Bio-Cybernetics
PROJECT REPORT
ON
The Bio-Cybernetics
By
Renny Sunny
Sabari Krishnan
Prashant Kumar T
Manoj Throat
DEPARTMENT OF Electronics And telecommunication
SIES GRADUATE SCHOOL OF TECNOLOGY, Nerul- 400 -706
Abstract
Cybernetics" comes from a Greek word meaning "the art of steering".
Cybernetics is about having a goal and taking action to achieve that goal.
Knowing whether you have reached your goal (or at least are getting closer to it)
requires "feedback”, a concept that comes from cybernetics. Artificial Intelligence and
cybernetics: Aren't they the same thing? Or, isn't one about computers and the other
about robots? The answer to these questions is emphatically, No. Researchers in
Artificial Intelligence (AI) use computer technology to build intelligent machines; they
consider implementation (that is, working examples) as the most important result.
Practitioners of cybernetics use models of organizations, feedback, goals, and
conversation to understand the capacity and limits of any system (technological,
biological, or social); they consider powerful descriptions as the most important result.
INTRODUCTION
Cybernetics is the interdisciplinary
study of the structure of regulatory
systems. Cybernetics is closely related to
control theory and systems theory.
Cybernetics is preeminent when the
system under scrutiny is involved in a
closed signal loop, where action by the
system in an environment causes some
change in the environment and that
change is manifest to the system via
information/feedback that causes
DEFINITION
changes in the way the system then
1]Cybernetics was defined by Norbert
behaves, and all this in service of a goal
Wiener, in his book of that title, as the
or goals. This "circular causal"
study of control and communication in
relationship is necessary and sufficient
the animal and the machine.
for a cybernetic perspective.
2] Stafford Beer called it the science of
3] Other fields of study which have
effective organization and Gordon Pask
influenced or been influenced by
extended it to include information flows
cybernetics include game theory, system
"in all media" from stars to brains. It
theory (a mathematical counterpart to
includes the study of feedback, black
cybernetics), psychology (especially
boxes.
neuropsychology, behavioral
3] A more philosophical definition,
psychology, cognitive psychology),
suggested in 1956 by Louis Couffignal,
philosophy,
one of the pioneers of cybernetics,
and architecture
characterizes cybernetics as "the art of
ensuring the efficacy of action"
4] The most recent definition has been
proposed by Louis Kauffman, President
of the American Society for Cybernetics,
"Cybernetics is the study of systems and
processes that interact with themselves
and produce themselves from
themselves"
5] Other fields of study which have
influenced or been influenced by
cybernetics include game theory; system
theory (a mathematical counterpart to
cybernetics); psychology, especially
neuropsychology, behavioral
psychology,cognitive psychology;
philosorphy; anthropology and even
architecture
HISTORY
1] The word cybernetics was first used
in the context of "the study of self-
governance" by Plato in The Laws to
signify the governance of people.
2] The word "cybernétique" was also
used in 1834 by the physicist André-
Marie Ampère (1775–1836) to denote
the sciences of government in his
classification system of human
knowledge.
3] The first artificial automatic
regulatory system, a water
clock(PROBABLY FOUNDED IN
EGYPT)
WATER CLOCK
In Greece, a water clock was known as a
clepsydra (water thief). The Greeks
considerably advanced the water clock
by tackling the problem of the
diminishing flow.
The first artificial automatic regulatory
system, a water clock, was invented by
the mechanician Ktesibios. In his water
clocks, water flowed from a source such
as a holding tank into a reservoir, then
from the reservoir to the mechanisms of
the clock. Ktesibios's device used a
cone-shaped float to monitor the level of
the water in its reservoir and adjust the
rate of flow of the water accordingly to
maintain a constant level of water in the
reservoir, so that it neither overflowed
nor was allowed to run dry. This was the
first artificial truly automatic self-
regulatory device that required no the first to discuss and refine the
outside intervention between the principles of self-regulating devices.
feedback and the controls of the
mechanism. Although they did not refer THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY
to this concept by the name of 1]Contemporary cybernetics began as an
Cybernetics (they considered it a field of interdisciplinary study connecting the
engineering), Ktesibios and others such fields of control systems, electrical
as Heron and Su Song are considered to network theory, mechanical engineering,
be some of the first to study cybernetic logic modeling, evolutionary biology
principles. and neuroscience in the 1940s.
