL

Given that the speed ramp in Type E is not actually

integrated with the floor plate, there is no formula
to determine the overall dimensions given
variables such as the head height, structural
depth, and ramp slope. Instead, this ramp type
has been diagrammed with a typical 30’ x 30’
types

poured-in-place concrete structural grid. The four

stall configurations have been placed within this
grid to show the efficiency of 90 degree parking
stalls and the inefficiency of any smaller angle.
The dimensions of the floor plate, discluding the
ramp on the end can be calculated by the formula
PLANNING AND DESIGN

above. This formula calculates the width, given a

4-bay structural grid with consideration for the
parking stall configuration. The length for each of
the following plans is set at 153’-0” to accomodate
RL
sd

a 5-bay structural grid. The length of the ramp

(RL) is determined by the second formula and the rs
hh

width is consistently 48’ to accomodate 2-way

traffic. The following matrix and plans demonstrate
how the sharper the angle, the smaller the floor
SOURCES

plate, as was the case for previous ramp types.

ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
E Express Ramp

INTROdUCTION
Type E Matrix

fundamentals
STALL ANGLE STALL DEPTH AISLE WIDTH STRUCTURAL DEPTH HEAD HEIGHT RAMP SLOPE RAMP LENGTH WIDTH

SA
VPw AW HH
SD RS%

types
MINIMUM
(PLAN SIZE) (SA) (DEGREE) (VP w) (FT) (AW) (FT) (SD) (FT) (HH) (FT) (RS) (%) (L) (FT) (L) (FT)

MINIMUM 45 19.1 11.0 2.0 7.0 15 78.0 107.5

TYPICAL 60 20.0 17.0 2.0 8.0 14 84.0 113.6

PLANNING AND DESIGN

TYPICAL 75 19.4 21.0 2.0 9.0 13 90.3 118.3

LARGE 90 18.0 24.0 2.0 10.0 12 97.0 120.0

SOURCES
 INTROdUCTION

Type E Plans and Sections

113’-8”
20’-0” 17’-0”

Typical Plan_60°
fundamentals

28 Stalls Notice the efficiency for 60

degree parking is the lowest of
any parking ramp type. The 45
degree stall configurations is mor
efficient because it holds only one
less stall and has a much smaller
21,422 GSF
153’-0”

floor plate.
types

765.07 SF
per stall
PLANNING AND DESIGN

48’-0”

84’-0”
2’-0”
SOURCES

8’-0”

14%
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
E Express Ramp

INTROdUCTION
107’-6” 118’-4”
19’-1” 11’-0” 19’-4” 21’-0”

Minimum Plan_45° Typical Plan_75°

fundamentals
27 Stalls 30 Stalls

20,206 GSF 22,424 GSF

153’-0”

153’-0”

types
748.37 SF 747.47 SF
per stall per stall

PLANNING AND DESIGN

48’-0”

48’-0”
78’-0” 90’-4”
2’-0”

2’-0”

SOURCES
9’-0”
7’-0”

15% 13%
 INTROdUCTION

120’-0”
18’-0” 24’-0”

Large Plan_90°
fundamentals

46 Stalls

23,016 GSF
153’-0”
types

500.35 SF
per stall
PLANNING AND DESIGN

The 90 degree stall configuration is far more

efficient for this ramp type than any of the
48’-0”

other configurations because three stalls fit

between the columns space 30’ apart, while
only 2 stalls fit inbetween the columns for each
of the other configurations. In addition, the
97’-0”
back-up space required for 90 degree stalls
2’-0”

is 23’-0”, which is 1’-0” short of a 2-way drive

SOURCES

aisle. Therefore, this configuration can become

10’-0”

2-way with only a few additional feet added to

the width, while the other configurations must
12% be 1-way because of the angles of the stalls.
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Types
E Express Ramp

INTROdUCTION
Type E Valet Parking
120’-0”
18’-0” 24’-0”

Valet Plan_90°

fundamentals
46 Stalls

26 Extra Cars

153’-0”
23,016 GSF

types
319.66 SF
per stall

PLANNING AND DESIGN

Even with valet parking, this is the least efficient
ramp type of the five. Since the ramp is not

48’-0”
incorporated with the floor plate, the additional
square footage necessary to move cars from one
floor to the next severly hinders the efficiency
of parking in terms of square foot required
97’-0”
per stall. This ramp type is useful for cars to
exit quickly and is therefore helpful in high
traffic conditions with a high rate of turnover.

SOURCES
10’-0”

12%
Planning and Design
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design

INTROdUCTION
fundamentals
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
Once an appropriate ramp type is selected and
design fundamentals are fully understood, an
architect will begin to face more specific issues of
planning and design. This chapter will explore
these issues, focusing on the following topics:
structural systems, enclosure strategies, regional
economics, groundfloor planning, pedestrian
access, and user behavior. Each section will
examine the decision making process facing the

SOURCES
designer in regard to that particular issue, and
how it may affect the overall success of a parking
structure.
 INTROdUCTION

3.1 Structural Systems

Typical Structure Bays
Column layout is the most important structure
consideration concerning parking garages. A
proper column arrangement is neccessary in
fundamentals

order to utilize every square foot of a parking

garage. Different structure systems allow for
different column layouts. Sitcast structures tend

15’-0”
to use more columns due to a shallow concrete
slab. Precast elements can be post-tensioned,
allowing for spans reaching up to 60 feet. This

30’-0”
allows for less columns, however the columns
used are bulky and can hinder striping. Steel
structures are the most ideal for column layouts,

15’-0”
types

for the reason that they can be moved to the

exterior. However they must be fireproofed, A two way sitecast slab system
yeilds the least efficient column 30’-0”
which brings up cost and affects apperience. layout. Columns are located within
the parking deck, making it difficult
The following 5 plans are typical column layouts
for re-striping. Avoid using this lay-
for parking garages utilizing sitecast, precast or out only if neccessary or specified
by the client.
steel structures.
PLANNING AND DESIGN

1.
This type of structure layout is used for poured-
in place construction. Sitcast concrete systems
can not span as long as precast or steel, there-
fore more columns must be used, limiting the
total number of spots per floor. Column configu-
ration also limits striping possibilities.
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.1Structural Systems

INTROdUCTION
fundamentals
60’-0”
40’-0”

types
40’-0” 30’-0”

45’-0”

PLANNING AND DESIGN

25’-0”
2. 3. 4.
This structure layout can be used for poured-in- This type of column layout can be used for either A steel column layout allows for maximum
place two-way systems such as Pan-Joist or precast or steel structure parking garages. This spaces without any obstruction. Columns are
Waffle Slab. Columns are larger than that of example uses a precast double tee system. pushed to the exterior and interior columns are
structure bay # 1, allowing for longer spans. Columns are consumed within the spaces, alow- located in-between slabs.
However the column placement will still interupt ing for a maximum parking configuration. These
space striping. spaces are therefore designated for smaller
vehicles.

SOURCES
 INTROdUCTION

Sitecast Structure Bay

Cast-in-place concrete systems were developed
before pre-cast concrete and steel systems
became a viable option. Many new technolo-
gies, such as re-usable formwork and mechani-

30’-0”
zation of finishing, have kept sitecast
fundamentals

construction a favorable option.

