Chapter 10

Compressible flows though nozzles

• Governing equations for quasi 1D flows

• Convergent – divergent nozzle flows
• Diffusers

1
Compressible flow through nozzles
Relevance
• Rocket and jet engines
• High-speed wind tunnels

Governing equations for quasi-1D flow

L dA
A2 x << 1
A A dx
Vy Vz
A1
Vx ¹ 0 << 1 << 1
Vx Vx
p, r , T , u uniform along each section
A = A ( x ) , p = p ( x ) , etc
2
Recall the governing equations for steady, inviscid, adiabatic
and quasi 1-D flow
rVA = const A
p1 A1 + r1V12 A1 + ò pdA = p2 A2 + r2V22 A2
A1
H = const
dr dV dA
From rVA = const + + =0
r V A
From momentum equation
( )(
pA + ρV 2 A + pdA = p + dp A + dA +… )
…( ρ + d ρ ) (V + dV ) ( A + dA)
2

Adp + AV 2 d ρ + ρV 2 dA + 2 ρVAdV = 0
3
from continuity ρVA = const
d ( ρVA) = 0 V ⋅ d ( ρVA) = 0
rV 2 dA + rVAdV + AV 2 d r = 0

combined with the previous result (momentum)

Adp + AV 2 d ρ + ρV 2 dA + 2 ρVAdV = 0

dp + rVdV = 0 Euler’s equation

From the energy equation

dH = 0 or dh + VdV = 0
The objective is to obtain a relation between dV dA
4
Starting from
dr dV dA
+ + =0
r V A
dp dp dr 2 dr
= =a
r dr r r
From Euler equation dp = -VdV
r
dr dr dV
a 2
= -VdV = -M 2
r r V

dA dV
= ( M - 1)
2
Area-Velocity relation
A V

5
 dA dV
= ( M - 1)
2

Consequences: A V
For M < 1, dA < 0 For M < 1, dA > 0

V V V V

For M > 1, dA < 0 For M > 1, dA > 0

V V V V

At M = 1 even if dV ¹ 0
either a max or a min of A. Physically will
correspond to Amin
6
Convergent-divergent nozzle
supersonic nozzle (accelerator)

M <1 V increases M >1

supersonic diffuser (decelerator)

M >1 V decreases M <1

7
Nozzle flows
Objective: determine a relation starting from the Velocity-
Area relation

Amin = A* A
M ** = 1 * M
u =a u
Sonic throat generic section

8
from continuity r *u* A* = ruA
A r *u * r * a* r * r0 a*
= = =
A*
ru ru r0 r u
1

but r = æ 2 ö
* g -1

r0 çè g + 1 ÷ø
1
ρ0 ⎛ γ − 1 2 ⎞ γ −1
= ⎜ 1+ M ⎟
ρ ⎝ 2 ⎠

a* 1
M*
2
=
( g + 1) M 2
= *
u M 2 + ( g - 1) M 2
g +1
2
æ A ö IF 1 é 2 æ g - 1 2 ö ù g -1 Mach-Area relation
ç *÷ = 2ê ç1 + M ÷ú
è A ø M ëg +1è 2 øû given in Appendix A
9
 æ Aö
M =Mç *÷
èA ø
and A = f ( M )
A*
1) M < 1
A
however at given
A* 2) M > 1
The solution depends on the boundary condition:
pressure ratio across the nozzle

10
Recall the Mach-Area relation g +1
2
æ A ö IF 1 é 2 æ g - 1 2 ö ù g -1
ç *÷ = 2ê ç1 + M ÷ú
è A ø M ëg +1è 2 øû

æ Aö
M = f çg , * ÷
è A ø
where always A > A*
and for a given value of A A* we have 2 possible solutions
1) M < 1 ; 2) M > 1

e.g. look into the table for IF

M = 0.31
at A * = 2
A M = 2.2
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Consider a Laval nozzle
A = A( x) Ae
M =1 A*
inlet
p0 , T0 A = A*

assuming supersonic exit

M e6
M M =M A ( A)
*

p
-g
p0 isentropic flow p æ g -1 2 ö g -1
0.528 = ç1 + M ÷
pe 6 p0 è 2 ø
p0
T -1
T0 T æ g -1 2 ö
0.833 = ç1 + M ÷
Te6 T0 è 2 ø
T0
12
A pressure difference is needed to obtain flow in the nozzle
pe < p0
for isentropic flow pe must be exactly pe (IF)
6

What happens if pe ¹ pe6 ?

