UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA PERLIS

EKT 101
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT THEORY

LABORATORY MODULE

SEMESTER I
ACADEMIC SESSION 2018/2019

SCHOOL OF COMPUTER AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

Table of Contents

LABORATORY 1: …… page 4
BASIC LABORATORY EQUIPMENT

LABORATORY 2: …… page 17
BASIC COMPONENT OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

LABORATORY 3: …… page 25
SERIES-PARALLEL RESISTANCE

LABORATORY 4: …… page 29
NODAL ANALYSIS AND MESH ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

LABORATORY 5: …… page 32
THEVENIN’S THEOREM, NORTON’S THEOREM’S AND MAXIMUM
POWER TRANSFER

LABORATORY 6: …… page 38
SINUSOIDAL STEADY STATE ANALYSIS – SERIES RLC CIRCUIT

*****OLO*****

2
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

LABORATORY OUTCOME

(i) Ability to apply knowledge of mathematics equations to solve problems in DC circuits

(ii) Ability to investigate and analyse circuit’s parameters containing sinusoidal steady
state sources using complex impedances and phasor representations.

PROGRAM OUTCOME

WK2: Conceptually-based mathematics, numerical analysis, statistics and formal aspects of

computer and information science to support analysis and modelling applicable to the
discipline

WK8: Engagement with selected knowledge in the research literature of the discipline

LABORATORY REPORTS

 All labs require a laboratory report.

 Laboratory reports are individual endeavors not group work.

 The deadline for reports is one week after the lab is performed. A mark is
subtracted for the late submitted.

 A laboratory report should include a statement of the Objective (i.e., those

items under investigation), a Discussion (an explanation and analysis of the lab
data which links the Objective to the Conclusion), Data Tables and Graphs, a
Conclusion (what was found or verified),

 Each student is required to be actively and fully engaged in every laboratory

activity.

RULES

 No food or drink is allowed in lab at any time. Liquids are of particular danger
as they are ordinarily conductive. Spilling a bottle of water onto equipment
could leave the experimenter in danger or severe shock.

 Similarly, items such as books and jackets should not be left on top of the test
equipment as it could cause overheating.

 All test equipment is arrayed along the top shelf. A lab bench should always
be left in a secure mode. All equipment and components must properly
stowed.

 Laboratory chair/stool must pushed under the bench.

3
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

LABORATORY 1
BASIC LABORATORY EQUIPMENT

OBJECTIVE

1. To demonstrate the basic operation of a multi-meter, power supply, oscilloscope and

function generator.

2. To show the application of basic laboratory measurement equipment.

3. To practice a simple calibration of a multi-meter and an oscilloscope.

THEORY OVERVIEW

A. MULTI-METER

Multi-meter is a basic tool in electric and electronic fields. It is a multipurpose device

to measure voltage, current and resistance. Basically there are two types of multi-meter
used either in the education or industrial field based on the electronic circuits inside
them: analog and digital meters.

The analog meter, broadly known as VOM (volt-ohm-millimeters) uses a mechanical

moving pointer which indicates the measured quantity on a calibrated scale. It requires
the user a little practice to interpret the location of the pointer.

The digital meter broadly known as DMM (digital multi-meter) used number or
numerical display to represent the measured quantity. It has high degree of accuracy
and can eliminate usual reading errors compared to the analog meters.

(a) Resistance Measurement

For VOM, always reset the zero-adjust whenever you change scales (Figure
1.1). In addition always choose the range setting that will give the best reading
of the pointer location. As an example, to measure a 500- resistance, choose
function switch resistance with a range setting of X 1K. Finally do not forget
to multiply the reading by the proper multiplication factor. If you are not sure
about the value always starts with the highest range and going downwards until
4
Page

appropriate scale is chosen.

EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

Figure 1.1

(b) Voltage Measurement

When measuring voltage levels, make sure the meter is connected in parallel
with the element whose voltage is to be measured. Polarity is important because
the reading will indicate up-scale or positive reading for correct connection and
down-scale or negative reading if reverse connection of the meter test leads to
the resistor’s terminals. Therefore a voltmeter is not only excellent for
measuring voltage but also for polarity determination. Choose the correct
function switch for example DCV to measure dc voltage and turn to the range
switch that has slightly bigger value than the voltage to be measured (Figure
1.2).

Figure 1.2

(c) Current Measurement

When measuring current levels, make a series connection between the meter and
the component whose current is to be measured (Figure 1.3). In other words,
disconnect the particular branch and insert the ammeter. The ammeter also has
5

polarity marking to indicate the manner they should be hooked-up in the circuit
Page

to obtain an up-scale or positive measurement.

EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

Figure 1.3
The connection of the multi-meter to measure different electrical quantities is
shown in both schematic diagram (Figure 1.4) and real wiring illustration in the
laboratory in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.4: Schematic diagram

Figure 1.5: Real wiring diagram for illustration

6
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

B. POWER SUPPLY

A power supply as depicted in Figure 1.6 is a device that supplies electric power to
an electrical load. The term is most commonly applied to devices that convert one form
of electrical energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another
form of energy (mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power
supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the
controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in either load current or the
voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source.