Construction time is much longer due to the
assembly of formwork and reinforcing bars. This
type of system must be constructed
floor-by-floor.
Two sitecast systems commonly used for park-
ing garages are a Two-Way Flat Slab with Drop
Panels and a One-Way Joist Slab.
types

Two Way Slab with Drop Panels 15’-0” 30’-0” 15’-0”

Requires no beams and is heavily reinforced.
The typical slab depth is between 5 to 12 inches
which minimizes floor-to-floor height. Drop pan-
els are used to thicken the concrete in order to
resist high shear forces which allows for longer
spans. However this system requires a large
PLANNING AND DESIGN

amount of columns.
8’-0” 18”
SOURCES

1.1 1.2
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.1Structural Systems

INTROdUCTION
6” 24”
1.1

3’-6”

fundamentals
8” 10” 6”

1.2

types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
3’-0”

The minimun size for drop panels is

a width of one-third the span of the
slab and a total depth of one and

8’-0”
one-fourth times the depth of the
slab. Panels may increase in size
depending on heavier loads. Depth

SOURCES
should be equal to a standard
lumber dimension.
 INTROdUCTION

Sitecast Structure Bay

One-Way Joist Slab
A one-way joist slab utilizes plastic pan form-
work to construct a slab. If pan depths are
increased, joists can span up to 60 feet or more.
A slab is cast on top of the pans, which varies
fundamentals

20’-0”
from 2 to 5 inches deep. Pan depth ranges from
20 to 30 inches depending on load.
types

60’-0”
PLANNING AND DESIGN

1.1
24”
8’-0”
SOURCES

1.2
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.1Structural Systems

INTROdUCTION
6”
1.1

3’-6”

fundamentals
6”
18”

1.2

types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
16” 18” (1) Joist Pan

A 3 inch thickness gives a 1 hour

8’-0”
fire-rating. A 4 inch thickness gives
a 1 1/2 hour fire rating. And a 5
inch thickness gives a 2 hour fire
rating

SOURCES
 INTROdUCTION

Precast Structure Bay

Precast technology developed after sitecast
construction and has become an economically
viable option. The production of precast ele-

30’-0”
ments is more controlled and allows for advan-
tages over sitecast construction. Mixing and
fundamentals

pouring operaions are highly mechanized.

There is a control of quality and workers that is
not seen on the job site.
Precast elements are bulky and are difficult to
transport from factory to job site. Precast ele-
ments can only be as wide as the maximum
legal vehicle width of 12 to 14 feet.

Double Tee System

Depth of tees is varied upon span, member,
types

60’-0”
width and load. Standard length of double tees
is 60 feet.
PLANNING AND DESIGN

1.1
34”
SOURCES

1.2
8’-0”
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.1Structural Systems

INTROdUCTION
8” 18”
1.1

3’-6”

fundamentals
4”
2”
28”

1.2

types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
10’-0” (1) Double Tee Unit

12” 12”

A lite-wall is used to support the

double tee system. Lite-walls are

8’-0”
precast elements that extend from
ground to top of garage. Openings
are formed into the walls for secu-
rity reasons within the garage.

SOURCES
 INTROdUCTION

Steel Structure Bay

New Technology has allowed for longer spans,
with less the weight and floor-to-floor height. A
steel structure layout allows for an open plan
with very few columns which is ideal for parking.
Steel is very expensive in todays market and you
fundamentals

are not saving much when deciding to use this

type of structure. It is costly to fireproof a steel

25’-0”
structure where it is not needed for concrete
structures. Maintenence must be upheld due to
rust and corrosion build-up.

Elements
A sitecast or precast concrete slab is used for
the deck of the structure. A slab depth can
range from 4 to 8 inches.
types

Steel beams can span long distances, up to 60

45’-0” 45’-0” 45’-0”
feet, with a depth of 30 inches. A W30 beam is
typical for parking structures.
A W12 beam is the most common column used
in parking garage construction.
PLANNING AND DESIGN

30”

1.1 1.2
8’-0”
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.1Structural Systems

INTROdUCTION
12” 6”
1.1

6” 12” 12” 12”

fundamentals
28”

1.2

types
1’-6” 1’-6”

25’-0”

PLANNING AND DESIGN

A steel column can span multiple

8’-0”
stories, allowing for beams to be
fastened at neccessary levels. Lat-
eral bracing is used to support the
columns. This minimizes structure,
allowing for a more efficient parking

SOURCES
garage.
 INTROdUCTION

3.2 Enclosure Strategies

Integrated Sitecast Concrete Railing

The sitecast concrete railing is an enclosure most often seen in the form of a half-height wall,
fundamentals

strategy which is still very much in use today, which maintains an open enclosure system,
however it is more often seen in older parking creating opportunities for natural lighting and
structures and used less often in new construction. ventilcation. The consistent use of concrete as a
In a sitecast concrete system using this enclosure uniform matierial through the structure also serves
method, the shape of the railing is built of formwork to create a unified aesthitic on the exterior facade.
and poured with concrete like all strucutral elements
in the system. This creates a monlithic concrete
structural element consisting of dropped beams,
the floor slab, and the railing. This encloure type is
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.2 Enclosure Strategies

INTROdUCTION
fundamentals
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
The use of a singular element
reduces the need for various
connections and clips, as would
be used in a precast concrete
system. This removes any
concern for such pieces weather
or breaking.

SOURCES
 INTROdUCTION

Precast Concrete Spandrel

One of the most commonly used enclosure for daylighting and natural ventilation. This type of
straregies in structured parking is the precast enclosure also creates the opportunity to add a new
concrete spandrel. A concrete panel is positioned level of detail to a concrete facade. Precast
fundamentals

between columns along the exterior of the building, spandrel members may have inset panels with
creating a half-height wall around the perimeter. decorative accents such as aggregated stone, or
The spandrel, being very basic in form, is in place to the members may make use of different concrete
simply to keep both cars and pedestrians safetly ad-mixtures to achieve varying pigments in the
within the building’s floorplate, and its low profile concrete throughout the facade.
creates a boundary condition which allows for an
open-enclosure structure, improving opportunties
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.2 Enclosure Strategies

INTROdUCTION
fundamentals
Precast members can be as-
sembled in various different ways.
The section on the left shows a
precast spandrel member sitting
on a slab and being pinned back
to the structure through the face
of the beam. On the right, a span-
drel mamber is attached to the
structure through connectors cast
into the top face of the floor slab.

types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
 INTROdUCTION

Infill Wall
A solid infill wall system is used when there is a opportunities for natural lighting and ventilation. A
need to create an interior space with a higher full height wall on the other hand can create a fully
degree of enclosure. Bricks or CMU blocks are enclosed interior space, where glazed openings are
fundamentals

used to fill the space between structural columns needed to allow for any natural lighting, and
around the perimeter of the floorplate. Depending mechanical ventilation systems are used to circulate
on several issues, including safety, aesthetic, and fresh air. An infill wall system may also act to brace
climate, this wall may be buit to various hights. A the structural system against lateral forces. Since
wall built to a height of 4’ will be sufficient to safetly this enclosure strategy is directly integrated with the
keep people and cars withing the building, while structure it may also help to minimize load-bearing
also maintaining an open enclosure with elements elsewhere in the building.
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.2 Enclosure Strategies

INTROdUCTION
A masonry cavity wall consists of
two walls built into one system: a
CMU backup wall, on the inside
face of the opening, and a brick
wall on the outside, with a 2” air-
space inbetween. The brick wall
is tied back across the airspace to

fundamentals
the CMU backup wall for support,
and any insulation or other neces-
sary layers are placed withing the
cavity.

types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
 INTROdUCTION

Non-Integrated Railing
This railing type is independent of the primary pedestirans within the floor plate. Other examples
structural system and similar to the integrated of ths type include railings made up of steel tube
structural railing, it allows for an open-enclosure members, or a combonation of steel members and
structure. In its simplest form this railing type is
fundamentals

steel cables. As an additive approach, this type of

made up of steel cables which span between railing gives the designer freedom to introduce new
structural columns along the perimeter of the floor elements. Incorporating new materials such as
plate. These cables are then placed under tension steel railings or steel cables may also add a new
to stiffin them across the length of the span. This level of detail to the design at a scale which is more
creates an edge condition with a minimal aesthetic, closely related to the pedestrian.
but which is sufficient to safetly keep both cars and
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.2 Enclosure Strategies

INTROdUCTION
A steel railing needs to be
properly secured to the structure
of the building. This system is
seated into boxes poured into
the concrete, where steel angles

fundamentals
attach the steel of the railing to
the concrete.

types
Steel cables are put into tension
to add stability to the overall
system. These cables may span
between the structural columns,
or between secondary steel mem-
bers like seen here.

