Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Department of Electrical Engineering

Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

Outcome on this chapter

After you have read this chapter you should be able to:
i. Understand the basic terms used in power system fault calculation.
ii. Carry out symmetrical and unsymmetrical fault calculations.
iii. Represent 2 and 3 windings transformers with sequence networks.
iv. Understand the merits of different earthing methods
v. Model the zero Sequence network of a 3 phase auto-transformer.
vi. Carry out open circuited fault calculations.
vii. Carry out simultaneous fault calculations.

2.1 Per Unit Values

The per unit values of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the quantity expressed as a
decimal to its base value.
V I
V pu= I pu =
Vb Ib

MVA MVA b = 3Vb ph I b ph

MVA pu =
MVAb

Z Vb
Z pu = where Z b =
Zb Ib
IbZ
=
Vb
3Vb I b Z
=
3Vb2
MVAb Z
=
(Vb line )2
MVA SC = 3Vb I f
MVAb
=
Z T pu

2.1.1 Change of MVA base

MVAb new Z
Z pu new =
(Vb line ) 2
MVAb old Z
Z pu old =
(Vb line ) 2
Z pu new MVAb new
=
Z pu old MVAb old

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

2.1.2 Change of voltage base

MVAb Z
Z pu new =
(Vb l new ) 2
MVAb Z
Z pu old =
(Vb l old ) 2
Z pu new (Vb l old ) 2
=
Z pu old (Vb l new ) 2
2.1.3 Change of both MVA base and voltage base

Z pu new MVAb new (Vb l old ) 2

=
Z pu old MVAb old (Vb l new ) 2

2.1.4 Example: For the system shown in Fig. 2.1, calculate:

(i) the emf of G1 and G2 if the voltage magnitude at 11kV B/B is 11kV;
(ii) the fault level of 11kV B/B; and
(iii) the voltage of the 110kV B/B near T3 and T4 under fault conditions.
(1.375pu or 14.3kV, 43.7MVA, 0.219pu or 24.05kV)

12.5kV 30MW 45%

12.5/132kV 45MVA 20%

110kV

X = j40Ω

110kV

110/11kV 20MVA 20%

11kV

30MW unity p.f.

Fig. 2.1

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

2.2 Usefulness of Fault Calculation in the Study of Power System Protection

To understand the relay performance, you must know how severe is the fault. Fault
calculation, mostly symmetrical fault, aided with the knowledge of unsymmetrical fault is
required. This knowledge is required to find out the condition at the relaying point under fault
conditions, for example, voltage at relaying point and current passing through relays. Based on
this you can deduce what the relay will see.

2.3 Balanced Three Phase Faults

2.3.1 Behaviour of synchronous machine under fault conditions
Immediately after the application of the short-circuit the armature current endeavours to
create an armature reaction M.M.F., but the main air-gap flux cannot change to a new value
immediately as it is linked with low-resistance circuits consisting of, (a) the rotor winding which
is effectively a closed circuit, and (b) the damper bars, i.e., a winding which consists of
short-circuited turns of copper strip set in the poles to dampen oscillatory tendencies. As the flux
remains unchanged initially, the stator currents are large and can only flow through the medium of
the creation of opposing currents in the rotor and damper windings by what is essentially
transformer action. Owing to the higher resistance, the current induced in the damper winding
decays rapidly and the armature current commences to fall. After this the currents in the rotor
winding and body decay, the armature reaction M.M.F. is gradually established, and the generated
e.m.f. and stator current fall until the steady-state condition on short-circuit is reached. Here the
full armature reation effect is operational and the machine represented by the synchronous
reactance Xs. The oscillograms of the currents in the three phases of a generator when a sudden
short circuit is applied is shown in Fig. 2.2.
To represent the initial short-circuit conditions, two additional reactances are needed to
represent the machine, the very initial conditions requiring what is called the Subtransient
Reactance (X") and the subsequent period the Transient Reactance (X') [Fig. 2.3]. It is assumed
that the generator is on no-load prior to the application of the short circuit and is of the round-rotor
type.

Fig. 2.2
The currents in the three phases of a generator
when a sudden short circuit is applied.

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

Fig. 2.3
Subtransient reactance (X”) and the transient reactance (X’)

2.3.2 Effect of load

If the effect of load is taken into consideration, the actual fault current in any branch (by
Superpositon Theorem) becomes the phasor sum of pre-fault load current in that branch and the
fault current calculated from above.

2.3.3 Simplification by making assumption

i. Load impedances and hence load currents neglected.
ii. All voltages sources remain balanced and constant (usually at 1 p.u.) and they are all in
phase. Hence all Vpfn becomes equal and in phase with the source e.m.f.
iii. All transformers are at normal taps.
iv. Line capacitances are neglected.
v. Transformer magnetising currents are negligible.

2.4 Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis

In a 3 phase system,
V a= Zs Ia+ Zm Ib+ Zm Ic (2.1)
V b= Zm Ia + Zs Ib+ Zm Ic
V c= Zm Ia + Zm Ib+ Zs Ic

where Zs = self impedance per phase.

