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Introduction to Engineering Mechanics

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1
Introduction to Engineering Mechanics
The state of rest and state of motion of the bodies under the action of different forces has
engaged the attention of philosophers, mathematicians and scientists for many centuries. The
branch of physical science that deals with the state of rest or the state of motion is termed as
Mechanics. Starting from the analysis of rigid bodies under gravitational force and simple
applied forces the mechanics has grown to the analysis of robotics, aircrafts, spacecrafts under
dynamic forces, atmospheric forces, temperature forces etc.
Archimedes (287–212 BC), Galileo (1564–1642), Sir Issac Newton (1642–1727) and
Einstein (1878–1955) have contributed a lot to the development of mechanics. Contributions
by Varignon, Euler, D. Alembert are also substantial. The mechanics developed by these
researchers may be grouped as
(i) Classical mechanics/Newtonian mechanics
(ii) Relativistic mechanics
(iii) Quantum mechanics/Wave mechanics.
Sir Issac Newton, the principal architect of mechanics, consolidated the philosophy and
experimental findings developed around the state of rest and state of motion of the bodies and
put forth them in the form of three laws of motion as well as the law of gravitation. The
mechanics based on these laws is called Classical mechanics or Newtonian mechanics.
Albert Einstein proved that Newtonian mechanics fails to explain the behaviour of high
speed (speed of light) bodies. He put forth the theory of Relativistic Mechanics.
Schrödinger (1887–1961) and Broglie (1892–1965) showed that Newtonian mechanics
fails to explain the behaviour of particles when atomic distances are concerned. They put forth
the theory of Quantum Mechanics.
Engineers are keen to use the laws of mechanics to actual field problems. Application of
laws of mechanics to field problem is termed as Engineering Mechanics. For all the prob-
lems between atomic distances to high speed distances Classical/Newtonian mechanics has
stood the test of time and hence that is the mechanics used by engineers. Hence in this text
classical mechanics is used for the analysis of engineering problems.

1.1. CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Depending upon the body to which the mechanics is applied, the engineering mechanics
is classified as
(a) Mechanics of Solids, and
(b) Mechanics of Fluids.
The solid mechanics is further classified as mechanics of rigid bodies and mechanics of
deformable bodies. The body which will not deform or the body in which deformation can be
neglected in the analysis, are called as Rigid bodies. The mechanics of the rigid bodies dealing
with the bodies at rest is termed as Statics and that dealing with bodies in motion is called
1
2 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Dynamics. The dynamics dealing with the problems without referring to the forces causing
the motion of the body is termed as Kinematics and if it deals with the forces causing motion
also, is called Kinetics.
If the internal stresses developed in a body are to be studied, the deformation of the
body should be considered. This field of mechanics is called Mechanics of Deformable Bod-
ies/Strength of Materials/Solid Mechanics. This field may be further divided into Theory
of Elasticity and Theory of Plasticity.
Liquid and gases deform continuously with application of very small shear forces. Such
materials are called Fluids. The mechanics dealing with behaviour of such materials is called
Fluid Mechanics. Mechanics of ideal fluids, mechanics of viscous fluid and mechanics of
incompressible fluids are further classification in this area. The classification of mechanics is
summarised below in flow chart.

Engineering mechanics

Mechanics of solids Mechanics of fluids

Mechanics of Mechanics of
rigid bodies deformable bodies 1. Ideal fluid
2. Viscous fluid
3. Incompressible
fluid
Statics Dynamics Theory of Theory of
elasticity plasticity

Kinematics Kinetics

1.2. BASIC TERMINOLOGIES IN MECHANICS

The following are the terms basic to study mechanics, which should be understood clearly:
Mass
The quantity of the matter possessed by a body is called mass. The mass of a body will
not change unless the body is damaged and part of it is physically separated. When a body is
taken out in a spacecraft, the mass will not change but its weight may change due to change in
gravitational force. Even the body may become weightless when gravitational force vanishes
but the mass remain the same.
Time
Time is the measure of succession of events. The successive event selected is the rota-
tion of earth about its own axis and this is called a day. To have convenient units for various
activities, a day is divided into 24 hours, an hour into 60 minutes and a minute into 60 seconds.
Clocks are the instruments developed to measure time. To overcome difficulties due to irregu-
larities in the earth’s rotation, the unit of time is taken as second which is defined as the
duration of 9192631770 period of radiation of the cesium-133 atom.
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MECHANICS 3