13
 At pe
p0

1
M e3
M e2
M e1

p
pe1 p0
p0 pe2 p0
pe3 p0

14
When pe = pe3 At = A*
m = ρ ∗u∗ A∗ = ρ ∗u∗ At

If pe < pe3 still the throat conditions are sonic

m is fixed “choked mass flow regime”

m

pe
pe3 p0
15
When pe < pe3 and pe > pe6
NSW is formed either inside the nozzle or at its exit

p0 At NSW pe

1 NSW M e4

p
p0
pe4

16
When pe further decreases
NSW travels downstream

We call pe5 the pressure where a NSW is placed at the nozzle

exit

If pe6 < pe < pe5 a NSW is too strong and OSW appear
“over-expanded flow regime”

If pe < pe6 the flow needs to expand further to adapt the pressure
Prandtl-Meyer expansion fans appear
“under-expanded flow regime”
17
If pe6 < pe < pe5 over-expanded p = pe

pe < pe6 p = pe
If under-expanded

18
19
Summarizing
p
p0
subsonic flow pe
3

pe
5

pe
6

exit
Examples: 10.1, 10.2, 10.3

Problems: 10.2, 10.5, 10.7,10.8, 10.9

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Diffusers
Any duct designed to slow down the flow to lower velocity is
a diffuser

The objective of the application of diffusers is to recover as

high as possible total pressure in the stream

The ideal diffuser performs an isentropic compression

Ds = 0 p0,2 = p0,1

M1 > 1 M =1 M2 <1
p0,2 = p0,1
A* s2 = s1
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an isentropic deceleration is not realistic due to SW and
viscous effects (boundary layer)

Actual supersonic diffuser

At
M2 <1
M1 > 1 NSW
p0,2 < p0,1
(weak)
s2 > s1

Due to entropy increase across SWs

At in the real diffuser is larger than A*
22
Supersonic wind tunnels
Objective: generate a uniform supersonic stream in a laboratory
e.g. Model testing required at M = 2.5
1st choice
A
Take a convergent-divergent nozzle with e* = 2.64
p0 A
We need to establish = 17.1 to exit in the
pe
ambient at pe6
p A* Ae
p0
M e = 2.5 model
pe = 1 atm
pe
6

x* xe
23
1st choice
Ae
Take a convergent-divergent nozzle with * = 2.64
p0 A
We need to establish = 17.1 to exit in the ambient at pe6
pe

p A* Ae
p0
M e = 2.5 model
p0 > 17 atm
pe = 1 atm
pe
6

x* xe

Consequences:
-need for air storage at p0 > 17 atm
-large mass flow m = ρ ∗u∗ A∗

24
 2nd choice
exit test section pb = 1 atm
throat
M e = 2.5 M2 <1
p0 = 2.4 atm p2 = pb = 1 atm
pe = 0.14 atm
NSW

The nozzle exhaust into a constant area duct.

Flow terminates with a NSW

Consequences:
-only p0 = 2.4 atm is needed reduction in mass flow
-NSW acts as a diffuser low efficiency of deceleration
25
3rd choice Laval nozzle + diffuser

nozzle test section diffuser

Me
p0 pe
model

Consequences:
less entropy production decelerating with multiple OSWs
p0 can be further lowered

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 pe
The required pressure ratio p0 can be obtained:

1) Pressurized storage vessel ( p0 > patm )

2) Vacuum at the outlet ( p0 = patm )

In reality losses due to BL have to be accounted for (especially

if separation occurs)

27
Design criteria for a supersonic wind tunnel
1) operating Mach number M e
simply by Ae
A*
Given the size of the test section Ae the first throat A1* or At1
is determined

