380 Chapter 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Example 6.4

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 6.22(a), which is redrawn in Fig. 6.22(b) to remind the reader of the
convention employed throughout this book for indicating connections to dc sources. We wish to analyze
this circuit to determine all node voltages and branch currents. We will assume that β is specified to
be 100.

⫹10 V

IC RC ⫽ 4.7 k⍀
RC ⫽ 4.7 k⍀
⫹4 V
VC
10 V
IB
VE
4V RE ⫽
RE ⫽ 3.3 k⍀ IE 3.3 k⍀

(a) (b)
⫹10 V

3 0.99 ⫻ 1 ⫽ 0.99 mA
4.7 k⍀

10 ⫺ 0.99 ⫻ 4.7 5.3 V 4

⫹4 V

5 1.00 ⫺ 0.99 ⫽ 0.01 mA

4 ⫺ 0.7 ⫽ 3.3 V 1

3.3 k⍀
3.3
⫽ 1 mA 2
3.3

(c)

Figure 6.22 Analysis of the circuit for Example 6.4: (a) circuit; (b) circuit redrawn to remind the reader of the con-
vention used in this book to show connections to the power supply; (c) analysis with the steps numbered.

Solution
Glancing at the circuit in Fig. 6.22(a), we note that the base is connected to +4 V and the emitter is con-
nected to ground through a resistance RE. Therefore, it is safe to conclude that the base–emitter junction
 6.3 BJT Circuits at DC 381

will be forward biased. Assuming that this is the case and assuming that VBE is approximately 0.7 V, it fol-
lows that the emitter voltage will be
V E = 4 – V BE
4 – 0.7 = 3.3 V

We are now in an opportune position; we know the voltages at the two ends of RE and thus can determine
the current IE through it,
VE – 0 3.3
I E = --------------
- = ------- = 1 mA
RE 3.3
Since the collector is connected through RC to the +10-V power supply, it appears possible that the collec-
tor voltage will be higher than the base voltage, which implies active-mode operation. Assuming that this
is the case, we can evaluate the collector current from
IC = α IE

The value of α is obtained from

β 100
α = ------------ = ---------
0.99
β+1 101
Thus IC will be given by
I C = 0.99 × 1 = 0.99 mA

We are now in a position to use Ohm’s law to determine the collector voltage VC ,

V C = 10 – I C R C = 10 – 0.99 × 4.7
+5.3 V

Since the base is at +4 V, the collector–base junction is reverse biased by 1.3 V, and the transistor is
indeed in the active mode as assumed.
It remains only to determine the base current IB, as follows:
IE 1-
I B = -----------
- = --------
0.01 mA
β+1 101
Before leaving this example we wish to emphasize strongly the value of carrying out the analysis
directly on the circuit diagram. Only in this way will one be able to analyze complex circuits in a reason-
able length of time. Figure 6.22(c) illustrates the above analysis on the circuit diagram, with the order of
the analysis steps indicated by the circled numbers.
382 Chapter 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Example 6.5

We wish to analyze the circuit of Fig. 6.23(a) to determine the voltages at all nodes and the currents
through all branches. Note that this circuit is identical to that of Fig. 6.22 except that the voltage at
the base is now +6 V. Assume that the transistor β is specified to be at least 50.

⫹10 V ⫹10 V

3 1.6 mA
4.7 k⍀
4.7 k⍀

⫹6 V 10 ⫺ 1.6 ⫻ 4.7 ⫽ 2.48 4

⫹6 V
Impossible, not in
active mode

6 ⫺ 0.7 ⫽ ⫹5.3 V 1
3.3 k⍀
3.3 k⍀
5.3
⫽ 1.6 mA 2
3.3

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 6.23 Analysis of the circuit for Example 6.5. Note that the circled numbers indicate the order of the analy-
sis steps.
 6.3 BJT Circuits at DC 383

Solution
With +6 V at the base, the base–emitter junction will be forward biased; thus,