Space
The geometric region in which study of body is involved is called space. A point in the
space may be referred with respect to a predetermined point by a set of linear and angular
measurements. The reference point is called the origin and set of measurements as ‘coordi-
nates’. If coordinates involve only in mutually perpendicular directions they are known as
Cartesian coordinates. If the coordinates involve angle and distances, it is termed as polar
coordinate system.
Length
It is a concept to measure linear distances. The diameter of a cylinder may be 300 mm,
the height of a building may be 15 m. Actually metre is the unit of length. However depending
upon the sizes involved micro, milli or kilo metre units are used for measurement. A metre is
defined as length of the standard bar of platinum-iridium kept at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures. To overcome difficulties of accessibility and reproduction, now meter
is defined as 1690763.73 wavelength of krypton-86 atom.
Displacement
Displacement is defined as the distance x
moved by a body/particle in the specified direc-
tion. Referring to Fig. 1.1, if a body moves from
position A to position B in the x-y plane shown, its
displacement in x-direction is AB′ and its displace- B
A y
ment in y-direction is B′B.
Velocity
B
The rate of change of displacement with
respect to time is defined as velocity.
Acceleration Fig. 1.1
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity
with respect to time. Thus
dv
a= , where v is velocity ...(1.1)
dt
Momentum
The product of mass and velocity is called momentum. Thus
Momentum = Mass × Velocity ...(1.2)
Continuum
A body consists of several matters. It is a well known fact that each particle can be
subdivided into molecules, atoms and electrons. It is not possible to solve any engineering
problem by treating a body as a conglomeration of such discrete particles. The body is assumed
to consist of a continuous distribution of matter. In other words, the body is treated as
continuum.
Rigid Body
A body is said to be rigid, if the relative positions of any two particles in it do not change
under the action of the forces. In Fig. 1.2 (a) points A and B are the original position in a body.
4 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

After application of a system of forces F1, F2, F3, the body takes the position as shown in
Fig. 1.2 (b). A′ and B′ are the new positions of A and B. If the body is treated as rigid, the
relative position of A′B′ and AB are the same i.e.,
A′B′ = AB.

F1

F2
B
A A

F3

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.2
Many engineering problems can be solved satisfactorily by assuming bodies rigid.
Particle
A particle may be defined as an object which has only mass and no size. Such a body
cannot exist theoretically. However in dealing with problems involving distances considerably
larger compared to the size of the body, the body may be treated as particle, without sacrificing
accuracy. Examples of such situations are
— A bomber aeroplane is a particle for a gunner operating from the ground.
— A ship in mid sea is a particle in the study of its relative motion from a control tower.
— In the study of movement of the earth in celestial sphere, earth is treated as a particle.

1.3. LAWS OF MECHANICS

The following are the fundamental laws of mechanics:
Newton’s first law
Newton’s second law
Newton’s third law
Newton’s law of gravitation
Law of transmissibility of forces, and
Parallelogram law of forces.
Newton’s First Law
It states that every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
line unless it is compelled by an external agency acting on it. This leads to the definition of
force as the external agency which changes or tends to change the state of rest or uniform
linear motion of the body.
Newton’s Second Law
It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
impressed force and it takes place in the direction of the force acting on it. Thus according to
this law,
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MECHANICS 5

Force ∝ rate of change of momentum. But momentum = mass × velocity

As mass do not change,
Force ∝ mass × rate of change of velocity
i.e., Force ∝ mass × acceleration
F∝m×a ...(1.3)
Newton’s Third Law
It states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Consider the two
bodies in contact with each other. Let one body applies a force F on another. According to this
law the second body develops a reactive force R which is equal in magnitude to force F and acts
in the line same as F but in the opposite direction. Figure. 1.3 shows the action of the ball and
the reaction from the floor. In Fig. 1.4 the action of the ladder on the wall and the floor and the
reactions from the wall and floor are shown.