Zm = mutual impedance between any phase pair.

or [V]=[Z][I] (2.2)

⎡ ⎤ ⎡V a ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡I a⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ Z s Z m Z m⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢V ⎥ = ⎢V b ⎥ ⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢ I b⎥ ⎢Z ⎥ = ⎢ Z m Z s Z m ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣⎢V c ⎦⎥ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣⎢ I c ⎦⎥ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣⎢ Z m Z m Z s ⎥⎦

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

⎡ ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤
-1
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 1⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
A = ⎢1 a
2
a ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
A = ⎢ 1 a a
2
⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 3 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣⎢1 a a 2 ⎦⎥ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣⎢1 a
2
a ⎥⎦

where a = 1 / 120° 1 + a + a2 = 0

[ V ] = [ Z ][ A ][ A ]-1[ I ]

[ A ]-1[ V ] = [ A ]-1[ Z ][ A ] • [ A ]-1[ I ] (2.3)

Examining
-1
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡V a ⎤ ⎡V o ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 1⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 3
A V = ⎢ 1 a a
2
⎥ ⎢V b ⎥ = ⎢V 1⎥ = ⎢ V s ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣⎢1 a
2
a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V c ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢V 2 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ _ ⎦⎥

Vo = 1/3 ( Va + Vb + Vc ) (2.4)
V1 = 1/3 ( Va + a Vb + a2 Vc ) (2.5)
V2 = 1/3 ( Va + a2 Vb + a Vc ) (2.6)

Similarly
-1
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡ I o ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 1⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ A ⎥ ⎢ I ⎥ = 3 ⎢1 a a ⎥ ⎢ I b ⎥ = ⎢ I 1⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
2
Is
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ _ ⎥⎦

Io = 1/3 ( Ia + Ib + Ic ) (2.7)
I1 = 1/3 ( Ia + a Ib + a2 Ic ) (2.8)
I2 = 1/3 ( Ia + a2 Ib + a Ic ) (2.9)

Now, [ A ]-1 [ Z ] [ A ] = [ Zs ]

⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡ Z s Z m Z m ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤
1⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢1 a a 2 ⎥ ⎢ Z m Z s Z m ⎥ ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥
3⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z m Z m Z s ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦
(2.10)

⎡Z s + 2 Z m 0 0 ⎤ ⎡Z o 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
=⎢ 0 Zs - Zm 0⎥ = ⎢ 0 Z 1 0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 Z s - Z m ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 Z 2 ⎥⎦

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Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

Therefore
⎡V o ⎤ ⎡ Z o 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ I o ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢V 1⎥ = ⎢ 0 Z 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ I 1⎥ (2.11)
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢V 2 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ 0 0 Z 2 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ I 2 ⎦⎥

Also [ I ] = [ A ] [ Is ]

⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡ I o ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ (2.12)
⎢ I b ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥ ⎢ I 1⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦

Similarly
⎡V a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡V o ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢V b ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥ ⎢V 1⎥ (2.13)
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢V c ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢V 2 ⎦⎥

2.5 Transformer Sequence Impedance

2.5.1 Positive and negative sequence equivalent circuit of two winding transformer
A two winding power transformer may be represented by an equivalent circuit,
representing the self-impedance and the mutual coupling between windings, as shown in Fig. 2.4.
The total leakage impedance Zl is usually much smaller than the magnetization impedance Zm.
Their magnitudes are of the order of 10 % and 2000 % respectively. Thus, in fault calculations,
the positive sequence network of the transformer may be represented by the series leakage
impedance only (Fig. 2.5). As the structure of the transformer is symmetrical, its equivalent
circuit to negative sequence currents will be identical to the positive sequence network.

Fig. 2.4
Equivalent circuit of a two winding transformer

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

Fig. 2.5
Simplified equivalent circuit of a two winding transformer

2.5.2 Zero sequence network of two winding transformer

The transformer can still be considered as a three terminal network, but it is necessary to
remember that the exciting branch is now the exciting impedance to zero sequence voltages or
currents which are identical in all three phases. In three phase, three limb core type transformers
this may be only of the order of 100 % to 400 % owing to the high reluctance of the flux path.
Account may be taken of the method of interconnection of the windings and of the
presence or absence of a neutral connection by considering that the transformer in the zero
sequence representation is provided with sets of links 'a' and 'b' on both the primary and
secondary sides (Fig. 2.6) and leaving these links open or close in accordance with the answers to
the following questions:
I. Does a physical circuit exist by means of which zero sequence currents can be passed into
the winding in question from the external circuit on that side (i.e. is there a neutral point
on the transformer or elsewhere which is connected to earth or to a neutral wire, possibly
through an impedance). If so, the link 'a' is closed; if not it is left open. This is done for
each side of the transformer in turn.
II. Can zero sequence currents circulate in the winding in question, without flowing in the
external circuit (i.e. does a delta connection exist). If so, the appropriate link 'b' is closed.

