CHAPTER 1:

Functions, Graphs, and Limits

By: Husni Tel: 0615257175

Alas Tel: 0615521558
 Functions
Definition of a Function

A function relates an input to an output.

A function is a relation for which each value from the set the first components of
the ordered pairs is associated with exactly one value from the set of second
components of the ordered pair.
The function machine metaphor
We can view a function as something that can take an object and turn it into a
different object. We can imagine it is some machine that does this transformation.
You put some object into its input funnel. If the input object fits into the funnel, then
the function machine will process that object and turn it into some other object,
which comes out its output chute.
EXAMPLE 1.1.1:

Find f(3) if f(x) = 𝑥 2 + 4.

Solution:

f(x) = 𝑥 2 + 4
2
f(3) = 3 + 4 = 13
EXAMPLE 1.1.2:

If g(t) = t −2 1/2 ,
find (if possible) g(27), g(5), g(2), and g(1).

Solution:
g(t) = t −2 1/2

g(27) = t −2 = 27 −2 = 25 = 5
g(5) = t −2 = 5 −2 = 3 = 1.7321

g(2) = t −2 = 2 −2 = 0 = 0

g(1) = t −2 = 1 −2 = −1

and negative numbers do not have real square roots

EXAMPLE 1.1.3

1
1 𝑥 −1
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 1
Find f(− ) , f(1) and f(2) if f 𝑥 =
2
3𝑥 2 +1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 1

Solution:
1
f 𝑥 = 𝑥 −1

1 1 1 2
1
f(− ) = = = = −
2 𝑥 −1 − 1
2
−1 − 3
2
3

f 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 + 1
2
f(1) = 3 1 +1=3 1 +1=3+1=4
2
f(2) = 3 2 + 1 = 3 4 + 1 = 12 + 1 = 13
EXERCISES ■ 1.1

In Exercises 1 through 5, compute the indicated values of the given function

1) f(x) = 3x + 5 ; f(0), f(−1) and f(2)

2) f(x) = −7x + 1 ; f(0), f(1) and f(−2)

3) f(x) = 3𝑥 2 + 5x −2; f(0), f(−2) and f(1)
4) h(x) = 2𝑡 + 1 3 ; h −1 , ℎ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ 1
5) h(x) = 𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 4 ; h 2 , h(0) and h(−4)
 Functions used in economics
There are several functions associated with the marketing of a particular commodity:

Demand is the desire of a buyer and his ability to pay for a particular
commodity at a specific price.
Supply is the quantity of a commodity which is made available by the
producers to its consumers at a certain price.
The amount of money that a producer receives in exchange for
the sale proceeds is known as revenue. For example, if a firm
gets Rs. 16,000 from sale of 100 chairs, then the amount of Rs.
16,000 is known as revenue.
Calculating revenue means multiplying the price of each product
by the total number of units sold.
R (x) = (number of items sold)(price per item)
= xp(x)
The cost function C(x) is the cost of producing x units of the commodity.
The profit function P(x) is the profit obtained from selling x units of the
commodity and is given by the difference.
P(x) = revenue − cost
= R(x) − C(x)
= xp(x) − C(x)
Generally speaking, the higher the unit price, the fewer the number of
units demanded, and vice versa. Conversely, an increase in unit price
leads to an increase in the number of units supplied. Thus, demand
functions are typically decreasing (“falling” from left to right), while
supply functions are increasing (“rising”), as illustrated in the margin.
Here is an example that uses several of these special economic
functions.
Example 1.1.4
d(p) = p2 -20p + 125
This is a function that describes the demand for an item where p is the dollar price
per item. It says that demand depends on price.
a) Find the demand when one item costs $2.
b) Find the demand when one item costs $5.
Solution:
a) d(2) = 22 - 20(2) + 125 = 89
b) d(5) = 52 - 20(5) + 125 = 50
Notice that, as we might expect, the demand declines as the price rises.
EXAMPLE 1.1.5

Market research indicates that consumers will buy x thousand units of a particular kind
of coffee maker when the unit price is
p(x) = − 0.27x + 51

dollars. The cost of producing the x thousand units is

C(x) = 2.23𝑥 2 + 3.5x + 85
thousand dollars.
What are the revenue and profit functions, R(x) and P(x), for this production process?
Solution:
The revenue is R(x) = xp(x) = 0.27𝑥 2 + 51x

thousand dollars, and the profit is

P(x) = R(x) − C(x)

= 0.27𝑥 2 + 51x − 2.23𝑥 2 + 3.5x + 85

= −2.5𝑥 2 + 47.5x − 85 thousand dollars.