V E = + 6 – V BE
6 – 0.7 = 5.3 V

and
5.3
I E = ------- = 1.6 mA
3.3
Now, assuming active-mode operation, IC = αIE
IE; thus,

V C = +10 – 4.7 × I C
10 – 7.52 = 2.48 V

The details of the analysis performed above are illustrated in Fig. 6.23(b).
Since the collector voltage calculated appears to be less than the base voltage by 3.52 V, it follows
that our original assumption of active-mode operation is incorrect. In fact, the transistor has to be in the
saturation mode. Assuming this to be the case, the values of VE and IE will remain unchanged. The collec-
tor voltage, however, becomes

V C = V E + V CEsat
+5.3 + 0.2 = +5.5 V

from which we can determine IC as

+10 – 5.5
I C = ----------------------- = 0.96 mA
4.7
and IB can now be found as

I B = I E – I C = 1.6 – 0.96 = 0.64 mA

Thus the transistor is operating at a forced β of

I 0.96
β forced = ----C = ---------- = 1.5
IB 0.64

Since βforced is less than the minimum specified value of β, the transistor is indeed saturated. We should
emphasize here that in testing for saturation the minimum value of β should be used. By the same
token, if we are designing a circuit in which a transistor is to be saturated, the design should be based
on the minimum specified β. Obviously, if a transistor with this minimum β is saturated, then transistors
with higher values of β will also be saturated. The details of the analysis are shown in Fig. 6.23(c), where
the order of the steps used is indicated by the circled numbers.
384 Chapter 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Example 6.6

We wish to analyze the circuit in Fig. 6.24(a) to determine the voltages at all nodes and the currents
through all branches. Note that this circuit is identical to that considered in Examples 6.4 and 6.5 except
that now the base voltage is zero.

(a) (b)

Figure 6.24 Example 6.6: (a) circuit; (b) analysis, with the order of the analysis steps indicated by circled numbers.

Solution
Since the base is at zero volts and the emitter is connected to ground through RE, the base–emitter junction can-
not conduct and the emitter current is zero. Note that this situation will obtain as long as the voltage at the base is
less than 0.5 V or so. Also, the collector–base junction cannot conduct, since the n-type collector is connected
through RC to the positive power supply while the p-type base is at ground. It follows that the collector current
will be zero. The base current will also have to be zero, and the transistor is in the cutoff mode of operation.
The emitter voltage will be zero, while the collector voltage will be equal to +10 V, since the voltage
drops across RE and RC are zero. Figure 6.24(b) shows the analysis details.

EXERCISES

D6.22 For the circuit in Fig. 6.22(a), find the highest voltage to which the base can be raised while the
transistor remains in the active mode. Assume α
1.
Ans. +4.7 V
D6.23 Redesign the circuit of Fig. 6.22(a) (i.e., find new values for RE and RC) to establish a collector
current of 0.5 mA and a reverse-bias voltage on the collector–base junction of 2 V. Assume α
1.
Ans. RE = 6.6 kΩ; RC = 8 kΩ
6.24 For the circuit in Fig. 6.23(a), find the value to which the base voltage should be changed so that
the transistor operates in saturation with a forced β of 5.
Ans. +5.18 V
 6.3 BJT Circuits at DC 385

Example 6.7

We want to analyze the circuit of Fig. 6.25(a) to determine the voltages at all nodes and the currents
through all branches.

V ⫹ ⫽ ⫹10 V ⫹10 V
10 ⫺ 0.7
⫽ 4.65 mA 2
2
2 k⍀
RE ⫽ 2 k⍀
⫹0.7 V 1
5 0.05 mA

⫺10 ⫹ 4.6 ⫻ 1 ⫽ ⫺5.4 V 4

RC ⫽ 1 k⍀
1 k⍀
3 0.99 ⫻ 4.65 4.6 mA

V ⫺ ⫽ ⫺10 V ⫺10 V
(a) (b)

Figure 6.25 Example 6.7: (a) circuit; (b) analysis, with the steps indicated by circled numbers.