R-reaction
F-action R=F

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.3

F1 R1 = F1
R1

R2

F2

R2 = F2

Fig. 1.4

Newton’s Law of Gravitation

Everybody attracts the other body. The force of attraction between any two bodies is
directly proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. According to this law the force of attraction between the bodies of mass m1 and
mass m2 at a distance d as shown in Fig. 1.5 is
m1m2
F=G ...(1.4)
d2
where G is the constant of proportionality and is known as constant of gravitation.
6 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

1 F F 2

m1 m2

Fig. 1.5

Law of Transmissibility of Force

According to this law the state of rest or motion of the rigid body is unaltered if a force
acting on the body is replaced by another force of the same magnitude and direction but acting
anywhere on the body along the line of action of the replaced force.
Let F be the force acting on a rigid body at point A as shown in Fig. 1.6. According to the
law of transmissibility of force, this force has the
same effect on the state of body as the force F ap-
plied at point B.
In using law of transmissibility of forces it F
should be carefully noted that it is applicable only A
if the body can be treated as rigid. In this text, the F
B
engineering mechanics is restricted to study of state
of rigid bodies and hence this law is frequently used.
Same thing cannot be done in the subject ‘solid
mechanics’ where the bodies are treated as Fig. 1.6
deformable and internal forces in the body are stud-
ied.
The law of transmissibility of forces can be proved using the law of superposition, which
can be stated as the action of a given system of forces on a rigid body is not changed by adding
or subtracting another system of forces in equilibrium.

F
F A
A
A
B B
B F
F
F

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.7
Consider the rigid body shown in Fig. 1.7 (a). It is subjected to a force F at A. B is
another point on the line of action of the force. From the law of superposition it is obvious that
if two equal and opposite forces of magnitude F are applied at B along the line of action of
given force F, [Ref. Fig. 1.7 (b)] the effect of given force on the body is not altered. Force F at A
and opposite force F at B form a system of forces in equilibrium. If these two forces are subtracted
from the system, the resulting system is as shown in Fig. 1.7 (c). Looking at the system of
forces in Figs. 1.7 (a) and 1.7 (c), we can conclude the law of transmissibility of forces is proved.
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MECHANICS 7
Parallelogram Law of Forces
The parallelogram law of forces enables us to determine the single force called resultant
which can replace the two forces acting at a point with the same effect as that of the two forces.
This law was formulated based on experimental results. Though Stevinces employed it in
1586, the credit of presenting it as a law goes to Varignon and Newton (1687). This law states
that if two forces acting simultaneously on a body at a point are presented in magnitude and
direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, their resultant is represented in magni-
tude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram which passes through the point of
intersection of the two sides representing the forces.
In Fig. 1.8 the force F1 = 4 units and force F2 = 3 units are acting on a body at point A.
Then to get resultant of these forces parallelogram ABCD is constructed such that AB is equal
to 4 units to linear scale and AC is equal to 3 units. Then according to this law, the diagonal AD
represents the resultant in the direction and magnitude. Thus the resultant of the forces F1
and F2 on the body is equal to units corresponding to AD in the direction α to F1.
F2 = 3 units C D
R

 3
A
F1 = 4 units 

A B
4
(a) (b)

nd
R spo
c orre
its o AD
Un t

A

(c)
Fig. 1.8

1.4. DERIVED LAWS

Referring to Fig. 1.8 (b), we can get the resultant AD by constructing triangle ABD. Line
AB is drawn to represent F1 and BD to represent F2. Then AD should represent the resultant
of F1 and F2. Then we have derived triangle law of forces from fundamental law parallelogram
law of forces. The Triangle Law of Forces may be stated as If two forces acting on a body are
represented one after another by the sides of a triangle, their resultant is represented by the
closing side of the triangle taken from first point to the last point.
If more than two concurrent forces are acting on a body, two forces at a time can be
combined by triangle law of forces and finally resultant of all the forces acting on the body may
be obtained.
A system of 4 concurrent forces acting on a body are shown in Fig. 1.9. AB represents F1
and BC represents F2. Hence according to triangle law of forces AC represents the resultant of
F1 and F2, say, R1.
8 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