Electronic control systems originated
with the 1927 work of Bell Telephone
Laboratories engineer Harold S. Black
on using negative feedback to control
amplifiers.
2]The name cybernetics was coined to
denote the study of "teleological
mechanisms" and was popularized
through his book Cybernetics, or
Control and Communication in the
Animal and Machine (Hermann & Cie,
Paris, 1948).
3] In the early 1940s John von
Neumann, contributed a unique and
unusual addition to the world of
cybernetics: Von Neumann cellular
automata, and their logical follow up the
Von Neumann Universal Constructor.
JAMES WATT 4] Wiener popularized the social
implications of cybernetics, drawing
analogies between automatic systems
(such as a regulated steam engine) and
human institutions in his best-selling
4] The study of teleologica
The Human Use of Human Beings :
mechanims in machines with corrective
Cybernetics and Society (Houghton-
feedback dates from as far back as the
Mifflin, 1950IMPROVEMENT IN
late 1700s when James Watt’s steam
CYBERNETICS
engine was equipped with a governor, a
1] During the past 30 years, the field of
centrifugal In 1868 James Clerk
cybernetics followed a boom-bust cycle
Maxwell published a theoretical article
of becoming more and more dominated
on governors, one of the first to discuss
by the subfields of artificial intelligence
and refine the principles of self-
and machine-biological interfaces (ie.
regulating devices.feedback valve for
cyborgs) and when this research fell out
controlling the speed of the engine5] In
of favor, the field as a whole fell from
1868 James Clerk Maxwell published a
grace.
theoretical article on governors, one of
2] In the 1970s new cybernetics has noted that a transition from classical
emerged in multiple fields, first in cybernetics to the new cybernetics
biology. Consequently, these thinkers involves a transition from classical
were led to invent a new cybernetics, problems to new problems. These shifts
one more suited to the organizations in thinking involve, among others, a
which mankind discovers in nature - change from emphasis on the system
organizations he has not being steered to the system doing the
himselfinvented. The possibility that this steering, and the factor which guides the
new cybernetics could also account for steering decisions. And a new emphasis
social forms of organization, remained on communication between several
an object of debate among theoreticians systems which are trying to steer each
on self-organization in the 1980s. other.
CYBERNETICS IN POLITICAL OTHER FIELDS
SCIENCE 1]Recent endeavors into the true focus of
1] In political science, Project Cybersyn cybernetics, systems of control and
attempted to introduce a cybernetically emergent behavior, by such related fields
controlled economy during the early as Game Theory (the analysis of group
1970s. In the 1980s, unlike its interaction), systems of feedback in
predecessor, the new cybernetics evolution, and Metamaterials (the study
concerns itself with the interaction of of materials with properties beyond the
autonomous political actors and newtonian properties of their constituent
subgroups, and the practical and atoms), have led to a revived interest in
reflexive consciousness of the subjects this increasingly relevant field.
who produce and reproduce the structure 2]These subjects also extend into many
of a political community. A dominant others areas of science, but are united in
consideration is that of recursiveness, or their study of control of system.
self-reference of political action both Pure cybernetics studies basic principles
with regards to the expression of concerned with
political consciousness and with the • Artificial intelligence
ways in which systems build upon • Robotics
themselves. • Computer Vision
A NEW CYBERNETICS!! • Control systems
Geyer and van der Zouwen in 1978
discussed a number of characteristics of
the emerging "new cybernetics". One
characteristic of new cybernetics is that Cybernetics in biology is the study of
it views information as constructed and cybernetic systems present in biological
reconstructed by an individual organisms, primarily focusing on how
interacting with the environment. This animals adapt to their environment, and
provides an epistemological foundation how information in the form of genes is
of science, by viewing it as observer- passed from generation to
dependent. Another characteristic of the generationThere is also a secondary
new cybernetics is its contribution focus on cyborgs.
towards bridging the "micro-macro gap".