Figure 1.6: Power Supply

Characteristic:
Have 3 channels – Channel 1 & Channel 2 – 0-30 V / 0- 50 V
Channel 3 – Fixed 5 V

C. FUNCTION GENERATOR

(i) A function generator (Figure 1.7) is usually a piece of electronic test

equipment or software used to generate different types of electrical
waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most common
waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine, square, triangular
and saw tooth shapes.

(ii) A function generator is a device that can produce various patterns of voltage at
a variety of frequencies and amplitudes. It is used to test the response of circuits
to common input signals. The electrical leads from the device are attached to
the ground and signal input terminals of the device under test.
7
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

Figure 1.7: Function Generator

Most function generators allow the user to choose the shape of the output from
a small number of options.

 Square wave - The signal goes directly from high to low voltage.

 Sine wave - The signal curves like a sinusoid from high to low voltage

 Triangle wave - The signal goes from high to low voltage at a fixed
rate.

The amplitude control on a function generator varies the voltage difference

between the high and low voltage of the output signal. The direct current (DC)
offset control on a function generator varies the average voltage of a signal
relative to the ground.
8
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

The frequency control of a function generator controls the rate at which output
signal oscillates. On some function generators, the frequency control is a
combination of different controls. One set of controls chooses the broad
frequency range (order of magnitude) and the other selects the precise
frequency. This allows the function generator to handle the enormous variation
in frequency scale needed for signals. The duty cycle of a signal refers to the
ratio of high voltage to low voltage time in a square wave signal

How to use Function Generator

After powering on the function generator, the output signal needs to be

configured to the desired shape. Typically, this means connecting the signal and
ground leads to an oscilloscope to check the controls.

Adjust the function generator until the output signal is correct, then attach the
signal and ground leads from the function generator to the input and ground of
the device under test.

For some applications, the negative lead of the function generator should attach
to a negative input of the device, but usually attaching to ground is sufficient.

D. OSCILLOSCOPE

An oscilloscope or better known as scope is the most versatile piece of equipment that
displays the variation of voltage with time on a cathode-ray tube (CRT). In other words
it can actually draw a graph of voltage direction and amplitude of a signal. The signal
can only be measured if its frequency is within the range of the scope’s frequency.

In all experiment to follow the type of oscilloscope used will be a dual-trace triggered-
sweep scope, model GOS-622G, 20 MHz with two (2) vertical inputs at the sensitivity
of 1 mV/cm. The typical scope has four sections/modes as shown in Figure 1.8. They
are vertical; horizontal; trigger or sync; and display. Let us look at each section to learn
its purpose and adjustments.
9
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

10
Page

Figure 1.8: Functional block diagram of a general purpose oscilloscope

EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

Table 1.1: Control buttons and its functions of an oscilloscope

CONTROL
BUTTONS/SWITCH FUNCTION

The function of intensity is to control the intensity (brightness) of light or

INTENSITY
electron beam suitable to the eyes.
The electron beam is focused through the grid control in the cathode ray tube.
FOCUS
The beam is controlled through this button.
This button controls the sensitivity of the input signal at the vertical mode so
VOLT/DIV that a wide range of signals can be displayed. Typically the range varies from
a few mV to hundreds of Volts.
VERTICAL This button enables the signal displayed to move upwards and downwards.
Y-POSITION
This button enables the adjustment of calibration in terms of VOLT/DIV to
VAR SENS VOLT/DIV
be carried out.
This button determines the way the signal to be measured is input to the
vertical mode. When the switch is set to GND, the signal is shorted to ground.
VERTICAL
Therefore the signal is not displayed. With AC only the ac signal is allowed
COUPLING
to pass through and displayed. With DC both components dc and ac levels
are passed to the vertical mode and displayed on the screen.
This button is associated to the horizontal mode and is the scale factor for
TIME/DIV period. As an example if the TIME/DIV is 1 ms means that 1 cm scale on
the scope screen is equal to the 1 ms.
HORIZONTAL This button enables the signal to be moved to the right and left horizontally.
X-POSITION
VAR SENS TIME/DIV This button is used to calibrate the period.
TRIGGER LEVEL This button is adjusted until a moving signal on the screen is made stationary.

I. CALIBRATION OF OSCILLOSCOPE

1. Connect a coaxial input signal probe to the BNC jack CH1.

2. Obtain a base-line or zero level horizontal trace by setting the vertical

coupling switch to GND and by appropriately adjusting the vertical and
horizontal position controls.

3. Calibrate the sensitivity of the instrument by setting the VOLT/DIV switch

to the required range.

4. Set the vertical coupling switch to AC (dis-engage the switch). Set the sweep
sensitivity TIME/DIV to 0.5 ms. Next, touch the input probe lead to the
calibration point, CAL. Make sure that the magnification scales at both scope
and probe is X1.

5. OBSERVE the values obtained from the displayed waveform and DRAW the
waveform in Figure 1.9 indicating the important values such as peak-peak
value Vpp, Frequency f, VOL/DIV button setting and TIME/DIV button
11

setting.
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

Note: It is very important to make a prior calibration on the scope to ensure a

correct and accurate measurement.