Solution
The base of this pnp transistor is grounded, while the emitter is connected to a positive supply (V + = +10 V)
through RE. It follows that the emitter–base junction will be forward biased with

V E = V EB
0.7 V

Thus the emitter current will be given by

+
V –V 10 – 0.7
I E = -----------------E- = ------------------- = 4.65 mA
RE 2

Since the collector is connected to a negative supply (more negative than the base voltage) through RC, it
is possible that this transistor is operating in the active mode. Assuming this to be the case, we obtain
IC = α IE
Since no value for β has been given, we shall assume β = 100, which results in α = 0.99. Since large vari-
ations in β result in small differences in α, this assumption will not be critical as far as determining the
value of IC is concerned. Thus,
I C = 0.99 × 4.65 = 4.6 mA
The collector voltage will be
−
VC = V + IC RC
= −10 + 4.6 × 1 = – 5.4 V
386 Chapter 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Thus the collector–base junction is reverse biased by 5.4 V, and the transistor is indeed in the active
mode, which supports our original assumption.
It remains only to calculate the base current,
IE 4.65
I B = -----------
- = ----------
0.05 mA
β+1 101

Obviously, the value of β critically affects the base current. Note, however, that in this circuit the value of β
will have no effect on the mode of operation of the transistor. Since β is generally an ill-specified parameter,
this circuit represents a good design. As a rule, one should strive to design the circuit such that its perfor-
mance is as insensitive to the value of β as possible. The analysis details are illustrated in Fig. 6.25(b).

EXAMPLE 5.7

EXERCISES

D6.25 For the circuit in Fig. 6.25(a), find the largest value to which RC can be raised while the transistor
remains in the active mode.
Ans. 2.26 kΩ
D6.26 Redesign the circuit of Fig. 6.25(a) (i.e., find new values for RE and RC) to establish a collector
current of 1 mA and a reverse bias on the collector–base junction of 4 V. Assume α
1.
Ans. RE = 9.3 kΩ; RC = 6 kΩ

Example 6.8

We want to analyze the circuit in Fig. 6.26(a) to determine the voltages at all nodes and the currents in all
branches. Assume β = 100.

(a) (b)

Figure 6.26 Example 6.8: (a) circuit; (b) analysis, with the steps indicated by the circled numbers.
 6.3 BJT Circuits at DC 387

Solution
The base–emitter junction is clearly forward biased. Thus,

+5 – V BE 5 – 0.7
I B = ---------------------
---------------- = 0.043 mA
RB 100
Assume that the transistor is operating in the active mode. We now can write

I C = β I B = 100 × 0.043 = 4.3 mA

The collector voltage can now be determined as

V C = +10 – I C R C = 10 – 4.3 × 2 = +1.4 V

Since the base voltage VB is

V B = V BE
+ 0.7 V

it follows that the collector–base junction is reverse-biased by 0.7 V and the transistor is indeed in the active
mode. The emitter current will be given by

I E = ( β + 1 )I B = 101 × 0.043
4.3 mA

We note from this example that the collector and emitter currents depend critically on the value of β. In
fact, if β were 10% higher, the transistor would leave the active mode and enter saturation. Therefore this
clearly is a bad design. The analysis details are illustrated in Fig. 6.26(b).

EXERCISE

D6.27 The circuit of Fig. 6.26(a) is to be fabricated using a transistor type whose β is specified to be
in the range of 50 to 150. That is, individual units of this same transistor type can have β values
anywhere in this range. Redesign the circuit by selecting a new value for RC so that all
fabricated circuits are guaranteed to be in the active mode. What is the range of collector
voltages that the fabricated circuits may exhibit?
Ans. RC = 1.5 kΩ; VC = 0.3 V to 6.8 V
388 Chapter 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Example 6.9

We want to analyze the circuit of Fig. 6.27 to determine the voltages at all nodes and the currents through
all branches. The minimum value of β is specified to be 30.