EXAMPLE 1.1.6

Suppose the total cost in dollars of manufacturing q units of a certain

commodity is given by the function C(q) = 𝑞3 − 30𝑞2 + 500q + 200.
a. Compute the cost of manufacturing 10 units of the commodity.
b. Compute the cost of manufacturing the 10th unit of the commodity.
Solution:
a. The cost of manufacturing 10 units is the value of the total cost function
when q = 10.
That is,
Cost of 10 units = C(10)
= (10)3 −30(10)2 +500(10) + 200
= $3,200
b. The cost of manufacturing the 10th unit is the difference between the cost
of manufacturing 10 units and the cost of manufacturing 9 units. That is,

Cost of 10th unit = C(10) − C(9) = 3,200 − 2,999 = $201

 Composition of Functions:
Composing Functions with Functions
a composition of functions occurs when the output, or result, of one
function becomes the input of another function.

For functions represented by f(x) or g(x), the composition would be

represented by f(g(x)) or g(f(x)).
EXAMPLE 1.1.7
Find the composite function f(g(x)), where f(u) = 𝑢2 + 3u + 1 and

g(x) = x +1.

Solution:

f(g(x)) = (x + 1)2 + 3(x + 1) + 1

= (𝑥 2 + 2x + 1) + (3x + 3) + 1
= 𝑥 2 + 5x + 5
EXAMPLE 1.1.8

2 1
Find f (x − 1) if f (x) = 3𝑥 + + 5
𝑥

Solution:
2 1
f (x) = 3𝑥 + + 5
𝑥

2 1
f (x − 1) = 3(𝑥 − 1) + +5
(𝒙−𝟏)
EXAMPLE 1.1.9

5
If f (x) = 𝑥 −2
+ 4 𝑥 − 2 3 , find functions g(u) and h(x) such that

f(x) = g(h(x)).

Solution:

f(x) = g(h(x))

Let: h(x) = x − 2, therefore;

5
g(u) = + 4𝑢3
𝑢
A difference quotient is an expression of the general form:
f(x + h) − f(x)
ℎ

EXAMPLE 1.1.10

Find the difference quotient for f(x) = 𝑥 2 −3x.

Solution:

f(x + h) − f(x) 𝑥 +ℎ 2 −3 𝑥 +ℎ − 𝑥 2 −3x

=
ℎ ℎ

𝑥 2 +2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 − 3x −3ℎ − 𝑥 2 +3𝑥

=
ℎ

2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 −3ℎ
=
ℎ

ℎ 2𝑥 +ℎ −3
=
ℎ

= 2𝑥 + ℎ − 3
EXAMPLE 1.1.11

An environmental study of a certain community suggests that the average

daily level of carbon monoxide in the air will be c(p) = 0.5p +1 parts per
million when the population is p thousand. It is estimated that t years from
now the population of the community will be p(t) = 10 + 0.1𝑡 2 thousand.
a. Express the level of carbon monoxide in the air as a function of time.
b. When will the carbon monoxide level reach 6.8 parts per million?
Solution
a. Since the level of carbon monoxide is related to the variable p by the equation

c(p) = 0.5p + 1 and the variable p is related to the variable t by the equation
p(t) = 10 + 0.1𝑡 2

it follows that the composite function

c(p(t)) = c(10 + 0.1𝑡 2 ) = 0.5(10 + 0.1𝑡 2 ) +1 = 6 + 0.05𝑡 2

expresses the level of carbon monoxide in the air as a function of the variable t.
b. Set c(p(t)) equal to 6.8 and solve for t to get

6 + 0.05𝑡 2 = 6.8
0.05𝑡 2 = 6.8 − 6

0.05𝑡 2 = 0.8
2 0.8
𝑡 =
0.05
𝑡 2 = 16

t = 16 = 4 discard t = −4

That is, 4 years from now the level of carbon monoxide will be 6.8 parts
per million.
 Exercises

Find the composite function f(g(x)).