Fig. 2.6
Zero sequence circuit connection of a two winding transformer

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

Fig. 2.7

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

Fig. 2.8

2.5.3 Positive and negative sequence network of a three winding transformer

Provided that the magnetising impedance is neglected, the positive and negative sequence
network can be represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of three star impedances (Fig.
2.9).

Fig. 2.9
Equivalent circuit of a three winding transformer

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

It should be pointed out that the star point of the equivalent circuit is a fictitious point and
does not represent the system neutral and that loads or short circuits can be applied only to
terminals. All impedances must be expressed in the same MVA and voltage base. One of the
branches, usually the least important, may exhibit negative impedance.

2.5.4 Zero Sequence Networks of Three Winding Transformer

The same rule as the two winding transformers applies. Typical examples are shown
below:

Fig. 2.10

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

2.6 System Earthing

The method of system earthing does not influence system operations. It only influence
the system for faults involving earth. As the majority of faults in power systems are earth
faults, system earthing becomes important. The purpose of earthing is to:
i) prevent damage to people, and
ii) prevent or limit plant damage.

2.6.1 Earthing methods

If a system is directly earthed or earthed through a low impedance, the fault current is
high and the damage by fault current is considerable. If a high impedance is used to earth the
system, the earth fault current is limited but it may cause transient overvoltage on unfaulted
phases.
The various earthing methods are:
i) Solidly earthed,
ii) Reactance earthed,
iii) Resistance earthed,
iv) Resonant or Peterson Coil earthed,
v) Earthing transformer, and
vi) Insulated earthed.

2.6.2 Solidly earthed

It is the simplest method of earthing. The zero sequence impedance is a minimum. The
earth fault current is highest. However, overvoltage in unfaulted phases is a minimum. Earth
fault protection is simple as the fault current is usually high. Overvoltage during earth faults is
usually less than 0.8 times phase to phase voltage.

2.6.3 Resistance earthed

There are two main types of earthing resistor, metallic grid and liquid types. The
metallic grid is usually constructed using a cast or steel element. The temperature rise can be
around 250°C. The liquid type earthing resistor consists of an electrode immersed in a tank
containing a solution of sodium carbonate. This type of resistor has a negative temperature
coefficient. Both types of earthing resistor have a short time thermal rating of 30 seconds.
Earthing the system by means of a resistor reduces both the fault current and transient
overvoltages. However, for high value of earthing resistance, overvoltage in unfaulted phases
may be produced during earth faults approaching to phase to phase voltage.

2.6.4 Earthing reactor

Reactors are usually smaller and less expensive than resistors, it can reduce fault
current but this is associated with a increase in transient overvoltages during earth faults.
Transient overvoltages are a maximum when the value of earthing reactance is approximately
one third of the value required for resonant earthing. In order to reduce the transient
overvoltages to an admissible level the earthing reactance has to be reduced so that the earth
fault current approaches that for a solidly earthed system. Overvoltages during earth faults will
be between 0.8 times and full phase to phase voltage.

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

2.6.5 Resonant earthed – arc suppression coil (Peterson Coil)

When the earthing reactance is equal to the total system capacitive reactance to earth,
arcing earth faults will be self extinguishing. For short time rated reactors, if the fault has not
extinguished after a certain time the reactor is shorted. The system capacitance must however
remain fairly constant, otherwise the efficiency of this earthing method is greatly diminished.
If the system is expanded, the value of the grounding reactance should be altered. The steady
state voltages in the sound phases during a phase to earth fault is the full phase to phase
voltage.

2.6.6 Insulated neutral

The earth fault current is capacitive and if small may be self extinguished. Automatic
segregation of faulty zones is extremely difficult. The system can be run with an earth fault for
long periods. Overvoltages during earth faults may be greater than phase to phase voltage.
Arcing earth faults are very likely and these can result in high transient overvoltages.

2.6.7 Earthing transformer

In some cases where the neutral of the power transformer is not available, the system is
earthed via a earthing transformer of zig-zag type (Fig. 2.11). A minimum impedance is offered
to the flow of zero sequence currents. Under normal operating conditions the currents flowing
through the windings are the magnetising currents of the earthing transformer. The earthing
transformer is designed to carry the maximum fault current for 30 seconds.

Fig. 2.11

2.7. Selection of Earthing Methods

In unearthed distribution system, a break down between HV and LV winding may
cause a severe overvoltage in the LV winding and it can cause a hazard for the plant and
personnel safety in the LV distribution system. In general, high impedance earthing is used in
medium voltage networks up to around 33 kV. At these voltages insulation of the power system
components is not too costly, and the systems can be insulated to allow for overvoltages which

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

can occur during earth faults. For high and extra high voltage systems the cost of providing the
necessary insulation can be very expensive, and these systems are normally solidly earthed or
earthed via low impedance. Peterson coil earthing is used on overhead line systems up to
around 132 kV, but requires high insulation and restricts the use of auto transformers.

2.7.1 System voltages up to 660 V

These are normally solidly earthed for safety reasons. In some special cases, where the
continuity of supply is very important, the system can be operated with insulated neutral.