F4

F3 = 28 kN
D
F4 = 40 kN R
R2 F3
F2 = 50 kN

R1 C
F1 = 35 kN F2

O A F1 B
(a) (b)

Fig. 1.9
If CD is drawn to represent F3, then from triangle law of forces AD represents, the
resultant of R1 and F3. In other words AD represents the resultant of F1, F2 and F3. Let it be
called as R2.
On the same line logic can be extended to say that AE represents the resultant of F1, F2,
F3 and F4 if DE represents F4. Thus resultant R is represented by the closing line of the polygon
ABCDE in the direction AE. Thus we have derived polygon of law of forces and it may be
stated as ‘If a number of concurrent forces acting simultaneously on a body are represented in
magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon, taken in a order, then the resultant is
represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side of the polygon, taken from first point
to last point.

1.5. UNITS
Length (L), Mass (M) and Time (S) are the fundamental units in mechanics. The units of
all other quantities may be expressed in terms of these basic units. The three commonly used
systems in engineering are
— Metre-Kilogramme—Second (MKS) system
— Centimetre—Gramme—Second (CGS) system, and
— Foot—Pound—Second (FPS) system.
The units of length, mass and time used in the system are used to name the systems.
Using these basic units, the units for other quantities can be found. For example, in MKS the
units for the various quantities are as shown below:

Quantity Unit Notation

Area Square metre m2

Volume Cubic metre m3
Velocity Metre per second m/sec
Acceleration Metre per second per second m/sec2

Unit of Forces
Presently the whole world is in the process of switching over to SI system of units. SI
stands for System Internationale d’ units or International System of units. As in MKS system,
in SI system also the fundamental units are metre for length, kilogramme for mass and second
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MECHANICS 9

for time. The difference between MKS and SI system arise mainly in selecting the unit of force.
From eqn. (1.3), we have
Force ∝ Mass × Acceleration = k × Mass × Acceleration ...(1.5)
In SI system unit of force is defined as that force which causes 1 kg mass to move with
an acceleration of 1m/sec2 and is termed as 1 Newton. Hence the constant of proportionality k
becomes units. Unit of force can be derived from eqn. (1.5) as
Unit of Force = kg × m/sec2 = kg – m/sec2
In MKS, the unit of force is defined as that force which makes a mass of 1 kg to move
with gravitational acceleration ‘g’ m/sec2. This unit of force is called kilogramme weight or
kg/wt. Gravitational acceleration is 9.81 m/sec2 near the earth surface. In all the problems
encountered in engineering mechanics the variation in gravitational acceleration is negligible
and may be taken as 9.81 m/sec2. Hence the constant of proportionality in eqn. (1.5) is 9.81,
which means
1 kg-wt = 9.81 newton ...(1.6)
It may be noted that in public usage, kg-wt force is called as kg only.
Unit of Constant of Gravitation
From eqn. (1.4),
m1m2 Fd 2
F=G or G =
d2 m1m2

N × m2
∴ Unit of G = = Nm2/kg2
kg × kg
It has been proved by experimental results that the value of G = 6.673 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2.
Thus if two bodies one of mass 10 kg and the other of 5 kg are at a distance of 1 m, they exert
a force
6.673 × 10 −11 × 10 × 5
F= = 33.365 × 10–10 N
12
on each other.
Now let us find the force acting between 1 kg-mass near earth surface and the earth.
Earth has a radius of 6371 × 103 m and has a mass 5.96506 × 1024 kg. Hence the force between
the two bodies is