2) Calculation of the second throat At2 (diffuser)

Consider m = ρuA = ρ1 u1 A1 = ρ2 u2 A2
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗

assuming sonic conditions in both throats

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 At2 r1*u1* r1*a1* AF r1*
= * *= * * = *
At1
r2 u2 r2 a2 r2
AF: adiabatic flow

p1* RT2* p1* p0,1 ( )

g
2 g -1
At2 g +1
= * *= *=
0,2 ( g +1 )
g
At1 p2 RT1 p2 p 2 g -1

At2 p0,1
=
At1 p0,2
The second throat must always be larger than the first one
p0,2 At2
If is known
p0,1 At1

29
 p0,2
In a preliminary design phase one may assume from
p0,1
a NSW at M e
At2 p0,1
If < tunnel choking
At1 p0,2

Example: determine the SW position for a nozzle operating

with pe5 < pe < pe3

Consider that the nozzle exit is followed by another duct with

throat At2 with sonic conditions

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 * NSW e
A1 A2*

t1 t2
r1* a1* A1* = r 2*a2* A2*
æ r* T* ö æ r *
T * ö
ç r0 g R T0 A ÷ = ç r0 g R
* *
T0 A ÷
ç r0 T0 ÷ ç r0 T0 ÷
è ø1 è ø2

p0 = r0 RT0 ; ç ÷ = ç ÷ and ç ÷ = ç ö÷
æ r ö æ r ö æ ö æ
* * * *
T T
è r 0 ø1 è r 0 ø 2 è T0 ø1 è T0 ø2
A2* p0,1 T0,2 and for AF A2* p0,1
*
= *
=
A1 p0,2 T0,1 A1 p0,2
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 2 2 2
æ Ae ö æ r ö æ r0 ö T * T0
*

ç * ÷ =ç ÷ ç ÷
è A1 ø è r0 ø è re ø T0 M eTe
with p = r RT
2 2 2
æ Ae ö æ r ö æ p0 ö TeT * 1
*

ç * ÷ =ç ÷ ç ÷
A r
è 1ø è 0ø è eø 0 p T 2
M 2
e
-1
and with e = æ1 +
T g - 1 2ö
ç M e ÷
T0 è 2 ø
2 2
æ g -1 ö æ r ö æ p A ö T** *
M e2 ç1 + M e2 ÷ = ç ÷ ç 0 ÷
è 2 r
ø è 0 ø è e e ø T0
p A
g +1 2
æ g -1 2 ö æ 2 ö g -1 æ p0 A ö *
M ç1 +
2
Me ÷ = ç ÷ ç ÷
e
è 2 ø è g + 1 ø p A
è e eø
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 æ p0 A* ö
manipulating the expression we derive M e = M e ç g , , ÷
è pe Ae ø
⎡⎛ γ +1
1
2⎞ 2
⎤
AF
1 ⎢⎜ ⎛ 2 ⎞ γ −1 ⎛ A∗ p0 ⎞ ⎟ ⎥
Me = ⎢ 1+ 2 (γ − 1) ⎜ − 1⎥
2

γ − 1 ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ γ + 1⎠ ⎝ Ae pe ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
valid for both isentropic flow and adiabatic flow (with shocks)

Adiabatic nozzle flow

Even in presence of SWs we can obtain a relation returning the
Mach number M e
Useful in the range pe5 < pe < pe3

33
 p
p0
pe p0
3

0.528 pe p0
5

pe p0
6

t ( *) e
In the only assumption of adiabatic flow (constant total
enthalpy)
ρeue Ae = ρ ∗u∗ A∗ = ρ ∗a∗ A∗

ue ue ae a0 Te T0
*
= *
= Me
a ae a0 a T0 T *
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To determine shock position As and strength M s proceed as
follows:
pe Ae AF
known and * Me
p0,1 A1
IF Ae
known M e
A2*
*
Ae Ae A
known and 2
A1* A2*
A1*
A2* AF p0,1 NSW
known * Ms
A1 p0,2
IF As
known M s
A1*
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