2.7.2 System voltages from 660 V to 33 kV

If the fault level is low the system may be solidly earthed. Generally, these systems are
resistance or reactance earthed.
When resistance earthing is used, the earth fault current is limited to a value close to the
rated load current.
Resonant earthing may be used where a system consists mainly of overhead lines and
is particularly useful in areas having high iso-keraunic levels. These have a high incidence of
lightning strokes and transient earth faults caused by lightning can be extinguished by the
Peterson Coil without the need for line outages.
Isolated systems are only used where long lines are involved and alternative supplies
not easily available.

2.7.3 Systems above 33 kV

The problems of overvoltages becomes more important than high fault currents. For
this reason they are usually solidly earthed.

2.8 Variation of Healthy Phase Voltages for an Earth Fault

2.8.1 Single phase to earth fault

Let Z2 = K2 Z1 and Zo = Ko Z1

For A-E fault,

Ea
I1 = I 2 = I 0 = (2.14)
Z 1 (1 + K 2 + K 0 )
V1 = E − I 1 Z 1
V2 = − I 2 Z 2
V0 = − I 0 Z 0
a 2 + aK 2 + K 0
Vb = a V1 + aV2 + V0 = Eb −
2
E
(1 + K 2 + K 0 ) a (2.15)

a + a2K2 + K0 (2.16)
Vc = aV1 + a 2V2 + V0 = E c − E
(1 + K 2 + K 0 ) a

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

− 3K 0
Vres = − E (2.17)
(1 + K 2 + K 0 ) a

Usually, K2 = 1, therefore

K0 −1 K0 −1
Vb = Eb − E Vc = E c − E
(2 + K 0 ) a (2 + K 0 ) a

Effectively
earthed system

Non-effectively
earthed system

A-E fault
Fig. 2.12

2.8.2 Phase to phase to earth fault

For B-C-E fault,

Ea
I1 =
Z 1 (1 + K 2 K 0 / (K 2 + K 0 )) (2.18)
− Ea K 0
I2 =
Z 1 (K 2 + K 0 + K 2 K 0 )
− Ea K 2
I0 =
Z 1 (K 2 + K 0 + K 2 K 0 )
3K 2 K 0 3K 0
Va = E a = Ea if K 2 = 1 (2.19)
(K 2 + K 0 + K 2 K 0 ) (1 + 2 K 0 )
Vres = Va

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

B-C-E fault
Fig. 2.13

The above equations show how the healthy phase voltages are affected by the method
of earthing. K2 may be assumed constant and approximately equal to 1.0 0ºE. For solidly
earthed system and with a earth fault close to generation, K0 may be approaching 0.5. In this
case, the voltage in the sound phase is below rated phase to neutral voltage.
For solidly earthed system and with a earth fault more distant from generation, K0 may
be approaching 1.0. In this case, the voltage in the sound phase equals the rated phase to neutral
voltage.
Even on a solidly earthed system a earth fault far away from the source of generation,
can result in a value of K0 approaching 2.5 to 4.5. The voltage in the sound phase will increase
above the normal rated phase to neutral voltage.
In general, effective earthing includes direct earthing and low reactance earthing. Non
effective earthing is characterised by a high Z0 / Z1 ratio (large K0) and includes resistance
earthing, distribution transformer earthing, resonant earthing and insulated systems.
In BS 5311 – 1976, effective earthing is defined as “During phase to earth faults, the
voltage to earth voltage of the sound phases does not exceed 80 % of the voltage between lines
of the system”. The AIEE Standard No. 32 defines effectively earthed system as that in which
X0 / X1 < 3 and R0 / X1 < 1
A resistance earthed system will result in a value of K0 having an associated angle. Due
to this angle, the voltage of the lagging sound phase will be less than that of the leading sound
phase, for a single phase to earth fault. The voltage between the sound phases will remain at the
rated value provided K2 = 1 for the duration of the fault. For large values of earthing resistance
where 3 RE >> Z1, the voltages on the sound phases will be equal to or slightly greater than
rated phase to phase voltage.

2.9 Neutral Displacement and Residual Voltages

The neutral displacement voltage is the voltage between the system neutral and ground
during earth faults. Let us consider a general case as shown in Fig. 2.14, a L-E fault will cause
a fault current IF flowing through the earthing impedance ZE. If all impedances (Z1, Z2, Z0, &
ZE) have the same angle, G will be on the phasor VAN at some point determined by the relative
magnitudes. This is equivalent to the position of G shown on Fig. 2.14 for K2 and K0 having
zero angle.

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

3V AN
V NG = − I F Z E = − ZE
Z 1 (1 + K 2 + K 0 ) + 3Z E
ZE
=− V AN if K 2 = K 0 = 1
Z1 + Z E

At the source,

V AG = V AN + V NG
V BG = VBN + V NG
VCG = VCN + V NG
V AG + VBG + VCG = 3V NG = 3V0

Fig. 2.14

Therefore the neutral displacement voltage equals the zero sequence voltage V0 and can
be obtained if necessary from the average of the phase to ground voltages or by measuring the
voltage across the earthing impedance. The residual voltage can be measured by using either
a three phase five limb VT or three single phase VTs each with the secondary windings of the
phases connected in series or open delta.