Figure 1.9: Calibration signal

II. AMPLITUDE MEASUREMENTS (VOLTAGE)

DC levels:

(i) Place DC/AC/GND switch in the GND position to establish the base-
line or zero level reference on the screen.

(ii) Then switch the DC/AC/GND switch to DC position to measure dc

level. In this position the input probe has direct coupling to the internal
amplifiers.

(iii) Finally place the scope leads across the unknown dc level and use the
following equation to determine:

DC level (V) = Vert. deflection (div.) X Vert. sensitivity (V/div.) X

12

probe setting
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

AC level:

(i) Place DC/AC/GND switch in the GND position to establish the base-
line or zero level reference on the screen.

(ii) Then switch the DC/AC/GND switch to AC position to measure ac

level. In this mode there is a coupling capacitor between the input probe
and the internal amplifiers. This blocks the dc from display and allows
the measurement of low-level ac signals sitting on the same line as high-
level dc voltage.

(iii) Finally place the scope leads across the unknown ac voltage level to
obtain voltage using the following equation:

Vp-pl (V) = Vert. deflection Peak-Peak (div.) X Vert. sensitivity

(V/div.) X probe setting

13
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

APPENDIX

CONTROL BUTTONS/SWICHES OF OSCILLOSCOPE

NO CONTR BUTTONS/SWICHES NO CONTR BUTTONS/SWICHES

1 Calibration Point, CAL 18 TIME/DIV
2 Intensity, INTEN 19 TRIG/ALT
3 Focus 20 COUPLING
4 Trace Rotation 21 SOURCE
5 Power ON LED Indicator 22 X-Y
6 Power ON/OFF 23 Trigger Mode: NORM/AUTO
7 VOLT/DIV 24 LOCK
8 AC/DC 25 TRIGGER LEVEL
9 GND 26 HOLDOFF
10 CH1(X) Input Port 27 Horizontal Position
11 VAR SENS 28 X 10 Magnification
12 CH2 (Y) Input Port 29 CH2 INV
13 SWP. UNCAL 30 CH2 Vertical Position
14 GND 31 Vertical Mode
15 SWP. VAR 32 CH1 Vertical Position
16 SLOPE 33 CHOP
17 EXT TRIG (EXT HOR) input 34 SCREEN – each graticule
terminal calibrated in centimeters
14
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

LABORATORY ACTIVITY

1. Generate the following signals using function generator and the oscilloscope as Figure
1a. Display and check the properties of each signal.

(a) Sinusoidal waveform : 2.5 kHz, 3Vpp

(b) Square waveform : 10 kHz, 6Vpp

(c) Triangle waveform : 1 kHz, 8Vpp

Figure 1a: AC measurement setup

2. Show each of the waveform by indicating their values of vertical and horizontal
sensitivity.

15
Page

Horizontal sensitivity = _______

Vertical sensitivity = _______
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

Horizontal sensitivity = _______

Vertical sensitivity = _______

Horizontal sensitivity = _______

Vertical sensitivity = _______
16
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

LABORATORY 2

BASIC COMPONENT OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

OBJECTIVES

1. To identify the basic components of an electric circuit.

2. To read the resistance values based on color codes.

2. To practice measure the resistance values using multi-meter and use the breadboard.

THEORY OVERVIEW

1. BASIC COMPONENT OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

A. RESISTOR

The resistor is the most fundamental of all electrical devices. Its fundamental attribute
is the restriction of electrical current flow: The greater the resistance, the greater the
restriction of current. Resistance is measured in Ohms. The measurement of resistance
in unpowered circuits may be performed with a multi-meter. Resistors cannot be
manufactured to perfection. That is, there will always be some variance of the true
value of the component when compared to its nominal value. For precision resistors,
typically 1% tolerance or better, the nominal value is usually printed directly on the
component. Normally, general purpose components, i.e. those worse than 1%, usually
use a color code to indicate their value.

The color code technique is used to show resistance values of carbon resistors (Figure
2.1) without having to measure it. In this technique color bands are printed on the
resistor. The procedure for determining the resistance of a color-coded resistance is
described in Table 2.1. The first two bands determine the first two digits of the resistor
value, while the third band determines the power of 10-multiplier. For the resistor with
value less than 10  the third band is either silver or gold. The forth band is the percent
tolerance for the chosen resistor. If resistors have only three bands, it means the forth
band has no color. Sometimes a fifth band is employed for some high precision resistor
17

where the first three bands represent the significant digit. The forth band is the
Page

multiplier while the fifth band is the tolerance.

EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

In the other case, for some standard 4-band code, a fifth band may indicate the
manufacturer’s special code for some physical characteristic or failure rate of the
component.

In writing the value of resistors: k stands for multiplier “kilo” and M for multiplier
“mega”. The alphabet written after the resistor value shows the tolerance: F = 1%, G =
2%, J = 5%, K= 10% and M = 20%.

The standard code is adopted by manufacturer through their trade association, the
Electronic Industries Association (EIA).