1) f(u) = 3𝑢2 + 2u −6, g(x) = x + 2

2). f(u) = 𝑢2 + 4, g(x) = x − 1
3). f(u) = (u − 1)3 + 2𝑢2 , g(x) = x + 1
4). f(u) = (2u + 10)2 , g(x) = x − 5
1
5) f(u) = , g(x) = x − 1
𝑢2
1
6) f(u) = , g(x) = 𝑥 2 + x − 2
𝑢
SECTION 1.2 The Graph of a Function
The graph of a function f is the set of all points in the plane of the form
(x, f(x)). We could also define the graph of f to be the graph of the
equation y = f(x). So, the graph of a function if a special case of the
graph of an equation.
 Rectangular Coordinates

a pair of coordinates measured along axes at right angles to one another.

The most common way to graph a function is to use the rectangular co-
ordinate system. This consists of:

• The x-axis;

• The y-axis;

• The origin (0,0); and

The four quadrants, normally labelled I, II, III, IV.
 The x-value, called the abscissa, is the perpendicular distance
of P from the y-axis.

 The y-value, called the ordinate, is the perpendicular distance

of P from the x-axis.

 The values of x and y together, written as (x, y) are called the co-
ordinates of the point P.
 The Distance Formula
The distance formula is derived from the Pythagorean Theorem. To find
the distance between two points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2), all that you need to
do is use the coordinates of these ordered pairs and apply the formula
pictured below.
The distance formula is:

D= 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦 2
EXAMPLE 1.2.1
Find the distance between the points P −2, 5 and Q 4, −1

Solution:
P −2, 5 and Q 4, −1

We have: 𝑥1 = −2, 𝑥2 = 4, 𝑦1 = 5 and 𝑦2 = −1

2
D= 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦 2 = 4 − −2 + −1 − 5 2

= 4 +2 2 + −1 − 5 2 = 6 2 + −6 2 = 36 + 36 = 72 = 6 2
EXAMPLE 1.2.2: Graph the function f(x) = 𝑥 2 .
Solution:
x −3 −2 −1 1 0 1 1 2 3
−
2
2
Y = 𝑥2 9 4 1 1 0 1 1 4 9
4 4
EXAMPLE 1.2.4
Graph the function f(x) = −𝑥 2 + x + 2. Include all x and y intercepts.
solution:
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

f 𝑥 −10 −4 0 2 2 0 −4 −10
 Section 1.3 Linear Functions
The linear function is popular in economics. It is attractive because it is
simple and easy to handle mathematically. It has many important
applications.
Linear functions are those whose graph is a straight line.
Graphing a linear function
To graph a linear function:
1. Find 2 points which satisfy the equation
2. Plot them
3. Connect the points with a straight line
EXAMPLE 1.3.1
A company has fixed costs of $7,000 for plant and equipment and
variable costs of $600 for each unit of output.
What is total cost at varying levels of output?

Solution:

let x = units of output

let C = total cost

C = fixed cost plus variable cost = 7,000 + 600 x

Output Total cost
15 units C = 7,000 + 15(600) = 16,000
30 units C = 7,000 + 30(600) = 16,000
EXAMPLE 1.3.2

A manufacturer’s total cost consists of a fixed overhead of $200 plus

production costs of $50 per unit. Express the total cost as a function of
the number of units produced and draw the graph.

Solution:
Let x denote the number of units produced and C(x) the corresponding
total cost. Then,

Total cost = (cost per unit)(number of units) + overhead

Where:
Cost per unit = 50
Number of units = x
Overhead = 200
Hence,
C(x) = 50x + 200
Output Total cost
0 unit C (0) = 50(0) + 200 = 200
2 units C(2) = 50(2) + 200 = 300

3 units C(3) = 50(3) + 200 = 350

The graph of this cost function is sketched in Figure 1.17.
 The Slope of a Line
The slope is defined as the ratio of the vertical change between two
points, the rise, to the horizontal change between the same two points,
the run.

𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦
Slope = =
𝑟𝑢𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥
The slope of a line is usually represented by the letter m. (x 1, y1)
represents the first point whereas (x2, y2) represents the second point.