⫹5 V

⫹5 V
5 ⫺ ( VB ⫹ 0.7)
4 IE ⫽ 1 k⍀
1

1 k⍀ VE ⫽ VB ⫹ 0.7 3
2 IB ⫽ VB /10 ⫹
10 k⍀
10 k⍀ VEC sat ⫽ 0.2 V 5

1 ⫺
VB VC ⫽ VB ⫹ 0.5 6

10 k⍀ VB ⫹ 0.5 ⫺ (⫺5)
7 IC ⫽ 10
10 k⍀

⫺5 V ⫺5 V
(a) (b)

Figure 6.27 Example 6.9: (a) circuit; (b) analysis with steps numbered.

Solution
A quick glance at this circuit reveals that the transistor will be either active or saturated. Assuming active-
mode operation and neglecting the base current, we see that the base voltage will be approximately zero
volts, the emitter voltage will be approximately +0.7 V, and the emitter current will be approximately 4.3
mA. Since the maximum current that the collector can support while the transistor remains in the active
mode is approximately 0.5 mA, it follows that the transistor is definitely saturated.
Assuming that the transistor is saturated and denoting the voltage at the base by VB (refer to Fig.
6.27b), it follows that

V E = V B + V EB
V B + 0.7

V C = V E – V ECsat
V B + 0.7 – 0.2 = V B + 0.5

+5 – V 5 – V B – 0.7
I E = ------------------E- = ---------------------------- = 4.3 – V B mA
1 1
V
I B = -----B- = 0.1V B mA
10

V C – ( –5 ) V B + 0.5 + 5
I C = ----------------------
- = ----------------------------
- = 0.1V B + 0.55 mA
10 10
 6.3 BJT Circuits at DC 389

Using the relationship IE = IB + IC , we obtain

4.3 – V B = 0.1V B + 0.1V B + 0.55
which results in

3.75
V B = ----------
3.13 V
1.2

Substituting in the equations above, we obtain

V E = 3.83 V

V C = 3.63 V

I E = 1.17 mA

I C = 0.86 mA

I B = 0.31 mA

from which we see that the transistor is saturated, since the value of forced β is

0.86
β forced = ----------
2.8
0.31
which is much smaller than the specified minimum β.
390 Chapter 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Example 6.10

We want to analyze the circuit of Fig. 6.28(a) to determine the voltages at all nodes and the currents through
all branches. Assume β = 100.

⫹15 V ⫹15 V

RC ⫽ RC ⫽
RB 1 ⫽ 5 k⍀ VBB ⫽ ⫹5 V 5 k⍀
100 k⍀ RBB ⫽
33.3 k⍀

IE
IB
RB 2 ⫽
50 k⍀ RE ⫽ RE ⫽
L
3 k⍀ 3 k⍀

(a) (b)

⫹15 V ⫹15 V

1.28 mA
5 k⍀ 0.103 mA
100 k⍀
⫹5 V ⫹8.6 V
0.013 mA
33.3 k⍀
⫹4.57 V
0.013 mA ⫹3.87 V
⫹4.57 V 50 k⍀
3 k⍀
1.29 mA 0.09 mA

(c) (d)

Figure 6.28 Circuits for Example 6.10.

Solution
The first step in the analysis consists of simplifying the base circuit using Thévenin’s theorem. The result
is shown in Fig. 6.28(b), where

R B2 50
V BB = +15 ----------------------- = 15 --------------------- = +5 V
R B1 + R B2 100 + 50
 6.3 BJT Circuits at DC 391

R BB = R B1 || R B2 = 100 || 50 = 33.3 kΩ

To evaluate the base or the emitter current, we have to write a loop equation around the loop labeled L in
Fig. 6.28(b). Note, however, that the current through RBB is different from the current through RE. The
loop equation will be
V BB = I B R BB + V BE + I E R E
Now, assuming active-mode operation, we replace IB with
IE
I B = -----------
-
β+1
and rearrange the equation to obtain
V BB – V BE
I E = -----------------------------------------------
-
R E + [ R BB ⁄ ( β + 1 ) ]
For the numerical values given we have
5 – 0.7
I E = ------------------------------------- = 1.29 mA
3 + ( 33.3 ⁄ 101 )
The base current will be
1.29
I B = ---------- = 0.0128 mA
101
The base voltage is given by

V B = V BE + I E R E
= 0.7 + 1.29 × 3 = 4.57 V

We can evaluate the collector current as

I C = α I E = 0.99 × 1.29 = 1.28 mA

The collector voltage can now be evaluated as

V C = +15 – I C R C = 15 – 1.28 × 5 = 8.6 V
It follows that the collector is higher in potential than the base by 4.03 V, which means that the transistor
is in the active mode, as had been assumed. The results of the analysis are given in Fig. 6.28(c, d).