PLANNING AND DESIGN

SOURCES
1
 INTROdUCTION

Glass Enclocure
Glass curtain wall systems create excellent Curtain wall systems can be designed to attach to a
opportunities to maximize daylighting and views, building’s structure in several different ways. Often,
two things most often lacking in parking structures. panes of glass and aluminum mullions are
By allowing daylight to penetrate the exterior wall manufactured into unitzed panels which are simply
fundamentals

and reach deeper into the floor plate, the interior hung from the edge of the floor slab. These panels
condition of a garage is transformed into a more are also pinned back to the structure to help the
pleasant experience. The ability to have a clear system resist lateral loads. Glass walls can also be
view beyond the envelope also allows pedestrians built on the inside edge of the floorplate, enclosing
to maintain a visual connection to the exterior, induvidual floors rather than wrapping an entire
further improving the interior experience. facade.
types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.2 Enclosure Strategies

INTROdUCTION
fundamentals
types
1 2

Glass curtain wall panels may be

PLANNING AND DESIGN

hung from the primary structural
system with steel angels or clips.
These connections may be at-
tached either to the outer face of
the floorslab or to the edge of the
top horzontal face.
A glass enclosure may also be
built within the same plane of the
structural members, simialr to a
‘storefront’ system. The glass
sits inside of aluminum extrusions
which are cast into teh concrete

SOURCES
floor slab. This could be used to
create a fully enclosed interior
space.
 INTROdUCTION

3.3 Economics
Above vs. Below Grade

The decision to construct up or down when

fundamentals

designing a structured parking garage is usually

decided by a site’s size or shape. Most often, in L4
dense urban environments, high real estate val-
$16-25,000
ues result in small land plots, which drive the
design underground. Because of the high costs L3
The top half of this chart shows
associated with excavation, especially when the a parking garage with no option
water table is broken, underground garages are for future expansion. While the
usually avoided if possible. In less dense, subur- L2 $12-15,000
demand rises, the capacity can-
not reflect this change. Revenue,
ban areas, niether demand for parking nor land therefore, levels out when de-
mand finally meets capacity.
value gives rise to the need for underground park-
types

L1
ing. In urban areas, however, high real estate $3,000
costs usually lead to smaller plots of land, which
often lend themselves to an underground struc- B1 $30-60,000
ture. On top of this, retail and office space is
reserved for the ground and upper levels, which is
another reason for putting parking down below. B2
PLANNING AND DESIGN

The price to construct a parking garage obviously

$100,000+
varies based on structure type and materials, but
also according to a few less obvious factors. Soil
conditions, such as its density, stability, and mois- In the bottom half of the chart, a
garage is shown that is designed
ture levels can also increase construction prices. with the possibility for future ex-
If construction descends below the water table Figure 3.1.1. Cost per Parking Space for various pansion. While costs will rise dur-
ing years of future construction,
level, costs will reflect the volume of water which levels of a structured parking garage. These costs the added revenue from capacity
will be displaced, which often skyrockets the price can vary depending on structure type, soil condi- which reflects demand makes up
for this discrepency. The result
of a project. tions, and water table level. Figures do not include
SOURCES

is a higher net provit value, even

engineering or financing considerations. with added construction costs.
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.3 Economics

INTROdUCTION
Designing for Future Flexibility

Category Type Units Year

fundamentals
0 1 2 3 … 20

Demand Spaces 750 893 1,015 … 1,696

Capacity Initial 1,200 1,200 1,200 … 1,200

Revenue $ in Millions 7.50 8.93 10.15 12.00

Cost Initial 22.74 4.26 4.68

Annual 3.60 6.00 5.20 5.60 6.00

types
Cash Flow Actual -26.34 1.50 2.93 4.15 6.00

NPV 6.24

Category Type Units Year

0 1 2 3 … 20

PLANNING AND DESIGN

Demand Spaces 1,055 1,141 1,234 … 1,598

Capacity Initial 800 800 1,000 … 1,800

Added 200 200

Revenue $ in Millions 8.00 8.00 10.00 15.98

Initial 14.48

Cost Later 4.26 4.68

Annual 3.60 5.20 5.20 5.60 7.20

SOURCES
Cash Flow Actual -18.08 2.80 -1.46 -0.28 8.78

NPV 7.57
 INTROdUCTION

Regional Construction Cost This diagram shows the construction cost per
SF of stand alone structured parking, with no
Construction costs vary regionally, depending on basement. These numbers are based on the larg-
the structure type chosen for any given stand est cities of each state, where structured parking
alone, structured, parking garage. Considering is most typically used.
fundamentals

that structure accounts for 60-70% of the overall

construction cost, this is a crutial initial decision
which will affect the garage for the span of its life-
time. Variables that most directly affect this deci-
sion are cost, both initial and long term
maintainance, time to build or procure, aesthetics,
and availability of materials, which may change
according to the local market. Generally, precast
concrete is favored in the Northeast, while rein-
forced, cast in place concrete is used in the
types

Midwest. There are hundreds of structural options

adn combinations available, but the most preva-
lent are the two aforementioned types, as well as
a hybrid structural model which uses steel in com-
bination with either type of concrete. Whichever
structure type is chosen, it is important to note its
PLANNING AND DESIGN

characteristics in terms of its durability, especially

when dealing with harsh climates, specifically in
the Northeast. When building near the west
coast, near the fault lines susceptible to earth-
quakes, cast in place, post tension frame is often
used, as it can handle the shifting loads more
efficiently.
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.3 Economics

INTROdUCTION
Steel Frame, Precast Concrete Slab

Construction costs, regardless

of structure type, tend to be most
costly in large cities, where land
value is highest. Variations from
this trend are most likely due to
the skill sets of the labor force,

fundamentals
availability of material, or local
market prices.
$48-58/SF $58-69/SF $69-80/SF
Steel Frame, Reinforced Concrete Slab

types
$45-55/SF $55-65/SF $65-76/SF
Reinforced Concrete Frame & Slab

PLANNING AND DESIGN

$39-46/SF $46-53/SF $53-59/SF
Precast Concrete Frame, Reinforced Slab

SOURCES
$34-41/SF $41-48/SF $48-54/SF
 INTROdUCTION

Local Market Forces w (fA - f O ) T + d w = walking speed

b= fA= fee per unit time for garage A
4v 2
When a garage operator chooses a parking fee, fO= fee per unit time for other garages
2
he trades off a larger market area with a lower fee Garage A’s market area = 2b T = duration of parking
against higher profit per customer with a higher v = value of time
fundamentals

fee. Customers will choose to park at the parking

garage with the lowest full price. The full price is
the sum of the parking fee per unit time, times the
parking duration, plus the time costs of walking
from the parking garage to the destination, and
back again. In this case, time costs within the
parking garage are ignored. A driver is willing to b B

f <f
pay a premium to park in a garage that is closer to
his destination since doing so reduces his walking B A
costs, which gives private parking garage opera-
types

tors market power. The result is a strategic inter-

action between parking garages, where each will
A
attempt to anticipate the reactions of his competi-
tors, the neighboring parking garages. A garage
f >f
A B

will ake into account that if it raises its fee sched-

ule, its neighboring garages will be able to acco-
d
PLANNING AND DESIGN

modate the diverted customers only to the extent

of their excess capacity; and similarly, if it lowers
its fee schedule, it can absorb the extra custom-
ers generated only to the extent of its own capac-
ity. Profits for any given garage will be a result of
the difference between its land rent, height of Changing Market Area when all competing park-
parking garage (number of storeys), and capacity ing garages in a given area charge the same fee,
of garage as a function of its fee structure. the market areas are diamond shaped. When the
fees are different, however, the grids begin to
SOURCES

mutate accordingly. (Arnott, Richard. Spatial

Competition between Parking Garages and
Downtown Parking Policy)
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.3 Economics

INTROdUCTION
Revenue Needed to Break Even

fundamentals
Surface Lot Above Ground 3+ Levels Below Ground
($10/SF Construction Cost) ($50/SF Construction Cost) ($100/SF Construction Cost)

Land Cost/Space $5,600 $850

(Assumed at $20/SF)

Construction Cost/Space $2,800 $16,000 $30,000

Subtotal $8,400 $16,850 $30,000

types
Design & Contingency 15% $420 $2,400 $4,500
(Construction)

Project Cost $8,820 $19,250 $34,500

PLANNING AND DESIGN

Average Annual Debt Service $1,200 $2,500 $4,200
(9% interest)