Table 2.1: Resistor color coding

1st Band 2nd Band 4th Band
3rd Band
Color (1st Significant (2ndSignificant (Tolerance)
(Multiplier)
Digit) Digit)
Black 0 0 1
Brown 1 1 101 1%
Red 2 2 102 2%
Orange 3 3 103 3%
Yellow 4 4 104 4%
Green 5 5 105
Blue 6 6 106
Violet 7 7 107
Grey 8 8 108
White 9 9 109
Gold - - 0.1 5%
Silver - - 0.01 10%
No Color - - - 20%

18

Figure 2.1: Reading resistor color coding

Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

Example 1:

The value of this resistor is 25 x 101±

10% = 250± 10% ohms

Minimum value – 225 

Maximum value – 275 

Example 2:

R33F = 0.33 ±1%  6k8J = 6.8 x 103  ±5%

4k7 = 4.7 x 103  R39 = 0.39 
10R0 = 10  2k2M = 2.2 x 103 ±20%
200R = 200  1R0 = 1 

B. CAPACITOR

Same as resistors, most of the capacitors (Figure 2.2) have their nominal value printed
directly on them using digital/alphabet code according to the EIA coding system. This
code is generally given in picofarads (pF), which means that we need to manipulate the
value if we want the value in microfarads (F) or nanofarads (nF).

Some capacitors have polarity (positive and negative) which must be connected
according to their polarity in order for the capacitor to operate such as the electrolytic
capacitors. Normally the negative leg of electrolytic capacitor could be recognized by
the white stripes at the body and/or the negative leg is shorter than the positive leg.

Some types of capacitors are shown in Figure 2.2.

19

Figure 2.2: Different types of capacitors construction

Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

Example 3:

Capacitor marked 104 has value of 10 with 4 zeroes after it, or 100,000pF (equivalent
to 100 nF or 0.1 F)
Capacitor marked 681 = 68 with single zero or 680 pF
Capacitor marked 472 = 47 with 2 zeroes or 4700 pF (equivalent to 4.7nF)

Example 4:

Capacitor marked 220n has 220nF capacitances (equivalent to 0.22F)

Capacitor marked 3n3 has 3.3nF capacitances (equivalent to 3300pF)
Some of the capacitors have a capital letter to indicate their tolerance rating. Below is
capacitor tolerance marking codes:

F G J K M Z
 1%  2%  5%  10%  20% -20%, +80%

Example 5:

104K = 0.1F  10%, 4n7J = 4.7nF  5%

C. INDUCTOR

An inductor (Figure 2.3) is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the
form of a magnetic field. In its simplest form, an inductor consists of a wire loops or
coil.

The inductance is directly proportional to the number of turns in the coil. Inductance
also depends on the radius of the coil and on the type of material around which the coil
is wound. The standard unit of inductance is the Henry, abbreviated H.

20

Figure 2.3: Different types of Inductor

Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

How to read Inductor Value (Figure 2.4)

Figure 2.4: Inductors

 Note that the values are in micro Henries (μH)

 First two digits are the value
 Third digit is the multiplier
 If there is an R, its acts as a decimal point, and there is no multiplier
 Examples:
101 = 10*101μH = 100μH
4R7 = 4.7μH
Suffix
 Sometimes the precision of the inductor will be marked, using a final letter
F, G, J, K, or M
 F = +/-1%
 G = +/-2%
 J = +/-5%
 K = +/-10%
 M = +/-20%

2. BREAD BOARD

When building a "permanent circuit" the components can be "grown" together (as in an
integrated circuit), soldered together (as on a printed circuit board), or held together by
screws and clamps (as in house wiring). In lab, we want something that is easy to
assemble and easy to change. We also want something that can be used with the same
components that "real" circuits use. Most of these components have pieces of wire or
metal tabs sticking out of them to form their terminals.

A breadboard (Figure 2.5) is used to make up temporary circuits for testing or to try
out an idea. No soldering is required so it is easy to change connections and replace
components. Parts will not be damaged so they will be available to re-use afterwards.
21
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

Figure 2.5: Front look of a typical small breadboard used in the laboratory

The breadboard has many strips of metal (usually copper) which run underneath the
board as shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6: The metal strips layout

When wiring, it is important to keep your work neat! This will save time in debugging
when your circuit doesn’t work. Here are some tips: Keep your wires short, do not loop
wires over the chip, use the bus lines for Ground or a DC supply voltage (e.g. VCC)
and sometimes to get cleaner signals, short the metal base of the breadboard to the
circuit’s ground. 22
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

LABORATORY ACTIVITY

READING RESISTOR VALUES BY COLOR CODING

1. Identify the nominal values and the tolerances and record the corresponding color
code bands in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Resistor values by nominal values

No. Nominal Value COLOR BAND
(Ohm) Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4
1. 180 ± 5%
2. 27 ± 10%
3. 680 ± 5%
4. 1.5 k ± 20%
5. 3.6 k ± 10%
6. 7.5 k ± 5%
7. 10 k ± 5%
8. 47 k ± 10%
9. 820 k ± 10%
10. 2.2 M ± 20 %

2. Identify the nominal value of a particular resistor based on color coding technique for
each case and record in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Resistor values by color coding

No. COLOR BAND Nominal Tolerance Minimum Maximum
Band Band Band Band Value
1 2 3 4 (Ohm)
1. brown black red gold
2. blue grey brown gold
3. yellow violet orange gold
4. red red orange gold
5. red red black silver
6. green blue brown gold
7. green black green silver
8. blue gray black silver
9. orange orange orange silver
23

10. red violet red gold

Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

3. Record the color code, nominal value and measured value by multi-meter of the given
resistors in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3: Resistor values by measurement

No. COLOR BAND Nominal Measured
Value Value
Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4
(Ohm) (Ohm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

IDENTIFY RESISTOR AND CAPACITOR VALUES BY DIGITAL/ALPHABET CODING

Determine the nominal value of a particular resistor/capacitor based on digital/alphabet coding

technique for each case given in Table 2.4 and Table 2.5.