EXERCISE

6.28 If the transistor in the circuit of Fig. 6.28(a) is replaced with another having half the value of β
(i.e., β = 50), find the new value of IC, and express the change in IC as a percentage.
Ans. IC = 1.15 mA; −10%
392 Chapter 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Example 6.11

We want to analyze the circuit in Fig. 6.29(a) to determine the voltages at all nodes and the currents
through all branches.

⫹15 V

RE2 ⫽ 2 k⍀
RC1 ⫽ 5 k⍀
RB 1 ⫽ 100 k⍀ IE2
Q2
IC1
IB2
Q1
IC2

RC2 ⫽ 2.7 k⍀
RB 2 ⫽ 50 k⍀
RE ⫽ 3 k⍀

(a)
⫹15 V

2.78 mA
1.252 mA
0.103 mA 2 k⍀
5 k⍀
100 k⍀ ⫹9.44 V
Q2
⫹8.74 V
Q1 0.0275 mA
⫹4.57 V 1.28 mA
⫹7.43 V
0.013 mA
⫹3.87 V
2.7 k⍀
50 k⍀
3 k⍀
0.09 mA 1.29 mA 2.75 mA

(b)

Figure 6.29 Circuits for Example 6.11.

Solution
We first recognize that part of this circuit is identical to the circuit we analyzed in Example 6.10 —namely,
the circuit of Fig. 6.28(a). The difference, of course, is that in the new circuit we have an additional
 6.3 BJT Circuits at DC 393

transistor Q2 together with its associated resistors RE2 and RC2. Assume that Q1 is still in the active mode.
The following values will be identical to those obtained in the previous example:
VB1 = +4.57 V IE1 = 1.29 mA
IB1 = 0.0128 mA IC1 = 1.28 mA
However, the collector voltage will be different than previously calculated, since part of the collector cur-
rent IC1 will flow in the base lead of Q2 (IB2). As a first approximation we may assume that IB2 is much
smaller than IC1; that is, we may assume that the current through RC1 is almost equal to IC1. This will
enable us to calculate VC1:

V C1
+15 – I C1 R C1

= 15 – 1.28 × 5 = +8.6 V

Thus Q1 is in the active mode, as had been assumed.

As far as Q2 is concerned, we note that its emitter is connected to +15 V through RE2. It is therefore
safe to assume that the emitter–base junction of Q2 will be forward biased. Thus the emitter of Q2 will be
at a voltage VE2 given by

V E2 = V C1 + V EB Q2

8.6 + 0.7 = +9.3 V

The emitter current of Q2 may now be calculated as

+15 – V E2 15 – 9.3
I E2 = -----------------------
- = ------------------- = 2.85 mA
R E2 2

Since the collector of Q2 is returned to ground via RC2, it is possible that Q2 is operating in the active
mode. Assume this to be the case. We now find IC2 as
I C2 = α 2 I E2
= 0.99 × 2.85 = 2.82 mA ( assuming β 2 = 100 )
The collector voltage of Q2 will be
V C2 = I C2 R C2 = 2.82 × 2.7 = 7.62 V
which is lower than VB2 by 0.98 V. Thus Q2 is in the active mode, as assumed.
It is important at this stage to find the magnitude of the error incurred in our calculations by the
assumption that IB2 is negligible. The value of IB2 is given by
I E2 2.85
I B2 = -------------- = ---------- = 0.028 mA
β2 + 1 101
which is indeed much smaller than IC1 (1.28 mA). If desired, we can obtain more accurate results by iter-
ating one more time, assuming IB2 to be 0.028 mA. The new values will be
Current in R C1 = I C1 – I B2 = 1.28 – 0.028 = 1.252 mA