Estimated Annual $250 $1,000 $1,000

Operating Costs/Space

Total Annual Cost/Space $1,450 $3,500 $5,200

SOURCES
Required Daily Income $5.50 $13.50 $20.25
(260 Days/Year)
 INTROdUCTION

3.4 Ground Floor Planning

Interior spaces in parking garages need to be just required to have a no-park zone 300 feet from the Payment is also an important issue for parking
as secure as their entrance and exits. Actual terminal. This creates a dead zone in the most garages. The Pay-on-Foot system revolutionized
safety and perceived safety are equally important. used areas of existing garages and minimizes the how users interact with the garage. At their most
Measures of safety include bright lighting, high total number of vehicles that can park in the basic form they are the new generation of metered
fundamentals

floor to ceiling heights, light or reflective paint, well garage at once. New garages being built will have parking. Some Pay-on-Foot systems use cashiers
planned entrances and exits, pedestrian-only to take into consideration this new rule. who are not located in booths along the garage
paths and the use of glass. exit lane, but rather along a pedestrian walkway.
Once safety is achieved, way-finding is a key part Other systems replace the cashier with a machine.
Lighting is used to keep users feeling safe and of the user experience. This includes typical sig- And some include both options. Pay-on-Foot
reduce crime. Intense lighting layouts help the nage and painted arrows and lines on the walls speeds up the queue of vehicles exiting the park-
user, but can affect neighboring buildings, espe- and floor. Before garages began using the self- ing garage at the same time. This system is also
cially in the overnight hours; therefore great care park system, way-finding did not exist. Physical used as a pay and display centralized parking
needs to be taken in the design and placement of orientation is key for the user in an unfamiliar meter system for street parking. The latest tech-
lighting. Users may also feel uncomfortable due parking garage. The user, while driving, needs to nology allows users to pay by cell phone through
types

to the low ceilings, hanging structure which may be directed where to enter, park, drive, and exit. a service which gives each user a PIN to enter
block way-finding signs and lighting. The mini- As a pedestrian the user uses way-finding to lead when parking in designated parking garages.
mum illumination standard in a garage is in its the way out of the parking garage and then back
parking area, which can be as low as 15 foot-can- to the user’s vehicle. New parking garages are often built along with
dles of light. Typically areas with pedestrian traf- other new construction, for example a housing
fic have higher levels of illumination New technological advancements in way-finding complex, train station, or shopping center. For
PLANNING AND DESIGN

include the electronic sign and internet updates this reason the actual cost of parking is often sub-
Parking garage elevator and stair cores often are on available spaces and parking garages. sidized by other activities. Public construction
enclosed in glass which gives them a light open Electronic signs can be placed at the entrance of often subsidizes its parking, while private garages
feeling, instead of a concrete stair which seems the garage to guide users to the easiest and quick- are usually forced to charge the actual cost of
heavy and enclosing. Technological advances est available space. This system is known as parking. This happens because without the nec-
such as this and others, the closed circuit televi- “Smart Park.” These signs use real-time data to essary parking to support new construction, it
sion, intercoms, and telephones, have given a give accurate information. Internet updates allow often will not succeed. The issue of parking is
new sense of security and perceived safety to the user to check the parking availability before they such a great one that cities often times have a
parking garage typology. even leave home. The website gives recommen- parking department that deals with everything
SOURCES

dations when a desired garage or lot is full. involved with parking, including parking garages.
Special security concerns are now being used in Advancements like these will continue to change
airport parking structures. Existing structures are the way in which we park.
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.4 Ground Floor Planning

INTROdUCTION
Ground Floor essentials include proper egress,
signage, elevator, and entrance and exit payment
stations. Optional first floor items include stan-
dard and handicapped parking spaces. The Type
A ramp sytem lends itself well to having the exit

fundamentals
and entrance located in close proximity to one
another; this is due to the two-way traffic pattern.
The Yin-Yang booth arrangement allows for more
booths in each direction.

types
142’-0”

A mix of manned payment booths

and monthly pass unmanned
stations are most efficient for a
mixed user facility.

PLANNING AND DESIGN

SOURCES
Current standards require a
stretcher-sized elevator to allow
emergency personnel to access
and assist users in the garage.
 INTROdUCTION

Many Parking Garages are not freestanding build-

ings and must accommodate other program on
the ground level. This example shows the short-
est ramp with parking to move the user away from
the ground level without encroaching of the space
fundamentals

that other program will occupy.

types

107’-0”
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.4 Ground Floor Planning

INTROdUCTION
The speed ramp allows this ramp to be its short-
est to give as much ground floor area to other pro-
gram uses. In this design payment booths are
located at the end of the ramp. Users Pay-on-
Foot before returning to their vehicles, eliminating

fundamentals
manned booths in this parking garage.

57’-0”

types
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
Pay-on-Foot stations located be-
fore a user returns to their vehicle
allows for a parking garage to have
less manned payment booths.
 INTROdUCTION

3.5 Pedestrian Access

Minimum 5’-0” diameter wheelchair turning

fundamentals

area

Provide a minimum of one elevator 7’-0” W

X 4’-3” D to accomodate a 6’-4” L X 2’-0” W
stretcher.

Ramps must be present along path of egress

where a change in level occurs. Ramps can
be a maximum of 1:12 slope for 30’-0” or less.
Provide guardrails that extend 1’-0” beyond
top and bottom on either side of the ramp for
ramps rising over 6” n height. The required
types

minimum with of the ramp is 3’-0”

Provide a clear opening of 2’-8” between

leading edge of jamb and inside face of door
when open 90 degrees. 2’-0” clear adjacent
to latch side of door should be free and clear
of obstructions. Rated doors and hardware is
required.
PLANNING AND DESIGN
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.5 Pedestrian Access

INTROdUCTION
Provide at least one 2’-6”W x 4’-0”D
area of refuge for a wheelchair per 200 oc-
cupants on a stair landing at the floor level
that does not conflict with path of egress in an
enclosed stairwell.

Handrails are required at 2’-10” above stair

nosing on each side of stair and must not
project more that 3” into pathway. Handrails

fundamentals
must extend 1’-0” + the width of the tred past
the bottom stair trd and extend 1’-0” past the
top tred. Center handrail must be continuous.
Guardrails are only required on the non-walled
side when stringers are separated greater
that 1’-0.”

Stairs must be a minimum of 11” in depth

measure from nose of tred to nose of tred and
a maximum of 7” in height or a minimum of 4”
in height.

types
Stairways must be a minimum of 4’-0” in width
and landings must be a minimum of 4’-0”
depth and match the width of the stair.

Minimum 5’-0” wide passage aisle adjacent to

the handicap parking stall must be free and
clar of obstructions. For van accessible stalls
a minimum of 8’-0” clear must be adjacent to
the vehicle.

PLANNING AND DESIGN

Note 1: A minimum of 2 acces-
sible means of egress must be
present on each parking tier for an
occupant load of 1-500, 3 means Refer to standards for stall sizes
of accessible egress for 501-100
occupants, and 4 means of egress
for 1,001 or more occupants. Van accessible stalls can share 8’-0”W clear
route adjacent to stall.
Note 2: Refer to accessibility
section for accessible stall sizes,
adjacent clear dimensions and
for required number of acces-

SOURCES
sible parking stalls. All accessible
parking stalls should be located as
close to the core as possible and
do not all have to be located on a
single parking level.
 INTROdUCTION