Table 2.4: Resistor values by digital/alphabet coding

DIGITAL/ALPHABET CODE NOMINAL VALUE (in ohm)
3k9
1R0
8M5
R56

Table 2.5: Capacitor values by digital/alphabet coding

DIGITAL/ALPHABET CODE NOMINAL VALUE (in nanofarad)
33J
104
3n3J
103Z
24
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

LABORATORY 3

SERIES-PARALLEL RESISTANCE

OBJECTIVES

1. To validate the theoretical analysis of series-parallel circuit through electrical

measurements of the resistors.

2. To identify the series and parallel resistors of the circuit.

3. To apply the Ohm’s Law, the Kirchhoff’s voltage and current Laws.

THEORY OVERVIEW

SERIES-PARALLEL RESISTANCE

The most common connections found in circuit analysis are series or parallel connections.
Several resistors can be combined to represent a single equivalent resistance for the purpose of
circuit simplifying. The equivalent resistance for any number of resistors in series connection
is the sum of each individual resistor or simply by adding all single resistors. The single
equivalent resistor is always larger than the largest resistor in the series connection. Resistors
connected in series carry the same current through them but the voltage across each of the
resistors can be obtained using voltage divider rule principle or Ohm’s law.
N
Req ( SERIES)  R1  R2  R3  R4  R5    RN   Rn (3.1)
n 1

Meanwhile the equivalent resistance for any number of resistors in parallel connection is
obtained by taking the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocal of each single resistor in the
circuit. The single equivalent resistor is always smaller than the smallest resistor in the parallel
connection. The voltage across each resistor must be the same but the currents thru each of
them are divided according to the current divider rule principle.
1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1  N 1 
Req ( PARALLEL)              (3.2)
 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 RN   n 1 Rn 
25
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of current entering a node must
be equal to that of leaving the same node.

i3
Applying KCL, we obtain
i4
i2
i2 + i6 = i1 + i3 + i4 + i5
i1
For this particular problem, given one
i5 unknown but all others are known, we can
i6
solve using the above single equation.

Mathematically we write,

N M

 in ( Into) 
n 1
i
m 1
m (Out) (3.3)

where N = number of current entering the node and M = number of current leaving the node.

Y
or i
y 1
y 0 Y = number of total current at the node (3.4)

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of voltage drop in a loop must be equal
to that of voltage rise in the same loop. Stated it in a different way is that the algebraic sum of
all voltages around a loop must be zero. Applying KVL, we obtain

+ V1 - + V4 - Loop 1: V1 + V2 + V3 = Vs
Loop 2: V4 + VIs = V2
R1 R4
Is
+ V2 -

+ VIs -

Vs Loop 1 R2 Loop 2 Remember that the number of

unknowns to be solved must equal to
R3
the number of equations generated.
- V3 +

N M
Mathematically we write, Vn ( Drop) 
n 1
V
m 1
m ( Rise)

where N = no of voltage drop in the loop and M = no of voltage rise in the loop.

Y
or V
y 1
y 0 Y = no of total voltage in the loop (3.5)

You can try to prove that using KVL elements in parallel connection should have same voltage
26

across them. While using KCL try to prove that elements in series should carry same current
Page

through them.
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

LABORATORY ACTIVITY

EQUIPMENT/COMPONENT

Multi-meter (1)
Variable DC Power Supply (1)
Resistor (1/4 W) – (5)
Breadboard (1)

LAB PRACTICAL

1. Construct the circuit as shown in Figure 3.1 on the breadboard.

R2 = 6k8 

I2
R3 = 3k9 
B C
A D
R1 = 1k0  I3 R5 = 2k2 
R4 = 4k7 

I4

Figure 3.1: Circuit diagram of a series-parallel resistance connection

2. Measure and Record the true resistances between terminals as in the Table 3.1.
3. Supply voltage Vs = 5V to the circuit as shown in Figure 3.2. Measure and Record all
the voltages and currents in Table 3.2.