V C1 = 15 – 5 × 1.252 = 8.74 V

V E2 = 8.74 + 0.7 = 9.44 V

15 – 9.44
I E2 = ---------------------- = 2.78 mA
2
394 Chapter 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Example 6.11 continued

I C2 = 0.99 × 2.78 = 2.75 mA

V C2 = 2.75 × 2.7 = 7.43 V

2.78
I B2 = ---------- = 0.0275 mA
101
Note that the new value of IB2 is very close to the value used in our iteration, and no further iterations
are warranted. The final results are indicated in Fig. 6.29(b).
The reader justifiably might be wondering about the necessity for using an iterative scheme in solv-
ing a linear (or linearized) problem. Indeed, we can obtain the exact solution (if we can call anything we
are doing with a first-order model exact!) by writing appropriate equations. The reader is encouraged to
find this solution and then compare the results with those obtained above. It is important to emphasize,
however, that in most such problems it is quite sufficient to obtain an approximate solution, provided we
can obtain it quickly and, of course, correctly.

In the above examples, we frequently used a precise value of α to calculate the collector
current. Since α
1, the error in such calculations will be very small if one assumes α = 1 and
IC = IE. Therefore, except in calculations that depend critically on the value of α (e.g., the calcula-
tion of base current), one usually assumes α
1.

EXERCISES

6.29 For the circuit in Fig. 6.29, find the total current drawn from the power supply. Hence find the
power dissipated in the circuit.
Ans. 4.135 mA; 62 mW
6.30 The circuit in Fig. E6.30 is to be connected to the circuit in Fig. 6.29(a) as indicated; specifically,
the base of Q3 is to be connected to the collector of Q2. If Q3 has β = 100, find the new value of VC2
and the values of VE3 and IC3.

6.29

Figure E6.30

Ans. +7.06 V; +6.36 V; 13.4 mA

 6.3 BJT Circuits at DC 395

Example 6.12

We desire to evaluate the voltages at all nodes and the currents through all branches in the circuit of Fig.
6.30(a). Assume β = 100.

On

0 3.9 mA
5 – 0.7
=
10 + 101 × 1
0.039 mA
Off
0

–5V
(a) (b)

Figure 6.30 Example 6.12: (a) circuit; (b) analysis with the steps numbered.

Solution
By examining the circuit, we conclude that the two transistors Q1 and Q2 cannot be simultaneously conducting.
Thus if Q1 is on, Q2 will be off, and vice versa. Assume that Q2 is on. It follows that current will flow from
ground through the 1-kΩ resistor into the emitter of Q2. Thus the base of Q2 will be at a negative voltage, and
base current will be flowing out of the base through the 10-kΩ resistor and into the +5-V supply. This is impos-
sible, since if the base is negative, current in the 10-kΩ resistor will have to flow into the base. Thus we con-
clude that our original assumption—that Q2 is on—is incorrect. It follows that Q2 will be off and Q1 will be on.
The question now is whether Q1 is active or saturated. The answer in this case is obvious: Since
the base is fed with a +5-V supply and since base current flows into the base of Q1, it follows that the
base of Q1 will be at a voltage lower than +5 V. Thus the collector–base junction of Q1 is reverse
biased and Q1 is in the active mode. It remains only to determine the currents and voltages using tech-
niques already described in detail. The results are given in Fig. 6.30(b).

EXERCISES

6.31 Solve the problem in Example 6.12 for the case of a voltage of –5 V feeding the bases. What voltage
appears at the emitters?
Ans. –3.9 V
6.32 Solve the problem in Example 6.12 with the voltage feeding the bases changed to +10 V. Assume
that βmin = 30, and find VE, VB, IC1, and IC2.
Ans. +4.8 V; +5.5 V; 4.35 mA; 0