3.6 User Behavior

PARKING INDUSTRY OBSERVATION STATES tem. While a planner may be able to effectively and distances between intermediate aisles, the
that driving behavior is susceptible to human assess external demand, relative usage patterns, driver experience is most affected by other drivers.
characteristics like any other activity. Parking and many other quantitative data, the end user Definite psychological ramifications can be
garage users are creatures of habit, especially in remains a moving target. explored on this topic, but one can say that overall
fundamentals

daily-use scenarios. This condition dictates driver behavior is directly affected by the design of
certain results, no matter how well the garage has Whether or not a garage is turning away potential the garage - there is a cascading effect from the
been designed. At the same time, this allows parkers is critical not only to financial success, but garage to users, and then between users over the
designers to formulate methods for designing to the efficiency of circulation. A driver who does course of any given day.
garages that can be accepted across the spectrum not find a spot is a liability for the circulation sys-
of projects, though not every problem of human tem, because they are then exiting during what is For example, the amount of parking and unparking
behavior can be resolved. probably a period of high volume of entering vehi- movement in the garage is key to understanding
cles. While garages are typically planned around driver behavior, especially in a ramp system with
The psychology of drivers varies, of course, for a “design-day” scenario (using calculations based one-way circulation. The design of the garage must
types

each individual, but there are some general obser- upon demand during the 20th busiest hour of the accommodate this, especially when considering
vations with respect to the users of the garage year), the variability of human behavior may cause the angle of parking, and the specific metrics of the
that are translated into graphic representation. efficiency to break down even when the garage stall. While a standardized Level of Service (LOS)
This set of quantitative measures revolve around has not reached this capacity. matrix can be attempted, it is not enough to simply
the dimensional characteristics of efficient garage state that a particular size of stall or drive aisle will
design and the effect on driver movement. These Taxonomy of Driver Behavior facilitate a particular turnover ratio.
are performative characteristics that drivers must This first set of diagrams illustrates general differ-
PLANNING AND DESIGN

involuntarily obey in order to reach a certain desti- ences in vehicle behavior across a range of For all the exercises contained herein, a garage
nation within the garage. garage ramp types. capacity of 85% was used to determined the vehi-
cles’ destination. This benchmark was chosen
It is important to keep in mind that parking garage There are a number of metrics that are not shown because studies have shown that drivers perceive
design is a complicated parametric exercise. in these diagrams, but can be drawn from the a garage as full when in fact it is only at 85% of its
Modification of one dimension will affect more information presented. While there are certain design capacity.
than one other component of the circulation sys- industry standards for the length of the main aisles
SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.6 User Behavior

INTROdUCTION
15 Left

Familiar & Visitor

+70’-0”
85%

13 Left

14 Left

fundamentals
+60’-0”

11 Left

12 Left
+50’-0”

10 Left
9 Left
7 Left

8 Left

+40’-0”

types
Type A - Two-way single helix
5 Left

6 Left

+30’-0”

This circulation system provides a straightforward

and efficient method of parking. There are mini-
mal turns for a garage of this size - technically
4 Left
3 Left

+20’-0” only two turns on each floor. A two-way drive aisle

PLANNING AND DESIGN

allows a safer route for pedestrians, but more
dangerous corners for drivers because of oncom-
2 Left
1 Left

ing traffic on a downhill slope. While the organiza-

+10’-0”
tion groups familiar and unfamiliar drivers on the
same path, the two-way traffic movement and
related metrics ease congestion. However, this
+10’-0” does not guarantee quick access to the vacant
stalls: the combination of ramp and parking deck

SOURCES
means that slow traffic or a high rate of parking/
unparking cannot be bypassed.
0 feet

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2,200

2,400

2,600

2,800

3,000

3,200

3,400

3,600

3,800
200

400

600

800
 INTROdUCTION

Type B - Central two-way ramp

This ramp type, described in detail in a case study
later in this chapter, is fairly convoluted. The one-
way traffic pattern makes it difficult for visitors,
meaning that drivers searching for an empty stall
need to recirculate and overlap their path prior to
fundamentals

continuing on to the next level. Because of this,

the garage may actually become a Level of
Service (LOS) “B” type because so many stalls
are passed. In the course of doing so, there are
an exceptional number of turns, creating disorien-
tation for the driver in terms of finding a stall, as

14 Left
15 Left

16 Left
17 Left

30 Left
31 Left

32 Left
33 Left
well as locating their intended pedestrian exit

Familiar

Visitor
access once they have parked.
+40’-0”
85% 85%

10 Left
11 Left

12 Left
13 Left

22 Left
23 Left

24 Left
25 Left

26 Left
27 Left

28 Left
29 Left
types

+30’-0”

14 Left
15 Left

16 Left
17 Left

18 Left
19 Left

20 Left
21 Left
6 Left
7 Left

8 Left
9 Left
+20’-0”

10 Left
11 Left

12 Left
13 Left
1 Left

2 Left
3 Left

4 Left
5 Left

6 Left
7 Left

8 Left
9 Left
PLANNING AND DESIGN

1 Left

2 Left
3 Left

4 Left
5 Left

+10’-0”

+10’-0”
SOURCES

0 feet

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2,200

2,400

2,600

2,800

3,000

3,200

3,400

3,600

3,800
200

400

600

800
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.6 User Behavior

INTROdUCTION
Type C - One-way double helix
This type is often considered the most difficult to

8 Right
7 Left
understand for a driver. Two interlocking one-way
helices, one up and one down, do not lend them-
selves to ease of use for a visitor. Assuming as we
are that a visitor will want to check all spots on the

fundamentals
10 Right
9 Right
5 Left

6 Left
+60’-0” way to the target, this system requires the driver
to actually summit the top of the garage and begin
the return path in order to locate a vacant stall.
With prior knowledge of the crossovers in between
+50’-0”
helices, a driver can reach the destination in about
20% of the visitor distance. If the garage is used

11 Right

12 Right
accordingly, even for all available stalls, this sys-
3 Left

4 Left

tem functions much in the same way as Type A,

+40’-0”
and is very efficient. The one-way travel can

types
3 Right

4 Right

cause congestion as expected, but the crossovers

provide a bypass method, unlike Type A.
1 Left

2 Left

+30’-0”
1 Left

2 Left

Familiar

Visitor
+20’-0”
85% 85%

PLANNING AND DESIGN

+10’-0”

+10’-0”

SOURCES
0 feet

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2,200

2,400

2,600

2,800

3,000

3,200

3,400

3,600

3,800

4,000

4,200

4,400

4,600
200

400

600

800
 INTROdUCTION

Type D - Split-level
This ramp type is very similar to Type A, except dangerous to pedestrians and other drivers alike
that all the parking decks are level. Best suited for because there is little visibility. This can be espe-
a long, narrow site, the short ramps avoid struc- cially problematic with two-way ramps. For unfa-
tural problems of longer slopes and, when placed miliar drivers, locating a vacant stall can be
frequently, offer a method of bypassing conges- difficult because they do not have a clear view
fundamentals

tion. However, the frequency of ramps means a across the entire width of the building - if anything
reduction in parking stalls, as well as the expense they will have a view of the deck from which they
of an additional ramp. Doubling the ramps and have just come.
individual parking decks also increases the over-

16 Left
all cost. Ramp locations, while convenient, can be

14 Left

15 Left

Familiar & Visitor

12 Left

13 Left
+40’-0”
85%

10 Left

11 Left
types

8 Left

9 Left
+30’-0”
6 Left

7 Left
4 Left

5 Left

+20’-0”
2 Left

3 Left
PLANNING AND DESIGN

1 Left

+10’-0”

+10’-0”
SOURCES

0 feet

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2,200

2,400

2,600

2,800

3,000

3,200

3,400

3,600

3,800

4,000

4,200

4,400

4,600

4,800

5,000

5,200

5,400

5,600

5,800
200

400

600

800
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.6 User Behavior

INTROdUCTION
Type E - Express ramps
The main feature of this type, the externalized with no parking stalls, also introduces the issue of be efficiently designed for the driver. The require-
clearway ramp, provides a straightforward bypass additional initial cost to the garage owner and ments for the length of the external ramp mean
to slower traffic and uncertainty of a large, circu- space that does not generate revenue. At the that the garage has a very broad footprint, and
itous parking deck. However, the level access same time, the separate bypass circulation this in turn will create a situation where numerous
lane for clearway travel exposes drivers to poten- reduces risk to pedestrians because they are not turns are required. For an unfamiliar driver, this

fundamentals
tial conflict, especially because the aisle passes required to walk on a sloped surface with moving sea of parking can be daunting and frustrating.
numerous locations where searching drivers are vehicles beside them. Aside from the clearway
turning, in both directions. The separate ramp, 6 Right
7 Right
ramp, the interior of the garage inherently cannot

8 Left

19 Right

20 Right

21 Right

22 Left

23 Left
Familiar

Visitor
2 Right
3 Right

+20’-0”
4 Left
5 Left

85% 85%

10 Right

11 Right

12 Right

15 Right

16 Right

17 Right
18 Right
13 Left

14 Left

types
1 Left

+10’-0”
3 Right

4 Right

8 Right
9 Right
1 Left

2 Left

5 Left

6 Left

7 Left

+10’-0”