V2
R2 = 6k8 
V1 V3
I2
R3 = 3k9 
B C
A D
R1 = 1k0  I3 R5 = 2k2 
R4 = 4k7 

I4

A1
IT
Vs = 5 V
27

Figure 3.2: Connecting voltage source and multi-meters to a series-parallel circuit

Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

RESULT

Table 3.1: Series-parallel equivalent resistances

Resistance R (k) R(k)
% Deviation
Terminal [Theory] [Measured]
B-C
A-C
B-D
A-D

Table 3.2: Determining circuit variables using basic analysis methods

Circuit
Theory Measured % Deviation
Variables
V1
V2
V3
I2
I3
I4

Theory  Measured
% Deviation  X 100%
Theory

EXPLAIN YOUR OBSERVATIONS

How does the voltage across the resistor compare to the source voltage? Does current behave
differently than voltage in a circuit and how?
28
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

LABORATORY 4

NODAL ANALYSIS AND MESH ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

OBJECTIVES

1. To construct resistive circuits and analyze the circuits using Nodal Analysis and Mesh
Analysis methods.

2. To demonstrate the validity of nodal analysis and mesh analysis methods through
experimental measurements.

THEORY OVERVIEW

Basic laws such as the Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Laws can solve only a limited number of
variables in circuit analysis and are restricted to analyzing simple circuits. To solve for
complex circuits with a single source or circuits with more than one source that are not in series
or parallel place a need for a more powerful techniques such as Nodal Analysis and Mesh
Analysis methods. These two techniques can be used to solve almost any kind of circuit analysis
problems.

The mesh analysis technique will determine the currents, I of the circuit while the nodal
analysis approach will provide the potential levels, V of the nodes of the circuit with respect to
some reference.

The application of each technique follows a sequence of steps, each of which will result in a
set of equations with the desired unknowns. It is then only a matter of solving these equations
for the various variables, whether they be current or voltage. These equations can be either
solved by using Cramer’s rule (to obtain circuit variables as a quotient of its determinants) or
by calculator (if not involved complex number) or barely by normal substitutions and
eliminations (not suggested for more than two equations). Most of the circuit analysis problems
in this course will be limited to the three linear simultaneous equations for conventional hand
solutions.
29
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

LABORATORY ACTIVITY

EQUIPMENT/COMPONENT

Multi-meter (1)
Variable DC Power Supply (1)
Resistor (1/4 W) – 5 different values: R1, R2, R3, R4, R5
Breadboard (1)

LAB PRACTICAL
1. Measure the value of each resistors and Record in Table 4.1.

V1 R1 V2 R3 V3 R5 V4
2.2k 6.8k 1k
_
+
VS 1 R2 R4
4.7k 3.9k
VS 2
_
+

Figure 4.1: Circuit to be analyzed using Nodal Analysis method

2. Construct the circuit as shown in Figure 4.1. Set VS1 and VS2 to 15V. Measure each of
node voltages and Record that results in Table 4.2.

3. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 4.2. Set VS1 and VS2 to 15V. Measure the mesh
currents and branch currents. Record the results in Table 4.3.

R1 R3 R5

2.2k 6.8k 1k

Ia Ib _
+

VS 1 R2 R4
I1 4.7k I2 3.9k I3 VS 2
_
+
30
Page

Figure 4.2: Circuit to be analyzed using Mesh Analysis method

EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

RESULT

Table 4.1: Resistor Value

Resistor
Measurement (k)
Designation
R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

Table 4.2: Nodal Voltage Values

Parameter
THEORY MEASUREMENT % Difference
(Volts)
V1
V2
V3
V4

Table 4.3: Mesh Current Values

Parameter
THEORY MEASUREMENT % Difference
(miliamperes)
I1
I2
I3
Ia
Ib

EXPLAIN YOUR OBSERVATIONS

31

Verify your observation on the nodal voltages. State the relationship between mesh currents
Page

and branch currents.

EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

LABORATORY 5

THEVENIN’S THEOREM, NORTON’S THEOREM’S

AND MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

OBJECTIVE

1. To determine VTh, IN and RTh or RN of the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits.

2. To validate Thevenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem through experimental

measurements.

3. To demonstrate the conditions for maximum power transfer to a load are RL=RTh and
VL=VTh/2.

THEORY OVERVIEW

The Thevenin equivalent circuit consists of an open-circuit dc voltage, VTh in series with an
open-circuit resistance, RTh (determined when all sources being removed from the circuit).
While the Norton’s equivalent circuit consists of a short-circuit dc current, IN in parallel with a
single resistor, RN defined exactly the same way as RTh. The equivalent circuits for Thevenin
and Norton are depicted in Figure 5.1.
RTh
x x

VTh RL IN RN RL

(a) y (b) y

Figure 5.1: (a) Thevenin equivalent circuit (b) Norton equivalent circuit

The theory of source conversion dictates that the Norton and Thevenin circuits be terminally
equivalent and related as follows:
VTh
R N  RTh ; VTh  I N RN and IN  (3.1)
RTh
If a dc voltage source is to deliver maximum power to a resistive load, the load resistor R L must
have a value equal to the Thevenin equivalent resistance, RTh “seen” by the load. For this value,
the voltage across the load will be one-half of the Thevenin voltage. In mathematical
expression,
32

2
VTh VT h
R L  RTh , VL  and Pmax  (3.2)
Page

2 4 RTh
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

LABORATORY ACTIVITY

EQUIPMENT/COMPONENT

Multi-meter (1)
Variable DC Power Supply (1)
Resistor (1/4 W) – 3.3 k, 1 k , 2.2 k, 470 
Breadboard (1)