6.673 × 10 −11 × 1 × 5.96504 × 10 24

= = 9.80665 N.
(6371 × 103 ) 2
In common usage we call the force exerted by earth on a body as weight of the body.
Thus weight of 1 kg mass on earth surface is 9.80665 N, which is approximated as 9.81 N for
all practical problems. Compared to this force the force exerted by two bodies near earth sur-
face is negligible as may be seen from the example of 10 kg and 5 kg mass bodies.
Denoting the weight of the body by W, from eqn. (1.4), we get
GmM e
W=
r2
where m is the mass of body
Me is the mass of the earth, and
r is the radius of the earth
10 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

GM e
Denoting by g, we get
r2
W = mg = 9.81 m ...(1.7)
Unit of g can be obtained as follows:
GM e
g=
r2
Nm 2 kg N
Unit of g = × =
(kg) 2 m 2 kg
as unit of Newton force is kg-m/sec2, we get
kgm/sec 2
Unit of g = = m/sec2
kg
Hence g may be called as acceleration due to gravity. Any body falling freely near earth
surface experiences this acceleration. The value of g is 9.81 m/sec2 near the earth surface as
can be seen from eqn. (1.7).
The prefixes used in SI system when quantities are too big or too small are shown in
Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Prefixes and Symbols of Multiplying Factors in SI

Multiplying Factor Prefix Symbol

1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
100 — —

10–3 milli m
10–6 micro µ
10–9 nano n
10–12 pico p
10–15 femto f
10–18 atto a

1.6. CHARACTERISTICS OF A FORCE

From Newton’s first law, we defined the force as the agency which tries to change state
of stress or state of uniform motion of the body. From Newton’s second law of motion we
arrived at practical definition of unit force as the force required to produce unit acceleration in
a body of unit mass. Thus 1 newton is the force required to produce an acceleration of 1 m/sec2
in a body of 1 kg mass. It may be noted that a force is completely specified only when the
following four characteristics are specified:
— Magnitude
— Point of application
— Line of action, and
— Direction
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MECHANICS 11

In Fig. 1.10 AB is a ladder kept against a wall. At point

C, a person weighing 600 N is standing. The force applied by 600 N B
the person on the ladder has the following characters:
— magnitude is 600 N
C
— the point of application is at C which is 2 m from A
along the ladder.
— the line of action is vertical, and 2m

— the direction is downward.

Note that the magnitude of the force is written near the
arrow. The line of the arrow shows the line of application and
the arrow head represents the point of application and the A
direction of the force. Fig. 1.10

1.7. SYSTEM OF FORCES

When several forces act simultaneously on a body, they constitute a system of forces. If
all the forces in a system do not lie in a single plane they constitute the system of forces in
space. If all the forces in a system lie in a single plane, it is called a coplanar force system. If the
line of action of all the forces in a system pass through a single point, it is called a concurrent
force system. In a system of parallel forces all the forces are parallel to each other. If the line of
action of all the forces lie along a single line then it is called a collinear force system. Various
system of forces, their characteristics and examples are given in Table 1.2 and shown in Fig. 1.11.
Table 1.2: System of Forces
Force System Characteristics Examples
Collinear forces Line of action of all the forces act Forces on a rope in a tug of war.
along the same line.
Coplanar parallel forces All forces are parallel to each other System of forces acting on a beam
and lie in a single plane. subjected to vertical loads (includ-
ing reactions).
Coplanar like parallel All forces are parallel to each other, Weight of a stationary train on a
forces lie in a single plane and are acting rail when the track is straight.
in the same direction.
Coplanar concurrent forces Line of action of all forces pass Forces on a rod resting against a
through a single point and forces wall.
lie in the same plane.
Coplanar non-concurrent All forces do not meet at a point, Forces on a ladder resting against
forces but lie in a single plane. a wall when a person stands on a
rung which is not at its centre of
gravity.

Non-coplanar parallel All the forces are parallel to each The weight of benches in a class-
forces other, but not in same plane. room.