PLANNING AND DESIGN

0 feet

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2,200

2,400

2,600

2,800

3,000

3,200

3,400

3,600

3,800

4,000

4,200

4,400

4,600

4,800

5,000

5,200
200

400

600

800

Ramp Type Comparative Analysis

CONSECUTIVE
EXPRESS NUMBER OF TURNS 360º TURNS AVERAGE DISTANCE
RAMP TYPES FACTOR Familiar Visitor Familiar Visitor BETWEEN TURNS (FT)

Type A Two-way single helix (1) 15 15 4 4 50

Type B Central two-way ramp .432 17 33 4.5 9 90

SOURCES
Type C One-way double helix 4 12 0 3.5 186
Type D Split level (1) 16 16 4 4 179
Type E Express ramp .314 8 23 1 1 114
 INTROdUCTION

A Case Study in User Behavior:

Princeton University Parking Structure
Drivers have fundamentally different experiences, users begin to go home. Traffic levels are main-
especially in parking structures where there is a tained as this exit pattern is balanced by an
mix of nearby program. At Princeton, there are a entrance pattern of students. Also typically famil-
few basic groups of customers: faculty, staff, stu- iar users, students make use of the bottom-to-top
dents, and visitors. vacancies.
fundamentals

Faculty and staff are typically the biggest segment Throughout any given day and for some special
of familiar visitors, arriving earliest in the day. At occasions, the garage may be used by authorized
this point, vacancies are arranged top-to-borttom, off-campus visitors: they are the unfamiliar oppor-
and are located mostly away from the pedestrian tunists following the longer circulation pattern
circulation cores (which include the exits). Though shown later in this section. For these users, way-
the garage is open around the clock, it is reserved finding is critical. The Princeton garage is outfit-
between the hours of 8:00 am and 5:00 pm for ted with directional arrows on the driving surface
university employees. During this period, the as well as various columns at the corners and the
usage increases dramatically in the first couple entrance and exits of the ramp. There are numer-
types

hours, then plateaus for the majority of the day, ous floor-level indicators to help drivers remember
seeing some activity during the lunch hour. The where their vehicle is parked, and also to direct
rate of vehicle movement increases as the end of them to exits, stairs, and the elevator.
the business day approaches, and faculty/staff
Locating exit-access is a component of the user
Project Data experience that affects where drivers will eventu-
Location: Princeton University Engineering
PLANNING AND DESIGN

Quad, Princeton, NJ
ally park: they may even go to the next level of the
Dates of construction: 1988 - 1991 garage in order to find a vacant stall adjacent to a
Architect: Machado & Silvetti
Architect-of-record: Peter Longren
pedestrian exit.
Consultants: Lim Consultants, Inc. (structural);
Cosentini Associates (mechanical); Van Note-
Harvey Associates (site); Berg/Howland (lighting) In addition, the no-charge operation of the facility
Construction type: Steel frame w/ concrete deck provides some alleviation to high volume periods
Building Area: 165,080 GSF Top: View of garage exterior
Number of stalls: 403 of use because there is no delay for taking a ticket
Middle: View of ramp system. This image illustrates one
391 faculty/staff; 9 accessible; 3 reserved. or making a payment. This allows vehicles to enter possible negative factor for users: a dim, foreboding
291 full-size (9’-0” x 19’-0”) interior that does not evoke a feeling of security.
the circulation path immediately, which is a mea-
SOURCES

112 compact (7’-8½” x 16’-6”) Bottom: Typical parking deck. In addition to a feeling of
Parking stall-area ratio: 38.7% (64,006 SF) sure of efficiency; however, because of this, there relative lack of safety and overhead clearance, this view
Area/stall: 410 SF shows another negative factor for drivers: a bright exte-
Ramp-area ratio: 7.8% (12,895 SF) is a potential for conflict with vehicles that are rior view at the end of a much darker drive aisle. This is
Drive aisle-area ratio: 34.8% (57,500 SF) distracting at the least, and can cause safety issues.
recirculating on the ground floor.
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.6 User Behavior

INTROdUCTION
User Density and Location
Faculty/staff users Entering
Student users Exiting

The morning rarely sees any outbound

traffic. All users are faculty/staff, and the
garage fills from bottom to top, and from

fundamentals
the pedestrian exits toward the center.
8:00AM (Volume of traffic)

The garage continues to fill throughout

the morning. Some vacancies occur as
users run errands, or go about other busi-
ness on campus.
10:00AM

types
Widespread and random vacancies occur
during the lunch hour. There is no pattern,
however the empty stalls are still re-filled
with only faculty/staff vehicles.
12:30PM

PLANNING AND DESIGN

The garage reaches its highest density for
the day, as late-arriving users populate
many remaining spots. However, some
of the early-morning users have already
begun to leave.
3:00PM

Most of the faculty/staff users are leaving

SOURCES
for the day, except perhaps for those
performing after-hours services, such
as janitorial staff. After 5:00pm, students
make up the majority of entering vehicles.
6:00PM
 14 Left
15 Left

16 Left
17 Left
INTROdUCTION

Figure 3.6.6_Familiar user metrics

Familiar

Visitor
+40’-0”
7 30 8 29 85% 85%

10 Left
11 Left

12 Left
13 Left
Level of Service A
fundamentals

+30’-0”
30 4
6 Left
7 Left

8 Left
9 Left
types

+20’-0”
4 7
1 Left

2 Left
3 Left

4 Left
5 Left

+10’-0”
PLANNING AND DESIGN

7 30
(See following spread for detailed Visitor graph)

+10’-0”

2 7 30 4
SOURCES

0 feet

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2,200

2,400

2,600

2,800

3,000

3,200

3,400

3,600
200

400

600

800
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.6 User Behavior

INTROdUCTION
Number of turns Princeton Parking Structure
For drivers familiar with the garage, the
number of turns can become a robotic habit Familiar Driver Analysis
day after day; therefore an anomaly in the
circulation can cause significant congestion The entry sequence for the garage is straightfor-
from their perspective. Because of familiar-
ity and individual habits, the number of turns ward for a veteran user: only one turn is required
does not become disorienting, because the to access the central ramp. Given that the primary
driver is targeting a specific level or location
with respect to pedestrian circulation cores. daytime users - faculty and staff - arrive early in

fundamentals
the morning, the first level is going be full first.
This is not an unexpected phenomena in parking
garages - the earliest users will migrate towards
Entry path for familiar drivers (Level 1) the closest exits in the direction of their final
destination.
360º turns
Conventional garage design suggests The steel construction of the garage allows driv-
limiting the number of complete rotations
to five or six, which thus set parameters ers to see most of the stalls in the garage while
for the ramp design and overall height of moving up the ramp. Given the capacity of the
the garage. Due to the one-way circula-

types
tion and ramp position, this garage can be garage, a familiar driver can tell whether or not
problematic (see next spread). However, skipping the next turn up the ramp will be worth-
familiar drivers are able to bypass roughly
half the parking deck area and so reduce while. For a familiar driver interested in a quick
the number of complete rotations propor- exit, the extra time driving may be valuable
tionately to five.
because there are stalls available close to the
vehicle exit circulation. Possible congestion may
Central path for familiar drivers (Typical Level: 2-4) be encountered during afternoon rush hour if the

PLANNING AND DESIGN

driver chooses a spot opposite the “down” ramp.

Stalls passed
The number of stalls this driver passes is A driver needs to assess parking location with
not critical to their circulation, because they regard to their destination - parking for ease of
are familiar with the everyday patterns of
parking. Because certain locations fill up exit may mean a longer period walking, a conse-
first, especially adjacent to the pedestrian quence affected by weather and pedestrian
circulation cores, this driver targets known
areas of vacancy. Free stalls along this safety. Faculty or staff used to this garage will
path are infrequent and not expected - with have a preferred location that most likely balances
this mentality, the driver operates virtually
out these factors.

SOURCES
in a higher Level of Service, and no stall is
passed twice.