Vres = V AG + VBG + VCG = 3V NG = 3V0 (2.20)

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

Residual voltage measurement can be used to detect earth faults on a system and to
provide a polarising quantity for directional earth fault relays. It can be seen that the residual
voltage Vres depends mainly on the value of K0 and ZE. On systems with high earthing
impedance or insulated neutral, the value of Vres will approach 3 times rated phase to neutral
voltage. On solidly earthed systems the value of K0 may be small and there may be insufficient
neutral displacement to provide the necessary polarising quantities. For this reason, where
directional earth fault relays are used at generating stations where the system is solidly earthed,
current polarisation is preferred to voltage polarisation.
As the voltage between the neutral of power transformers and earth is small during
earth faults on solidly earthed systems, graded insulation can be used with considerable
reduction in cost.

2.10 Residual Currents during Earth Faults

The residual current is the sum of the phase currents and is obtained from the sum of
CT output placed in each phase.
I res = I a + I b + I c = 3I 0
The residual current contains only zero sequence current. As this is only present during
earth faults, Ires is a good method of earth fault detection. On solidly earthed systems Ires will
normally be large and can be measured with normal ring type CTs. On resistance earthed
systems Ires will normally be of the order of rated full load current and again can be measured
using normal ring type CTs.
On high impedance earthed systems Ires will be very small and should therefore be
measured using core type CTs or very accurate ring type CTs. On insulated and Peterson Coil
earthed system, residual current will be measured on healthy and faulty feeders and therefore
very sensitive directional relays are used. These are polarised from the residual voltage and
will discriminate between faulty and non-faulty outgoing feeders.
For a phase to earth fault, it can be shown that
3
I res = I 3ϕ (2.21)
(1 + K 2 + K 0 )

where I3φ equals to the 3 phase fault current and equals to Ea / Z1

For a double phase to earth fault, it can be shown that

3K 2
I res = I (2.22)
(K 2 + K 0 + K 2 K 0 ) 3ϕ

It can be shown that for K2 = 1, the residual current for a double phase to earth fault is
greater than that for a single phase to earth fault for values of K0 less than 1.0.

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Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

2.11 Sequence circuit of 3 phase auto transformer

The positive and negative sequence network of a 3 phase auto transformer is shown in Fig.
2.15. Basically it is identical to ordinary 3 winding transformer.

Fig. 2.15

The zero sequence network of a 3 phase auto transformer is shown in Fig. 2.16

Fig. 2.16

With the tertiary winding open circuited, let us consider the flow of zero sequence currents
as shown in Fig. 2.17.

Fig. 2.17

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

I L 0nC = I H 0 (nS + nC )
nC
I H 0= I L 0
nS + nC
1 nS
= I L0 where N =
1+ N nC
E H n S + nC
= = 1+ N
EL nC
⎡ 1 ⎤
I L 0 − I H 0 = I L 0 ⎢1 −
⎣ 1 + N ⎥⎦
N
= I L0
1+ N
In the zero sequence network, Z X seems to be consists of :
3(I L 0 − I H 0 )Z n
Z X = ZL +
I L0
N
= ZL + 3 Zn (2.23)
1+ N
Similarly, on the HV side, Z Y' seems to be consists of :
⎛I −I ⎞
Z Y' = Z H' − 3Z n ⎜⎜ L 0 H 0 ⎟⎟
⎝ I L0 ⎠
= Z H' − 3Z n N
N
Z Y = Z H − 3Z n referring to LV side (2.24)
(1 + N )2
Now consider the HV side open circuited but with the tertiary winding closed as shown in
Fig. 2.18.

Fig. 2.18

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Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

This is equivalent to a short circuit test between the common and tertiary winding.

Z C −T = Z X + Z Z = Z L + Z T + 3 Z n
N
As Z X = Z L + 3Z n
1+ N
1
∴, Z Z = Z T + 3Z n (2.25)
1+ N

2.12 Open circuit fault – open circuit of phase conductor

Fig. 2.19

Consider the less extreme case where an impedance is connected in series with one phase
open as shown in Fig. 2.19. Then

E xa = E ya + I a Z a and E x 0 =
1
3
[
(E ya + I a Z a ) + E yb + E yc ]
E xb = E yb
E xc = E yc
1
3
[
= (E ya + E yb + E yc ) + I a Z a ]
1
E x0= E y0+ I a Z a
3
1
and similarly E x1= E y1+ I a Z a
3
1
E x2= E y 2+ I a Z a
3
That is, the voltage drops in the three sequence networks are each equal to:
1 1
I a Z a = Z a ( I1 + I 2 + I 0 ) (2.26)
3 3
These conditions are satisfied by the following sequence network interconnection as
shown in Fig. 2.20.

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

Fig. 2.20

In the extreme case of one phase being open circuit then Za /3 becomes infinite and the
above circuit with Za /3 removes becomes applicable.

