Series of Constants

Definition: A series is defined as a sequence of partial sums, and convergence is defined

in terms of the limit of the sequence of partial sums. A series is said to converge to A if
the sequence of its partial sums converges to it, and A is then called its limit.
nth term Test 3. Lim a n  0
n 
If Lim a n  0  diverges.
n  Limit Comparison Test
If no conclusion an
1. If Lim  0  then both converge or both
Geometric Series:
n  bn

a diverge.
 ar n
converges to
1r
for r<1
1
an
diverges for r≥1
2. If Lim
n  bn
 0 and b n converges 

then  a n converges .
p-Series:

1
1 n p converges for p>1 3. If Lim
an
  and b n diverges 
n  bn
diverges for p≤1
then  a n diverges .
Integral Test:

Ratio Test
If f(x) is a decreasing function, then a n and
a n 1

1
If Lim  1  it converges absolutely
 1
x n dx either both converge or both diverge. n  an
a n 1
If Lim  1  it diverges
Direct Comparison Test: n  an
 
a n 1
If b n converges and a n  bn , then  a n If Lim
n  an
 1 no conclusion
1 1
converges.
 
If b n diverges and a n  bn , then  a n diverges.
Root Test
1 1

Suppose Lim
n a n  p . Then,
Alternating Series Test:  1 n1
a n converges n 

if 1. all a n are positive,

1 1. if p<1, a n converges

2. a n  a n 1 , 2. if p>1, a n diverges

3. if p=1, no conclusion
Harmonic and Alternating Harmonic Series

1 1 1 1
Harmonic Series: 1 n  1 2  3  4    Diverges


1n1 1 1 1
Alternating Harmonic Series:  n
 1     
2 3 4
Converges conditionally
1

Alternating Series and Error Bound

If an alternating series converges, then the error in calculating the value of the series using N terms is
just the (N+1) term.

Ex. Use a geometric series to express 0.0303 as the ratio of two integers, test the series for convergence
and find the sum of the series.

Ex. Use the Integral Test to determine the convergence or divergence of the p-series:

Ex. Approximate the sum of the series using the first two terms. Give the error
bound (remainder) for this approximation.
Taylor Series
Definition of nth Degree Taylor and Maclaurin Polynomials:
If f has n derivatives at x=c, then the nth degree Taylor Polynomial of f at x=c is
f' ' a x  a 2 f'' ' a x  a 3 f n a x  a n
f x   f a   f' a x  a        R n x 
2! 3! n!

And for c=0 the polynomial is called the nth degree Maclaurin Polynomial, given by
f (x) = f(0) + f’(0)x + f’’(0)x2/2! +…+ fn(0)(xn)/n!

Basic Taylor Series:

=
y  ex
=
y  sin x
x2 x4 x6 1 x 2n n 
1 x2n n
y  cos x = 1           
2! 4! 6! 2n  ! 0 2n !

1
= 1  x  x  x    x     x
2 3 n n
y on  1  x  1
1x 0

Power Series
Definition: A power series is a series of the form:

More generally, a series of the form:

is called a power series centered at c, where c is constant.

Theorem 8.20 for a given power series states there are only three possibilities:
1) The series converges only when x = c. R=0
2) The series converges for all x. (R=∞)
3) There is a positive number R such that the series converges if x - c < R and diverges if x – c > R.
* (x – c) 0 = 1 even when x = c.

The Lagrange Error Bound:

Exact Error:

Radius of Convergence
 a n 1 x  an1
R is the radius of convergence when Lim  1 leads to x  a  R
n  a n x  an

Interval of convergence
Solve x  a  R (from the Radius of Convergence) and test convergence at the endpoints!!!!

Ex. Find the interval of convergence of

Ex. Find the Lagrange error bound approximation of f(x) = sin (x)
when x = .3