End of path for familiar drivers (Level 5)

 85%

Visitor 3,600
29

33 Left 3,400
8

32 Left
30

3,200
31 Left
7

30 Left
29 Left
3,000
30 4

28 Left
27 Left 2,800
30 5 7

26 Left
2,600
25 Left
8

24 Left
30

2,400
23 Left
7

22 Left
Level of Service A

2,200
21 Left
30 4

20 Left
2,000
19 Left
30 5 7
85%

18 Left
Familiar
See Figure 3.6.11

1,800
17 Left
8

16 Left
30

1,600
15 Left

7
14 Left
1,400
13 Left

30 4
12 Left
(See previous spread for detailed Familiar graph)

1,200
11 Left

30 5 7
10 Left 1,000
9 Left

8
8 Left 800

30
Figure 3.6.7_Unfamiliar user metrics

7 Left

7
6 Left 600
5 Left

27 2
4 Left 400
3 Left

30 12
2 Left 200
1 Left

4
0 feet

+40’-0”

+30’-0”

+20’-0”

+10’-0”

+10’-0”
INTROdUCTION fundamentals types PLANNING AND DESIGN SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design

INTROdUCTION
Number of Turns Princeton Parking Structure
For an unfamiliar driver, the sheer number
of turns necessary in the search for an Visiting Driver Analysis
empty parking stall is a true indicator of
garage efficiency. This translates into aver- For a driver not used to this garage, it will initially
age speed, and so also the amount of time it
takes a visitor to reach an empty stall. This be somewhat confusing because of the one-way
is compounded by the one-way circulation, direction. The driver will soon discover that, if they
which means that the visitor will have to
make extra turns to locate a vacancy. are looking for the best location possible, it is nec-

fundamentals
essary to drive around the ground floor before
heading to the next level. Of course, this will then
in turn slow down other traffic parking or unpark-
Entry path for unfamiliar drivers (Level 1) ing on that floor. Typically, drivers entering a
garage move more efficiently because they only
360º turns require the first available stall. But a visitor will
Because the visitor will be expecting to find drive slower, or wait longer for a stall, and thus
a free stall by searching ALL the stalls in
the garage, the number of complete turns cause congestion that familiar users do not
is nearly twice that of the familiar driver. expect.
This can result in disorientation for the

types
driver because their direction changes so
often. Landmarks and signage are critical
In the typical levels of parking, the circulation gets
in garages with a circulation system that is
not intuitive. At Princeton, the central ramp more complicated: the visitor will pass some stalls
becomes a landmark for drivers.
more than once, which is good for accessing
available stalls, and that is in the interest of this
type of driver. However, this will have a negative
Central path for unfamiliar drivers (Typical Level: 2-4) effect on circulation because the driver is on that

PLANNING AND DESIGN

level for longer, and their re-circulation interferes
with vehicles entering and exiting the central
Stalls passed
To a driver unfamiliar with the garage, every ramp.
stall is a possibility - the relative turnover
rate is not apparent. Therefore any location
is an opportunity for vacancy, and more like The visiting driver can also be affected by the
than not the visitor will attempt to cover the
structure of the garage: a low floor-to-floor height
area of the garage as thoroughly as possi-
ble in order to find an empty stall. The driver can be discouraging and somewhat claustropho-
believes that the garage must have free
bic. It can also be uncomfortable for pedestrians,
stalls, therefore free stalls ARE expected.
The one-way circulation requires the driver because the light fixtures are mounted between

SOURCES
to then pass some stalls twice, which while
increasing the opportunity for finding a va-
steel beams - this creates a dimmer interior which
cancy, lengthens the time spent searching can translate into a feeling of insecurity.
and so lowers the Level of Service.
End of path for unfamiliar drivers (Level 5)
 SOURCES PLANNING AND DESIGN types fundamentals INTROdUCTION

+10’-0”
+10’-0”
+20’-0”
+30’-0”
+40’-0”
0 feet 00:00
1 Left

2 Left
200 00:30

Relative MPH
3 Left
Cruising
4 Left
400 Turning
01:00
5 Left
Bypassing
6 Left
600 7 Left
01:30
8 Left
800 9 Left
Figure 3.6.8_Familiar user characteristics

02:00 10 Left
1,000 11 Left

02:30 12 Left
1,200
13 Left

14 Left
15 Left
1,400 03:00

16 Left
1,600 03:30 17 Left

1,800
04:00 Familiar
85%

2,000
04:30

2,200

05:00
2,400

05:30
2,600
(See following spread for detailed Visitor graph)

2,800 06:00

3,000 06:30

3,200
07:00

3,400
07:30

3,600 Visitor
85%

08:00
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.6 User Behavior

INTROdUCTION
Turns and circulation
The turns indicated are directly related to Qualitative Driver Experience
overall traffic movement, because every Analysis - Familiar
driver does not turn at the same rate. For
the familiar class of drivers, entering the
garage at a time of day when many spaces Frequent turns affect other aspects of the parking
are sequentially available, the turns may not experience, explicitly the time required to find a
present much of an obstacle because all
the cars are moving in the same direction; free stall. Each time a driver has to make a turn,
for example, in the morning, no cars are they need to slow down to perform the maneuver,

fundamentals
backing out, so vehicles can move around
the corners faster. as well as check for pedestrian traffic. This is why
garages are typically designed (here as well) to
move one-way vehicular traffic in a counter-clock-
Entry path for familiar drivers (Level 1) wise direction: the driver has a wider view of the
aisle ahead, not obstructed as much by structure
Vehicle speed or other parked vehicles.
Bypassing, which in this case refers to
vehicles on the ramp where there is no
parking capacity. For a familiar driver, the turning like all other fac-
tors becomes a mechanical movement, almost
Cruising, where the driver is looking for a

types
stall along the main parking aisles; like clockwork. The experienced driver is able to
enter and exit the turn in a much smoother man-
Turning, the slowest speed, during which
the driver is confronted with possible blind ner than a visitor, and is not distracted by views to
spots (see above);
the exterior. In fact, because they are used to per-
forming an upcoming turn, familiar drivers are
able to look ahead to stalls that are on the upcom-
Central path for familiar drivers (Typical Level: 2-4) ing level or aisle. Because of this, the driver may

PLANNING AND DESIGN

have the ability to shorten or widen turns in order
Time to access a free stall. However, there may be a
It is difficult to determine an acceptable time few moments when the driver is perusing adjacent
of travel for any given circulation. This study
assumes an average speed of five miles aisles that may be dangerous for pedestrians.
per hour (5 MPH) for the driver. A more
detailed study of a vehicle’s path would
show compression and expansion of time
measurement related to various reductions
in interfloor circulation.

Using this speed, a ride to the top level of

SOURCES
the garage would just under four (4) min-
utes. This has been confirmed in the field.

End of path for familiar drivers (Level 5)

 08:00
85%

Visitor 3,600
07:30
33 Left 3,400
32 Left
07:00
3,200
31 Left
30 Left
Bypassing
3,000 06:30
29 Left Turning
28 Left
Cruising
27 Left 2,800 06:00
Cruising
26 Left
2,600
25 Left 05:30
24 Left
2,400
23 Left
22 Left
05:00
2,200
21 Left
20 Left 04:30
2,000
19 Left
85%

18 Left
Familiar
04:00
1,800
17 Left
16 Left
1,600 03:30
15 Left
14 Left
1,400 03:00
13 Left
12 Left
(See previous spread for detailed Familiar graph)

1,200
02:30
11 Left
10 Left 1,000
9 Left
02:00
Figure 3.6.9_Unfamiliar user characteristics

8 Left 800
7 Left 01:30
6 Left 600
5 Left
4 Left
01:00
400
3 Left

Relative MPH
2 Left 00:30 200
1 Left
0 feet 00:00

+40’-0”

+30’-0”

+20’-0”

+10’-0”

+10’-0”
INTROdUCTION fundamentals types PLANNING AND DESIGN SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design
3.6 User Behavior

INTROdUCTION
Turns and circulation
A circulation path requiring a substantial Qualitative Driver Experience
number of turns for an uninitiated driver can
cause frustration, meaning the driver either
Analysis - Visitor
attempts to exit the garage, or severely
slows other traffic. Signage or pavement Excessive turning can be a direct psychological
markings directing visitors to separate burden to a driver. Besides the possible disorien-
levels and pedestrian exists can alleviate
this issue. Though not present at Princeton, tation of a driver when completing 360º rotations,
some garages employ an electronic system the change in direction may often present a driver

fundamentals
that directs users to free stalls.
with a new view to the exterior. In a garage such
as Princeton, with an elaborately designed exter-
nal fenestration, this can be problematic.
Entry path for unfamiliar drivers (Level 1)

Simply having openings to the exterior can be the

Vehicle speed cause for accidents: a sunny day can make visibil-
Bypassing, which in this case refers to ity very difficult in the garage, because the major-
vehicles on the ramp where there is no
parking capacity. ity of the garage is lit artificially (especially the
ramp). Emerging into an aisle confronted by a
Cruising, where the driver is looking for

types
a stall along the main parking aisles (this bright opening can temporarily blind a driver.
displays multiple speeds depending on the
Given the one-way circulation, when exiting the
length of the aisle - a more detailed study
could show the affect of parking or unpark- ramp, vehicles must turn immediately after facing
ing vehicles);
an opening, and then turn again shortly after. All
Turning, the slowest speed, during which physical metrics aside, the difficulty of making the
the driver is confronted with possible blind
actual turn can be compounded by the contrast in
spots (see above);
Central path for unfamiliar drivers (Typical Level: 2-4) lighting.