2.13 Simultaneous fault –one phase open circuit on one side and phase to earth fault on
the other side in the same phase
It is very rare to have two faults happen in different locations simultaneously. The only
simultaneous fault that is most likely to happen is the breakage of the overhead line conductor.
One side of the broken conductor will thus have an open circuited fault while the conductor on the
other side falls to ground causing a line to earth fault. The physical line arrangement is shown in
Fig. 2.21 and the positive sequence network of this fault is shown in Fig. 2.22.
Solving the simultaneous fault cannot be carried out superposition theory as the sequence
network are not physical networks. The solution of this problem can only be carried out by using
sequence network analysis and the analysis must fulfill the rules of both open circuit fault and one
phase to earth fault analysis.

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Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

Ia P Q Ia’

Ib Ib’

Ic Ic ’

G
Fig. 2.21

Fig. 2.22

For the open circuit fault at P side, For the 1 phase to earth fault at Q side,
I a= 0 Va' = 0
∴, I a1= −( I a 2 + I a 0 ) ∴, Va'1 + Va' 2 + Va' 0 = 0
V b−Vb' = 0 I b+ I b' = 0
( ) (
∴, a 2 V a1−Va'1 + a V a 2−Va' 2 + V a 0−Va' 0 = 0 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
∴, a 2 I a1+ I a' 1 + a I a 2+ I a' 2 + I a 0+ I a' 0 = 0
V c−V = 0 c
'
I c+ I = 0'

( ) + a (V ) + (V )= 0
c
∴, a V a1−V '
a1
2
a2−V '
a2 a0 −V'
a0 ( ) ( ) ( )
∴, a I a1+ I a' 1 + a 2 I a 2+ I a' 2 + I a 0+ I a' 0 = 0
For this to be true, For this to be true,
(V −V
a1
'
a1 ) = (V −V
a2
'
a2 ) = (V −V
a0
'
a0 ) (2.18) (I ) ( ) (
+ I a' 1 = I a 2+ I a' 2 = I a 0+ I a' 0
a1 ) (2.19)

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

The sequence network connections are shown in Fig. 2.23.

Fig. 2.23

2.14 Further Reading

1. Paul M. Anderson, ‘Analysis of Faulted Power Systems’, IEEE Press Power Systems
Engineering Series, IEEE, 1995.

2.15 Self Assessment

i. Do you understand the physical meaning of positive and negative sequence components?
ii. What is the relationship between mutual coupling impedance and sequence impedance in
the power system?
iii. How do you transform between the actual system voltages and currents into their
corresponding sequence components?
iv. Do you understand why the actual system network can be transformed into sequence
networks?
v. How the sequence networks are connected under various unsymmetrical faults?
vi. Do you know how to form the positive and negative sequence networks?

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

vii. Why the zero sequence network of a power transformer is different and do you know how
to form the zero sequence network of a power transformer? Now do you understand how
to form the zero sequence network of the power system?
viii. Do you know how to solve tutorial questions from 1 to 10?
ix. Can you name the earthing systems that are used for power systems?
x. Why the earthing methods will affect the voltage on unfaulted phases under earth fault
condition?
xi. How do you connect the sequence networks for an open circuited fault?
xii. How to represent the simultaneous fault by sequence networks?
xiii. Are you able to solve the open circuit and simultaneous fault problems from Q11 to Q15?

2.16 Tutorials

Q1. A 10 MVA, 13.8 KV, 50 Hz generator has a direct-axis sub-transient reactance of 0.2
p.u., a negative sequence reactance of 0.15 p.u. and a zero sequence reactance of 0.1 p.u. In
order to reduce the short-circuit current in case of a fault to earth, a current limiting reactor is
connected to the neutral of the generator. Determine the inductance required to limit the
sub-transient line current for a single-line-to-earth fault current to that of a three-phase fault.
If a resistor is used instead of the reactor, what value of resistance is required?
(3.03 mH, 2.52 Ω)

Q2. A 20 MVA, 11 KV, 3 phase alternator which is connected in star and solidly earthed, is
connected directly to a cable. Determine the current in each phase, the fault current, and the
voltage between the unfaulted end of the cable and earth, when a B-C phase to earth fault
occurs at the far end of the cable. (0 A, -2451 + j 1769A, 2451 + j 1769A, j3538A, 4.5kV)
The p.u. phase sequence reactances are:
Positive Negative Zero
Generator 0.3 0.2 0.05
Cable 0.1 0.1 0.16

Q3. In the single source system as shown in Fig Q3, a 3 phase fault occurs at the end of the
line. By using a MVA base of 600 MVA, calculate the fault current and the fault MVA if:
i) The 400 kV busbar has a short circuit level of 35 GVA; and
ii) The 400 kV busbar has a short circuit level of 5 GVA.
(-j15.85kA, 10.98GVA, -j5.5kA, 3.81GVA)
Z1=Z2
Z0=2Z1
R 400 kV
G •
Z1=Z2=j10Ω
E=1.0 pu Z0=j40Ω
Fig. Q3

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

Q4. Repeat Q3 to calculate the fault current for:

i) A single phase to earth fault on A phase; and (8.85kA, 3.68kA)
ii) A phase to phase fault on B to C phase. (-13.74kA, 4.76kA)

Q5. In the two sources system as shown in Fig Q5, the short circuit level of the 400 kV
busbars in side A and B is 5 GVA and 35 GVA respectively. An A-E fault occurs at the
location shown in the figure. By using a MVA base of 600 MVA, calculate:
i) the total fault current; and (-j18.3, 0.686)
ii) the fault current contributing from both ends of the line. (-j6.35, 0.238)
What is the ratio of fault current contribution from both ends of the line? What causes that?
What effect can you think of in this situation?