Non-coplanar concurrent All forces do not lie in the same A tripod carrying a camera.
forces plane, but their lines of action pass
through a single point.
Non-coplanar All forces do not lie in the same Forces acting on a moving bus.
non-concurrent forces plane and their lines of action do
not pass through a single point.
12 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Collinear Coplanar parallel Coplanar like parallel

Coplanar concurrent Coplanar non-concurrent

y y
y

x x x

z z z
Non-coplanar parallel Non-coplanar concurrent Non-coplanar non-concurrent

Fig. 1.11

1.8. VECTORS
Various quantities used in engineering mechanics may be grouped into scalars and
vectors. A quantity is said to be scalar if it is completely defined by its magnitude alone.
Examples of scalars are length, area, time and mass.
A quantity is said to be vector if it is completely defined only when its magnitude as well
as direction are specified. Hence force is a vector. The other examples of vector are velocity,
acceleration, momentum etc.

1.9. DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY

The qualitative description of physical variable is known as dimension while the
quantitative description is known as unit. We come across several relations among the physical
quantities. Some of the terms may be having dimensions and some others may be dimensionless.
However in any equation dimensions of the terms on both sides must be the same. This is
called dimensional homogenity. The branch of mathematics dealing with dimensions of
quantities is called dimensional analysis.
There are two systems of dimensional analysis viz. absolute system and gravitational
system. In absolute system the basic quantities selected are Mass, Length and Time. Hence it
is known as MLT-system. In gravitational system the basic quantities are Force, Length and
Time. Hence it is termed as FLT-system.
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MECHANICS 13

L
The dimension of acceleration is = LT–2 since its unit is m/sec2. From Newton’s law
T2
we have physical relation
Force = Mass × Acceleration
Hence the dimensional relation is,
ML
F= ...(1.8a)
T2
FT 2
or M= ...(1.8b)
L
Eqn. (1.8) helps in converting dimensions from one system to another. The dimensions
of some of the physical quantities are listed in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3: Dimensions of Quantities

Sr. No. Quantity MLT-system FLT-system

1. Velocity LT–1 LT–1

2. Acceleration LT–2 LT–2
3. Momentum MLT–1 FT
4. Area L2 L2
5. Volume L3 L3
6. Force MLT–2 F
7. Gravitational Constant M–1L3T–2 F L4T–4
–1

Checking Dimensional Homogenity

As stated earlier all the terms in an equation to the left and right side should have the
same dimensions. In other words if,
X=Y+Z
the terms, X, Y and Z should have same dimension. If,
X = bY
and if X and Y do not have same dimension, b is not dimensionless constant. The value of this
constant will be different in different system of units.
Example 1.1. Verify whether the following equation has dimensional homogenity:
v2 – u2 = 2as
where v is final velocity, u is initial velocity, a is acceleration and s is the distance moved.
Solution. Dimensions of velocity = LT –1
Dimensions of acceleration = LT –2
and dimension of distance =L
Substituting these dimensions in the given equation, we get
LT –1 – LT –1 = 2LT –2 L
LT –1 ≡ LT –1 ≡ LT –1
Hence it is dimensionally homogeneous equation.
14 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Example 1.2. In the following equation verify, whether 9.81 is dimensionless constant.
If it is not so, what should be its dimension?
1
s = ut + 9.81 t2
2
where s = distance
u = initial velocity
t = time
Solution. Dimensions of various terms are
s=L
u = LT –1
t=T
Substituting these in the given equation, we get,
1
L = LT –1 T + × 9.81 T 2
2
1
L=L+ × 9.81 T 2
2
Hence, 9.81 cannot be dimensionless constant. Its dimension is given by
1
L≡ 9.81 T 2
2
9.81 should have dimensions LT –2, same as that of acceleration. We know this is
gravitational acceleration term in SI unit i.e., it is in m/sec2 term. Hence the given equation
cannot be straightway used is FPS system or CGS system.