LAB PRACTICAL

THEVENIN’S THEOREM AND NORTON’S THEOREM

1. Measure the resistance values and Record in Table 5.1.

2. Construct the circuit as depicted in Figure 5.2.

3.3 k 1 k x

R1 R3 IL
Vs +
12 V R2 2.2 k VL RL = 470 
-

y
Figure 5.2: Circuit diagram for Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems application

3. Measure the voltage VL and the current IL. Record the results in Table 5.2.

4. Rearrange the circuit as depicted in Figure 5.3 and Measure RTh / RN.

3.3 k 1 k x

R1 R3
Vs
R2 2.2 k m

y
33

Figure 5.3: Determining Rth / RN

Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

5. Reconstruct the circuit of Figure 5.4 and Measure VTh.

3.3 k 1 k x

R1 R3

Vs R2 2.2 k Vm

y
Figure 5.4: Circuit connection for determining Vth

6. Construct the circuit depicted in Figure 5.5 and Measure IN.

7. Insert the all the above result in Table 5.2.

3.3 k 1 k x

R1 R3

Vs R2 2.2 k Am

Figure 5.5: Circuit connection for determining IN

8. Construct the Thevenin equivalent circuit as depicted in Figure 5.6 using values
obtained in parts 3 and 4 respectively. Then measure the voltage VL and IL. Insert the
values in Table 5.2

0 - 10 k

x
R1 IL
VTh +
VL RL = 470 
-

y
34
Page

Figure 5.6: Constructing Thevenin equivalent circuit

EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

1. Replace RL in Figure 5.2 with a 10-k potentiometer. Measure the load voltage VL
across the potentiometer to check the conditions that at R L = RTh. Record your
observation in Table 5.3.

3.3 k 1 k x

R1 R3
Vs RL = 0 - 10k
12 V R2 2.2 k
IL

y
Figure 5.7: Determining Rth / RN

2. Leave the potentiometer as connected in Figure 5.7 and measure VL for all values of
RL appearing in Table 5.4.

35
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

RESULT
Table 5.1: Measured resistors values.
Resistor
Measured Value ()
Designation
R1
R2
R3
RL

Table 5.2: Thevenin and Norton electrical parameters, voltage and load current.
Percentage
MEASUREMENT
Difference (%)
Parameter THEORY
Original Circuit Thevenin/ Original Thevenin/
Norton Circuit Circuit Norton
VTh (V)
RTh / RN (k)
IN (mA)
VL(V)
IL (mA)

Table 5.3: Conditions for maximum power transfer to the load.

Load Voltage, VL Load Resistance, RL
(Volt) (Ohms)

Table 5.4: Experimental results for maximum power transfer to the load.
VL (measured)
RL PL = VL2 / RL (calculated)
(Volt)
(miliWatt)
400 
800 
1.2 k
1.6 k
2 k
2.4 k
36

2.8 k
Page

3.2 k
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

EXPLAIN YOUR OBSERVATIONS

Compare IL and VL of the original circuit with using series-parallel techniques with
Thevenin/Norton theorems and validate the obtained results.

37
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

LABORATORY 6

SINUSOIDAL STEADY STATE ANALYSIS – SERIES RLC CIRCUIT

OBJECTIVE

1. To measure the current in series RLC circuit using oscilloscope.

2. To apply the dual-trace method to determine the phase angle associated with each
voltage of the circuit and determine which signal leads or lags which.

3. To determine the input impedance using experimental methods.

4. To relate the phase angle between the current and voltage of a resistor, an inductor and
a capacitor.

THEORY OVERVIEW

DUAL-TRACE METHOD OF MEASUREMENT

The phase angle between two signals of the same frequency can be determined using the
oscilloscope using dual-trace comparison with the calibrated time base. Despite of giving better
accuracy compared to the Lissajous pattern method, it also can compare two signals of different
amplitudes and different shapes.

The procedure essentially consists of displaying both traces on the screen simultaneously
(select vertical mode button [31] to DUAL) and measuring the distance (in scale division)
between two identical points on the two traces as in Figure 6.1. The input signal is chosen as
a reference, that is, zero-phase angle. In the comparison, the signal being compared is leading
(+) if it is to the left of the reference and lagging (-) if it is to the right of the reference.

V2

reference
V1

D2

D1
38

Figure 6.1: Measuring phase angle using dual-trace method

Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

Since D1 is associated with a full cycle of 360o while D2 is associated with phase angle or phase
shift,  then the relationship is,
𝐷
𝜃 = 𝐷2 × 360° (6.1)
1

1div.
For the case in Figure 6.1:  x 360 o  120 o (V2 lags V1 )
3 div.

SINUSOIDAL STEADY STATE RESPONSE OF RLC CIRCUIT

All the basic circuits, Kirchhoff’s laws and methods of analysis which previously applied to dc
circuits are equally applicable to ac circuit. The only major distinguish is that in ac, phasors are
used in analyzing ac circuits.

Let revise the response of the individual basic R, L and C to a sinusoidal voltage or current.
For all practical purposes, assume resistor is unaffected by the frequency of the applied voltage.
The voltage source takes up this mathematical expression,

V= Vm sin t (6.2)

Using Ohm’s law to have the current through the resistor,

IR= V/R =( Vm sin t)/R = Im sin t (6.3)

From equations (5.2) and (5.3), it is apparent that for purely resistive circuit, voltage and current
are in phase with the peak values related by Ohm’s law.