That is, it links the individual with the • Bioengineering
society. Geyer and van der Zouwen also • Biocybernetics
• Bionics as smart mobs and riots, as well as how
• Homeostasis communities develop rules, such as
• Medical cybernetics etiquette, by consensus without formal
• Synthetic Biology discussion. Affect Control Theory
Systems Biology explains role behavior, emotions, and
labeling theory in terms of homeostatic
IN ENGINERING maintenance of sentiments associated
Cybernetics in engineering is used to with cultural categories. These and other
analyze cascading failures and System cybernetic models in sociology are
Accidents, in which the small errors and reviewed in a book edited by
imperfections in a system can generate McClelland and Fararo
disasters. Other topics studied include:
• Adaptive systems • Affect Control Theory
• Engineering cybernetics • Memetics
• Ergonomics • Sociocybernetics
• Biomedical engineering BASIC UNDERSTANDING
• Systems engineering 1] In cybernetics, theories tend to rest on
four basic pillars: variety, circularity,
In Management process and observation.
Variety is fundamental to its
• Entrepreneurial cybernetics information, communication and control
• Management cybernetics theories and emphasises multiplicity,
• Organizational cybernetics alternatives, differences, choices,
• Operations research networks, and intelligence rather than
• Systems engineering force and singular necessity.
Circularity occurs in its earliest theories
In Mathematics of circular causation or feedback, later in
theories of recursion
Mathematical Cybernetics focuses on the Nearly all cybernetic theories involve
factors of information, interaction of process and change, from its notion of
parts in systems, and the structure of information, as the difference between
systems two states of uncertainty, to theories of
• Dynamical system adaptation, evolution and growth
• Information theory processes. A special feature of
• Systems theory cybernetics is that it explains such
processes in terms of the organization of
In Psychology the system manifesting it, e.g., the
circular causality of feedback loops is
taken to account for processes of
• Psycho-Cybernetics
regulation and a system's effort to
• Systems psychology
maintain an equilibrium or to reach a
goal.
In Sociology Finally, observation including decision
making is the process underlying
By examining group behavior through cybernetic theories of information
the lens of cybernetics, sociology seeks processing and computing.
the reasons for such spontaneous events
By extending theories of self-reference visualisation techniques used the
to processes of observation including connection between the mind and the
cognition and other manifestations of body. He specified techniques to develop
intelligence, CYBERNRTICS WILL a positive inner goal as a means of
PROVE TO BE A POWERFUL developing a positive outer goal. This
SCIENCE concentration on inner attitudes is
The early contributions of cybernetics essential to his approach, as a person's
were mainly technological and gave rise outer success can never rise above the
to feedback control devices, one visualized internally
communication technology, automation 1]ENGINEERING CYBERNETICS
of production processes and computers.
Interest moved soon to numerous
sciences involving man, applying
cybernetics to processes of cognition, to
such practical pursuits such as
psychiatry, family therapy, the
development of information and decision
systems, management, government, and
to efforts to understand complex forms
of social organization including
communication and computer networks.