Fig. Q5
100%

50%
Z1=Z2
Z1=Z2
Z0=2Z1
Z0=2Z1
A ZLA ZLB B
G • • G

E=1.0p Z1=Z2= j20Ω E=1.0p

Z0= j80Ω
(for the whole line)

Q6. A 20 MVA 132/11 kV 3 phase transformer with winding connected in Dy11 is supplied
from a source of negligible impedance. The leakage impedance of the transformer is 10 % and the
neutral of the star connected winding is floating. If a B-C phase fault happens on the LV side near
the transformer terminals, calculate the p.u. current in all three phases on the HV side of the
transformer based on 20 MVA base. (-j5, -j5, j10)

Q7. If the transformer in Q6 is supplied from a source of fault level 2000 MVA and the star
point is now solidly earthed. Calculate the p.u. current in all three phases on the HV side of the
transformer based on 20 MVA base if an A phase to earth fault occurs on the 11 kV side.
(5.41, -5.41, 0)

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

Q8. Fig. Q8 shows a 275 KV, 3 phase overhead transmission line 80 km long which is
supplied from both ends through identical delta/star connected transformers ‘A’ and ‘B’, each
rated at 100 MVA, 11/275 kV. The star-point of both transformers are solidly earthed and the
symmetrical short circuit level at the input terminals of ‘A’ is 1000 MVA, while that at the input
terminals of ‘B’ is 2000 MVA.
If an A phase to earth fault occurs on one overhead conductor at a position 20 km from
‘B’, find the fault current flowing into the fault F and the current seen by protective relays
installed on each phase of the HV side of the transformer windings.
The relevant reactance are given below:
Transformer X1 = X2 = Xo = 0.15 p.u. based on rating
Transmission line X1 = X2 = 0.8 Ω/km Xo = 1.6 Ω/km.
(1689 A, 696 A, 0 A, 0 A, 993 A, 0 A, 0 A.)

Fig. Q8

Q9. For the same network as shown in Q8, if the source of Tx. B is disconnected at the L.V.
side, calculate again, for an A phase to earth fault, the total fault current and the current seen by
relays on the H.V. side of the transformers.
(850 A, 683 A, 167 A, 167 A, 167 A, 167 A, 167 A.)

Q10. In the two sources system as shown in Fig Q10, the short circuit level of the 400 kV
busbars in side X and Y is 30 GVA and 10 GVA respectively. The neutral of the source on side
X is solidly earthed while the neutral of the source on side Y is floating. A fault occurs at the
location shown in the figure. By using a MVA base of 1000 MVA, calculate the fault current
in each phase in side X and Y if
i) the fault is a three phase fault; and (11.36kA, 7.45kA)
ii) the fault is a single phase to earth fault on A phase.
(6.78kA, 1.22kA, 1.22kA; 2.43kA, 1.22kA, 1.22kA)
Suggest a method to limit the earth fault current in this case.
Neglect the effect of load in the above calculations.

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

100%

50%
Z1=Z2
Z1=Z2
Z0=2Z1
X ZLA ZLB Y
G • • G

E=1.0p Z1=Z2= j30Ω E=1.0p

Z0= j80Ω
(for the whole line)
Fig. Q10

Q11. In the distribution circuit shown in Fig. Q11, ‘A’ phase is open-circuited at load terminals,
calculate:
i) magnitude of current in healthy phases; and
ii) voltage across the open circuit.
(0.95∠222°, 0.95∠102°, 0.32∠-7.1°)

Z 1T = j 0.4 pu ⎫
⎪
Z 2T = j 0.2 pu ⎬ referring to 10MVA, 11 kV
Z 01T = j 0.2 pu ⎪⎭

Fig. Q11
Q12. An unloaded 3 phase star connected bank of single phase transformers having the star
point isolated is fed over a cable having a capacitance of 3μF/phase from a large 66 kV, 50 Hz
system having an earthed neutral point. The transformer takes a magnetizing circuit of 30A at 66
kV and the magnetizing reactance may be assumed constant. If one conductor breaks between the
cable and the supply, estimate, neglecting reactance, the steady state voltage which would appear
across the break.
(14.2 kV)

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

Q13. For the circuit shown in Fig. Q13, calculate the current distribution in the transformer
windings and the neutral currents at the source and transformer earthing points.
Note: Voltages are phase voltage. All impedance referred to the 100 kV winding, i.e., √3
x 100 kV phase to phase.