∆𝑦 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
Slope = =
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

It is important to keep the x-and y-coordinates in the same order in both

the numerator and the denominator otherwise you will get the wrong
slope.
EXAMPLE 1.3.3

Find the slope of the line joining the points (−2, 5) and (3, −1).
Solution:
we have; 𝑥1 = −2, 𝑥2 = 3, 𝑦1 = 5 and 𝑦2 = −1
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 −1 −5 −6
Slope = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
= 3 − −2
= 5
 The Slope-Intercept
Form of the Equation of a Line
The first of the forms for a linear equation is slope-intercept form.
Equations in slope-intercept form look like this:

y = mx + b
where m is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept of the line, or the
y-coordinate of the point at which the line crosses the y-axis.
EXAMPLE 1.3.3

Find the slope and y intercept of the line 3y + 2x = 6 and draw the graph.
Solution:
First put the equation 3y + 2x = 6 in slope-intercept form y = mx + b. To do this, solve for y to
get:
3y + 2x = 6
3y = 6 − 2x
6 − 2x
y= 3
2
y = − 3𝑥 + 2
2
∴ m = − 3 and y – intercept = 2
 The Point-Slope
Form of the Equation of a Line
The "point-slope" form of the equation of a straight line is:
y − y0 = m(x − x0)

• The equation is useful when we know:

• one point on the line

• and the slope of the line,

and want to find other points on the line.

EXAMPLE 1.3.4

1
Find the equation of the line that passes through the point (5, 1) with slope
2

Solution:
1
Let: (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = (5, 1) and m =
2

y − y0 = m(x − x0)

1
y − 1 = (x − 5)
2

2y − 2 = x − 5
2y = x − 5 + 2
2y = x − 3
1 3
y= x−
2 2
EXAMPLE 1.3.5
Find the equation of the line that passes through the points (3, −2) and (1, 6).
Solution:
𝑦 −𝑦 6 − −2 6 +2 8
m = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 1 −3
= −2
= −2 = −4
2 1

y − y0 = m(x − x0)
y − 6 = −4(x − 1)
y − 6 = −4x + 4
y = −4x + 4 + 6
y = −4x + 10
 Section 1.4 Limits
limit is the value that a function or sequence "approaches" as the input
approaches some value.

Properties of Limits:

Algebraic Properties of Limits ■

If 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑓 𝑥 and 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑔 𝑥 exist, then

1) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑔 𝑥

2) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑔 𝑥

3) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑘𝑓 𝑥 = k𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑘

4) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑓 𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑔 𝑥

𝑓 𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑓 𝑥
5) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 = if 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑔 𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑔 𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑔 𝑥

𝑝 𝑝
6) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 𝑓 𝑥

7) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 k = k and 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →𝑐 x = c for k or x is constant

Example 1.4.1
find the 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →−1 (3𝑥 3 − 4x + 8).

Solution:

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →−1 (3𝑥 3 − 4x + 8) = 3𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →−1 𝑥 3− 4𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →−1 x + 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →−1 8

= 3 −1 3 −4 −1 +8
= 3 −1 + 4 + 8
= −3 + 4 + 8
=9
Example 1.4.2
3𝑥 3 −8
Find the 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →1
𝑥 −2

Solution:
3𝑥 3 −8 3𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →1 𝑥 3 −𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →1 8 3 1 3 −8 3 −8 −5
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →1 = = = = =5
𝑥 −2 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →1 𝑥 −𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →1 2 1 −2 −1 −1
Example 1.4.3
𝑥 2 −1
Find the 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →2 2
𝑥 −3𝑥 +2

Solution:
𝑥 2 −1 𝑥 +1 𝑥 −1 𝑥 +1 1+1 2
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →1 2 = = = = = −2
𝑥 −3𝑥 +2 𝑥 −1 𝑥 −2 𝑥 −2 1 −2 −1
Example 1.4.4
𝑥 −1
Find the 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →1 𝑥 −1
solution:

𝑥 −1 𝑥 −1 ( 𝑥 +1)
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →1 = ×
𝑥 −1 𝑥 −1 ( 𝑥 +1)

𝑥 −1
=
𝑥 −1 ( 𝑥 +1)

1
=
𝑥 +1

1 1
= =
1 +1 2
 Exercises
In Exercises 1 through 6, find the indicated limit if it exists.

1) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →2 (3𝑥 2 − 5x + 2)
2) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →−1 (𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + x − 3)

3) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →0 (𝑥 5 − 6𝑥 4 + 7)
4) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →−1 2 (1 − 5𝑥 3 )
2
5) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →3 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 +1
𝑥 +1
6) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 →1 3 𝑥 +2

END