VR
Imaginary
Vm

Im
IR VR

t
  
IR

Real
(a) (b)
39

Figure 6.2 (a) time domain waveform (b) phasor diagram of voltage and current of a
resistive.
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

The current through the capacitor can be derived by,

dVC
IC  C  C (Vm cos t )  CVm cos t
dt (6.4)
 I m sin (t  90 o )

From equations (6.2) and (6.4), it is apparent that for purely capacitive circuit, current leads
voltage by 90o with the peak values related by Ohm’s law.

VR Imaginary
Vm

Im IR VC
IC
t
    90o



Real
(a) (b)

Figure 6.3 (a) time domain waveform (b) phasor diagram of voltage and current of a
capacitive

The voltage across the inductor can be derived by,

dI
VL  L L  L(I m cos t )  LI m cost
dt (6.5)
 Vm sin (t  90 o )

From equations (6.3) and (6.5), it is apparent that for purely inductive circuit, current lags
voltage by 90o with the peak values related by Ohm’s law.

Imaginary

VL
IL
90o

Real
(a) (b)

Figure 6.4 (a) time domain waveform (b) phasor diagram of voltage and current of an
40

inductive
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

A complete phasor diagram and schematic diagram for a series RLC circuit can be viewed as
in Figure 6.5.

Imaginary
+ VC< - + VL< -
VL VR

+ VR< -
90o IR= IL = IC
 Vs +
 IR = IL = IC
Real
Vs
90o
 -

VC

(a) (b)

Figure 6.5 (a) Phasor diagram showing the relationship of voltages and currents in series
RLC Circuit. (b) Series RLC schematic diagram.

The magnitude of the voltage source is in a series RLC circuit is given by,

Vs  VR  (VL  VC ) 2  I R 2  ( X L  X C ) 2  IZ T
2
(6.6)

while the phase angle of the circuit is given by,

VL  VC X L  X C
  tan 1  (6.7)
VR R

and the impedance can be determined by,

ZT  R  j( X L  X C ) (6.8)

In a series RLC circuit, the voltage across the reactive component may be greater than the input
voltage.
41
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

LABORATORY ACTIVITY

EQUIPMENT/COMPONENT

Dual-trace oscilloscope (1)

Function Generator (1)
Resistor – 1 k
Capacitor – 0.22 F
Inductor – 10 mH
Breadboard (1)

LAB PRACTICAL

1. Construct the circuit as depicted in Figure 6.6. Set Vs = 8Vpp, 5 kHz.

1.

C = 0.022 uF L = 10 mH
C =0.22microFarad

CH1 CH2
+ VL< -

+ VR< -
+ VC< -
+ R = 1 k
Vs Ip-p
-

Figure 6.6: Circuit diagram of a series RLC circuit

2. Draw the waveform traces and record the Vs and VR.

3. Interchanging the position of resistor and capacitor as depicted in Figure 6.7. Draw the
waveforms traces of Vs and VC and the phase shift, 2

L
CH1 + VR< - CH2
+ VL< -
R
+ VC< -

+
Vs Ip-p C
-

Figure 6.7: Measuring VC

42
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

4. Interchanging the position of resistor and inductor as depicted in Figure 6.8. Draw the
waveforms traces of the Vs and VL .

CH1 C + VR< - CH2

+ VL< -
+ + VC< - R
Vs L
- Ip-p

Figure 6.8: Measuring VL

5. Insert all the measured values in Table 6.1 and also complete the Table 6.2.

43
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

RESULT

Horizontal sensitivity
= _______

Vertical sensitivity
= _______

Vs versus VR

Horizontal sensitivity
= _______
Vertical sensitivity
= _______

Vs versus VC
44
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

Horizontal sensitivity
= _______

Vertical sensitivity
= _______

Vs versus VL

Table 6.1: Phase shift measurement between Vs and VR, Vs and VC and Vs and VL.
VR VC VL
Measured
Resistance D1 D2 1 D1 D2 2 D1 D2 3
() (div) (div) (degree) (div) (div) (degree) (div) (div) (degree)

3 - 1
1 2 3 1 + 2
Phase Angle (degre
(degree) (degree) (degree) (degree)
e)

Measurement

Theory
Percentage Difference (%)

Leading or Lagging Reference

45
Page
EKT 101 Electric Circuit Theory LABORATORY MODULE

Table 6.2: Phasor representation of circuit variables (all values in peak-peak).

MATHEMATICAL
POLAR RECTANGULAR
REPRESENTATION
XC ()

XL ()

ZT = Rmea ± jX ()

Theory Ip-p = Vs/ZT (mA)

VR (V)

VC (V)

VL (V)

VR (V)

VC (V)
Measurement
VL (V)

Ip-p = VR/Rmea (mA)

ZT = Vs/Ip-p ()

EXPLAIN YOUR OBSERVATIONS

What do you think will happen to the phase angle of the current in this experiment if the value
of resistance increases? Suggest the possible modification to the series RLC to achieve the
required phase angle. 46

**end of laboratory module**

Page