Fig. Q13

Q14. If the source in Q13 is unearthed, calculate the new current distribution.

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

Q15. In the generator / generator transformer circuit shown in Fig. Q15, find the current
distribution in the primary and secondary circuit for:
i) A L-E fault at P of If = 900A with delta opened,
ii) A L-E fault at Q of If = 900A with delta opened,
iii) A L-E fault at P of If = 900A with delta closed, and
iv) A L-E fault at Q of If = 900A with delta closed.

Fig. Q15

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

Q16. (a) An EHV transmission system is shown in Fig. Q16. An ‘A’ phase to earth fault
occurs at 70% of the line length from the relaying point X with a fault resistance of 100Ω. Neglect
the effect of the load, calculate the current and phase to ground voltage of the faulted phase at
locations X of the 400kV line. (1375A, 189.5 kV)

Fig. Q16

(b) Distance relays are installed at locations X to protect the 400kV line. The zone 1
setting of the relay is set to cover 80% of the line length. Based on the above calculations, calculate
the impedance seen by the phase-earth fault distance relays at the faulted phase and comment on
the result obtained. (89.6 + j 33.9 Ω)

The relay input currents are compensated by:

Z 0 − Z1
I R = I ph + I n
3Z 1

Where IR = Relay current

Iph = phase current
In = neutral current
Z1 = line positive sequence impedance
Z0 = line zero sequence impedance

(c) Comment on the accuracy of distance relays due to the effect of remote end infeed
and the fault resistance in the above case.

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

Q17. (a) An e.h.v. transmission system is shown in Fig. Q17. During a typhoon, the A
phase conductor at 70 % of the line length from the relaying point X was broken thus forming
an open circuit fault. The conductor on the other side (Y) fell to the ground forming a line to
earth fault. Nelect the effect of the load, calculate the current and phase to ground voltage of the
faulted phase at locations X and Y on both sides of the 400 kV line.
(0, 0.957-j0.0084, 0.158-j0.809, 0.085-j0.015)

XH= XL= XT=0.05

Fig. Q17

(b)Distance relays are installed at locations X and Y protecting the 400 kV line. Each
relay on both sides will set to cover 80 % of the line length. Based on the above calculations,
calculate the impedance seen by both phase-earth fault distance relays at the faulted phase and
comment on the result obtained. (42.6-j236Ω, 0.9+j10.8Ω)

The relay input current is compensated by:

Z 0 − Z1
I R = I ph + I n
3Z 1

Where IR = relay current

Iph = phase current
In = neutral current
Z1 = line positive sequence impedance
Z0 = line zero sequence impedance

(c) When a fault happens in the power system, what will be the transient voltage
and current waveform that will appear at the relay location in the first few cycles. Does it affect
the relay performance.

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

Q18. (a) Name the sources of error in impedance measurement in distance relays?

(a) An e.h.v. transmission System is shown in Fig. Q18 Distance relays are
installed at locations X to protect the 400 kV line. The relay is set to cover 80 % of the line
length. An A phase to earth fault with a fault resistance of 10Ω occurs at 70 % of the line length
from the relaying point X. Neglect the effect of the load, calculate the impedance seen by the
relay of the faulted phase at locations X when
(i) the circuit breaker (C.B.) at the other side of the line is opened; and
(ii) the circuit breaker (C.B.) at the other side of the line is closed.
(7.2+j26.2Ω, 14.8+j27Ω)
Explain why the zero sequence impedance compensation does not give correct
measurement in this case.

The relay input current is compensated by:

Z 0 − Z1
I R = I ph + I n
3Z 1

Where IR = relay current

Iph = phase current
In = neutral current
Z1 = line positive sequence impedance
Z0 = line zero sequence impedance

Fig. Q18

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 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Modern Power System Protection
Chapter 2 – Fault Analysis

Q19. A 275 kV transmission line is protected by two distance relays located at both ends of the
line (X and Y) as shown in Fig.Q19. During a typhoon, the A phase conductor at 50% of the
transmission line was broken. The conductor on side Y fell to ground thus forming a line to earth
fault. The conductor of the other side (X) remain open circuited.
i) Sketch the sequence network and show how the fault current can be calculated.
ii) Neglect the effect of the load, calculate the impedance seen by the distance
relay of the faulted phase at Y. (j12.5Ω)

The relay input current is compensated by:

Z 0 − Z1
I R = I ph + I n
3Z 1

Where IR = relay current

Iph = phase current
In = neutral current
Z1 = line positive sequence impedance
Z0 = line zero sequence impedance

Use 500 MVA as the MVA base in your calculation.

Z1= Z2= j 25Ω

Z0= j 42Ω
(for the whole length)

100%
25kV
25/275kV 275/33kV
500MW
750MVA 50% 500MVA
X1= 0.15p.u.
X1= X2= X0 X1= X2= X0
X2= 0.07p.u.
= 0.15p.u. = 0.125p.u.
X0= 0.05p.u.
X 275kV Y

Fig. Q19

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