The full potential of cybernetics has not ]Engineering cybernetics or Technical
yet been realized in these applications. cybernetics is a field of cybernetics,
WELL KNOWN DEDICATED TO which deals with the question of control
CYBERNETICS engineering of mechatronic systems as
1]Psycho-Cybernetics is a classic self- well as chemical or biological systems.
help book, written by Maxwell Maltz in It is used to control and predict the
1960 and published by the non-profit behaviour of such a system(FOR
Psycho-Cybernetics Foundation EXAMPLE CONTROL THEORY)
2]The book combines the cognitive Control theory is an interdisciplinary
behavioral technique of teaching an branch of engineering and mathematics,
individual how to regulate self-concept that deals with the behavior of
developed by Prescott Lecky with the dynamical systems.
cybernetics of Norbert Wiener and John Control theory is
von Neumann. The book defines the • a theory that deals with
mind-body connection as the core in influencing the behavior of
succeeding in attaining personal goals. dynamical systems
Maltz found that his plastic surgery • an interdisciplinary subfield of
patients often had expectations that were science, which originated in
not satisfied by the surgery, so he engineering and mathematics,
pursued a means of helping them set the and evolved into use by the
goal of a positive outcome through social sciences, like psychology,
visualization of that positive outcome. sociology and criminology
Maltz became interested in why setting BIOCYBERNETICS
goals works. He learned that the power
of self-affirmation and mental 1]Biocybernetics is the application of
cybernetics to the biological science,
comprised of biological disciplines that knowing, or knowledge, and may be
benefit from the application of interpreted in a social or cultural sense to
cybernetics: neurology, multicellular describe the emergent development of
systems and others. knowledge and concepts within a group,
culminating in both thought and action.
2] Biocybernetics plays a major role in
systems biology, seeking to integrate
different levels of information to
understand how biological systems
function.
• . biocybernetics - the study of an
entire living organism
• neurocybernetics - cybernetics
dealing with neurological
models.
• cellular cybernetics - cybernetics
dealing with cellular systemS.
• evolutionary cybernetics - study
of the evolution of informational
systems
• any distinct informational system
within the realm of biology
RELATED BRANCHES
1]COGNITION
Cognition is a concept used in
different ways by different
disciplines, but is generally accepted
to mean the process of thought.
1] Within psychology or philosophy,
the concept of cognition is closely
related to abstract concepts such as
mind, reasoning, perception,
intelligence, learning, and many
others that describe capabilities of
the mind and expected properties of
an artificial or synthetic "mind".
2]Cognition is considered an abstract
property of advanced living
organisms and is studied as a direct
property of a brain (or of an abstract
mind) on at the factual and symbolic
levels
3] The term "cognition" is also used in a
broader sense to define the act of
Conclusion curiosity toward alternative views of
what a brain does [Ashby 1960] and
The term "cybernetics" has been widely alternative views of the biology of
misunderstood, perhaps for two broad cognition [Maturana 1970]. There is
reasons. First, its identity and boundary growing recognition of the value of a
are difficult to grasp. The nature of its "science of subjectivity" that
concepts and the breadth of its encompasses both objective and
applications, as described above, make it subjective interactions, including
difficult for non-practitioners to form a conversation [Pask 1976]. Designers are
clear concept of cybernetics. This holds rediscovering the influence of
even for professionals of all sorts, as cybernetics on the tradition of 20th-
cybernetics never became a popular century design methods, and the need for
discipline in its own right; rather, its rigorous models of goals, interaction,
concepts and viewpoints seeped into and system limitations for the successful
many other disciplines, from sociology development of complex products and
and psychology to design methods and services, such as those delivered via
post-modern thought. Second, the advent today's software networks. And, as in
of the prefix "cyb" or "cyber" as a any social cycle, students of history
referent to either robots ("cyborgs") or reach back with minds more open than
the Internet ("cyberspace") further was possible at the inception of
diluted its meaning, to the point of cybernetics, to reinterpret the meaning
serious confusion to everyone except the and contribution of a previous era.
small number of cybernetic experts.
Such a short summary as this cannot
However, the concepts and origins of represent the range and depth of
cybernetics have become of greater cybernetics, and the reader is encouraged
interest recently, especially since around to do further research on the topic. There
the year 2000. Lack of success by AI to is good material, though sometimes not
create intelligent machines has increased authoritative, at Wikipedia.org.
Bibliography
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics
www.scholarpedia.org/article/Cybernetics
open-site.org/Science/Mathematics/Applied/Cybernetics/