1.10. IDEALISATIONS IN MECHANICS

A number of ideal conditions are assumed to exist while applying the principles of
mechanics to practical problems. In fact without such assumptions it is not possible to arrive
at practical solutions. The following idealisations are usually made in engineering mechanics.
1. The body is rigid.
2. The body can be treated as continuum.
3. If the size of the body is small compared to other distances involved in the problem,
it may be treated as a particle.
4. If the area over which force is acting on a body is small compared to the size of the
body, it may be treated as a point force. For example, in Fig. 1.9, 600 N force is the
weight of a man. Actually the man cannot apply his weight through a single point.
There is certain area of contact, which is, however, small compared to the other
dimensions in the problem. Hence, the weight of the man is treated as a point load.
5. Support conditions are idealised (which will be discussed later) as simple, hinged,
fixed etc.

1.11. ACCURACY OF CALCULATIONS

As explained in Art. 1.9, a number of ideal conditions are assumed to exist while apply-
ing the principles of mechanics to engineering problems. These assumptions have some effect
on the accuracy of final results. Further in engineering analysis, many loads are estimated
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MECHANICS 15

loads. There are some imperfection in construction and fabrications of structures. To take care
all these uncertainities engineers multiply the load by a number (1.5 to 2.25), which is called
factor of safety. In view of all these, there is no need in noting the calculations beyond four
digits. It is found that 0.2% accuracy is more than sufficient, in the calculations.

1.12. APPROACHES TO SOLUTION

There are two approaches for the solution of engineering mechanics problems i.e. classical
approach and vector approach. Classical approach gives physical feel of the problem. It
gives confidence to engineers in accepting the results presented by others and quickly take
decisions on site. Development of such feel of the problem is very much essential for engineers.
However it becomes difficult to solve three dimensional problems by classical approach. Vector
approach is ideally suited for the analysis of three dimensional problems. But the disadvantage
of vector approach is physical feel of the problem is lost and the ability of site engineers in
quick decision is not developed. Hence there are two school of academicians, one advocating
for classical approach and the other advocating for vector approach. In this book author has
used classical approach for the solution of engineering mechanics problems.

Important Definitions and Concepts

1. Displacement is defined as the distance moved by a body or particle in the specified
direction.
2. The rate of change of displacement with time is called velocity.
3. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
4. The product of mass and velocity is called momentum.
5. A body is said to be treated as continuum, if it is assumed to consist of continuous
distribution of matter.
6. A body is said to be rigid, if the relative position of any two particles in it do not change
under the action of the forces.
7. Newton’s first law states that everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by an external agency acting on it.
8. Newton’s second law states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the impressed force and it takes place in the direction of the force acting
on it.
9. Newton’s third law states for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
10. Newton’s law of gravitation states everybody attracts the other body, the force of attrac-
tion between any two bodies is directly proportional to their mass and inversely propor-
tional to the square of the distance between them.
11. According to the law of transmissibility of force, the state of rest or motion of a rigid
body is unaltered, if a force acting on a body is replaced by another force of the same
magnitude and direction but acting anywhere on the body along the line of action of the
replaced force.
12. The parallelogram law of forces states that if two forces acting simultaneously on a body
at a point are represented by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, their resultant
is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram which
passes through the point of intersection of the two sides representing the forces.
13. The qualitative description of physical variable is known as dimension while the quan-
titative description is known as unit.
 16 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

14. A quantity is said to be scalar, if it is completely defined by its magnitude alone.

15. A quantity is said to be vector if it is completely defined only when it’s magnitude as well
as direction are specified.

QUESTIONS

1. Explain the following terms as used in Engineering Mechanics:

(i) Continuum (ii) Rigid Body (iii) Particle.
2. State and explain Newton’s three laws of motion.
3. State and explain Newton’s law of gravitation.
4. State and explain Law of transmissibility of forces.
5. State and explain parallelogram law of forces. From this derive triangle and polygonal laws of
forces.
6. Explain the term ‘Force’ and list its characteristics.
7. Explain the terms—concurrent and non-concurrent force system; planar and non-planar system
of forces.

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