PLANNING AND DESIGN

Another characteristic of the garage that may slow
Time
Optimistically assuming the same average down unfamiliar drivers is the ramp system itself.
speed as the familiar driver, this circulation The Princeton garage employs a three-part ramp:
path takes nearly twice as long.
the steepest 50% is in the center, with two shal-
lower sections at the top and bottom to minimize
damage to vehicles in the transition between flat
deck and sloped. Consequently, the ramp is also
assumed to be less psychologically imposing to

SOURCES
the unfamiliar driver. However, the location of the
ramp around a corner in every case poses an
obstacle to the velocity of the unfamiliar driver.
End of path for unfamiliar drivers (Level 5)
 SOURCES PLANNING AND DESIGN types fundamentals INTROdUCTION

+10’-0”
+10’-0”
+20’-0”
+30’-0”
+40’-0”
0 feet 00:00

200 00:30

Relative MPH
Cruising

400 Turning
01:00
Bypassing

600
01:30

800
Figure 3.6.10_Potential circulation conflicts

02:00
1,000

02:30
1,200

1,400 03:00

1,600 03:30

1,800
04:00 Familiar
85%

2,000
04:30

2,200

05:00
2,400

05:30
2,600

2,800 06:00
Cruising
(See previous spreads for detailed graphs)

Turning
3,000 06:30
Bypassing

3,200
07:00

3,400
07:30

3,600 Visitor
85%

08:00
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design

INTROdUCTION
Interfloor Circulation
Conflicts
In the methods of study presented thus far, the changes in direction and elevation. For the most
familiar and the unfamiliar diagrams have been part, this is centered on the ramp, although some
separated for clarity. But it is reasonable to conflict is possible at the entrance to the garage.
assume that both types of drivers are present in Because of the one-way circulation pattern, such
the garage at any given time. Therefore the flow of conflict is unavoidable throughout the garage. The

fundamentals
Three-path conflicts each circulation type will come into contact with potential for an accident is exponentially increased
A location in the garage where the flow of the other, and given the characteristics of each when one considers that unfamiliar drivers may
familiar drivers may interact with that of two
paths of unfamiliar drivers. described in this study, it is important to map turn in the wrong direction at the top or bottom of
potential conflicts. the ramp, making signage or pavement markings
critical to smooth operation.
Two-path external conflicts While there may be congestion related to differing
A location in the garage where the flow of
familiar drivers may interact with that of speeds of travel, those are not calculated here Because of the circulation pattern, an interaction
unfamiliar drivers. Typically this is when because their location is variable. Unfamiliar driv- between the two types of drivers would probably
one flow of traffic is exiting the ramp into
another. ers may in fact be driving slower on Prospect result in assuming the characteristics of the slower

types
Avenue if they are visiting campus for the first type, the unfamiliar driver. It is less likely that a
Two-path internal conflicts time. visitor will speed up to match more experienced
This is an instance where the re-circula- drivers in a technical environment such as this,
tion of unfamiliar drivers overlaps - drivers
The remaining potential for conflict, and that is while faster drivers will have no choice but to slow
exiting the ramp confront other unfamiliar
drivers who have already circulated around conflict which is physical, clusters about the down for a new user.
the deck.
Ground level plan showing one internal and Typical level plan showing all three types of
one external conflict, both of them two-way. conflict, occurring exclusively at the entry

PLANNING AND DESIGN

This is caused primarily by the entry. and exit points of the ramp.

SOURCES
 21 Left
139’-6” 52’-10”

Vehicles slowing to ascend ramp

4

20 Left
RECIRCULATION

RECIRCULATION
Traffic slowing for unparking vehicle
30
19 Left
87’-4”
5 7
Conflict at vehicles exiting ramp
18 Left

139’-6”
30
17 Left

87’-4”
Vehicles slowing to ascend ramp

8
16 Left
Decelerate in to turn
Maximum 22’-10’ radius
Check for pedestrians

DISTANCE TRAVELED
Check signage
Scan for vacant stalls
Slow for car turning

STALLS PASSED

VEHICLE SPEED
Accelerate out of turn E
OLUM
ING V
EVEN O LUME
IME V
DAYT OLUM
E
Figure 3.6.11_Factors affecting

ING V
MORN
behavior
INTROdUCTION fundamentals types PLANNING AND DESIGN SOURCES
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Planning and Design

INTROdUCTION
Comprehensive Metric
Analysis
This diagram shows all the factors affecting driver
behavior in the parking garage.

fundamentals
types
Unpredictable circulation reductions.
Affected by:
Parking stall dimensions
Drive aisle width

PLANNING AND DESIGN

Quantitative measurements that determine
Level of Service (LOS).

Recirculating vehicle speed - drivers

accelerate because they have already
passed these spaces.

SOURCES
Typical vehicle speed - drivers are search-
ing for vacant stalls.
Sources
ar c G 6 9 1 t y p o l og y pat t e r n b o o k Parking Garage: Sources

INTROdUCTION
Allen, Edward, and Joseph Iano. The Architect’s Studio Companion. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and
Sons, 2002

American Institute of Architects. Architectural Graphic Standards. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons,
2007

fundamentals
Chrest, Anthony P., et al. Parking Structures 3rd ed.New York: Springer Publishing, 2001

Jackle, John A., and Keith A. Sculle. Lots of Parking: Land Use in Car Culture. Charlottesville: University
of Virginia, 2005

Klose, Dietrich. Metropolitan Parking Structures. New York: Frederick A. Prager Publishers, 1966

Weant, Robert A., and Herbert S. Levinson. Parking. Washington, DC: Eno Foundation for

types
Transportation, 1990

Mc Donald, Shannon Sanders. The Parking Garage: Design and Evolution of a Modern Urban Form.
Urban Land Institute, 2007

Urban Land Institute, National Parking Association. Dimensions of Parking. Urban Land Institute, 2000

PLANNING AND DESIGN

Stadig, Arthur. Personal Interview. 22 Oct. 2008.

SOURCES
SOURCES PLANNING AND DESIGN types fundamentals INTROdUCTION
 aximum 22’-10’ radius
Check for pedestrians
Accelerate out of turn

Scan for vacant stalls

Decelerate in to turn
Slow for car turning
RECIRCULATION

Check signage
PARKING

16 Left

17 Left

18 Left

19 Left

20 Left

21 Left
ARCH G691 GRADUATE DEGREE

PROJECT STUDIO

FALL 2008

This publication has been prepared as

part of a five week graduate thesis studio
assignment in the Northeastern University
School of Architecture for the Fall 2008
Architecture G691 course. Other publications
in this series include urban retail, hotel,

E
and self storage typologies, all produced

LUME
OLUM

E
OLUM
by graduate students in the Northeastern
University architecture program.

Traffic slowing for unparking vehicle

O
ING V
IME V
ING V

Vehicles slowing to ascend ramp

Vehicles slowing to ascend ramp

Conflict at vehicles exiting ramp
MORN
DAYT
EVEN

DISTANCE TRAVELED 87’-4” 139’-6” 87’-4” 139’-6” 52’-10”

STALLS PASSED 8 30 5 7 30 4

VEHICLE SPEED