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18. A. Falk, E. Fehr, U. Fischbacher, Econometrica 73, 2017 R. E. Nisbett, Ed., New Directions in Social Psychology
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lower in these societies. The detrimental effects Cambridge, MA, 1990). Disputes (Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA, 1991).
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Cultural and Evolutionary Explanation, Evolution and yield very similar results, both in terms of signs and
efficiency) also provide a further rationale why Cognition Series (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, 2007). statistical significance.
modern societies shun revenge and centralize 25. D. Kaufmann, A. Kraay, M. Mastruzzi, World Bank Policy 44. All authors contributed equally to this work. The authors
punishment in the hands of the state. Research Working Paper No. 4280, http://papers.ssrn. thank various workshop audiences, in particular the
com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=999979 Arts and Humanities Research Council workshops Culture
References and Notes 26. R. Boyd, P. J. Richerson, Culture and the Evolutionary and the Mind in Sheffield, and I. Bohnet, R. Boyd,
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108 (2006). Institutions and Decisions (Cambridge Univ. Press, We are grateful for financial support from the University
4. B. Rockenbach, M. Milinski, Nature 444, 718 (2006). Cambridge, 1990). of Nottingham, the Grundlagenforschungsfonds at the
5. R. Axelrod, W. Hamilton, Science 211, 1390 (1981). 28. R. J. Sampson, S. W. Raudenbush, F. Earls, Science 277, University of St. Gallen, the Latsis Foundation (Geneva),
6. M. A. Nowak, K. Sigmund, Nature 437, 1291 (2005). 918 (1997). and the EU-TMR Research Network ENDEAR (FMRX-CT98-

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7. E. Ostrom, J. M. Walker, R. Gardner, Am. Polit. Sci. Rev. 29. R. B. Edgerton, Sick Societies: Challenging the Myth of 0238). This paper is part of the MacArthur Foundation
86, 404 (1992). Primitive Harmony (Free Press, New York, 1992). Network on Economic Environments and the Evolution of
8. N. Nikiforakis, J. Public Econ. 92, 91 (2008). 30. T. H. Clutton-Brock, G. A. Parker, Nature 373, 209 (1995). Individual Preferences and Social Norms.
9. M. Cinyabuguma, T. Page, L. Putterman, Exp. Econ. 9, 31. W. B. G. Liebrand, R. W. T. L. Jansen, V. M. Rijken,
265 (2006). C. J. M. Suhre, J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 22, 203 (1986).
10. L. Denant-Boemont, D. Masclet, C. N. Noussair, Econ. 32. K. Fliessbach et al., Science 318, 1305 (2007).
Supporting Online Material
Theory 33, 145 (2007). 33. B. Monin, Int. Rev. Soc. Psychol. 20, 53 (2007). www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/319/5868/1362/DC1
34. D. L. Bahry, R. K. Wilson, J. Econ. Behav. Organ. 60, 37 Materials and Methods
11. J. Henrich et al., Behav. Brain Sci. 28, 795 (2005).
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(Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, 2001). (2006). 10.1126/science.1153808

REPORTS
speed exceeds the wave velocity; the river re-
Fiber-Optical Analog of the sembles an object that nothing can enter: a white
hole.
Event Horizon Nothing, not even light, can escape from a
gravitational black hole. Yet according to quan-
tum physics, the black hole is not entirely black
Thomas G. Philbin,1,2 Chris Kuklewicz,1 Scott Robertson,1 Stephen Hill,1 but emits waves that are in thermal equilibrium
Friedrich König,1 Ulf Leonhardt1* (7–9). The waves consist of correlated pairs of
quanta; one originates from inside and the other
The physics at the event horizon resembles the behavior of waves in moving media. Horizons are from outside the horizon. Seen from one side of
formed where the local speed of the medium exceeds the wave velocity. We used ultrashort pulses the horizon, the gravitational black hole acts as a
in microstructured optical fibers to demonstrate the formation of an artificial event horizon in thermal black-body radiator sending out Hawking
optics. We observed a classical optical effect: the blue-shifting of light at a white-hole horizon. We radiation (7–9). The effective temperature depends
also showed by theoretical calculations that such a system is capable of probing the quantum on the surface gravity (7–9), which, in the analog
effects of horizons, in particular Hawking radiation. model, corresponds to the flow-velocity gradient
at the horizon (1–5).
aboratory analogs of black holes (1–3) are that the river carries waves propagating against The Hawking temperature of typical black

L inspired by a simple and intuitive idea (4):

The space-time geometry of a black hole
resembles a river (5, 6)—a moving medium flow-
the current with speed c′. The waves play the role
of light, where c′ represents c, the speed of light
in vacuum. Suppose that the closer the river gets
holes lies far below the temperature of the cosmic
microwave background, so an observation of
Hawking radiation in astrophysics seems unlikely.
ing toward a waterfall, the singularity. Imagine to the waterfall, the faster it flows, and that at However, laboratory demonstrations of analogs of
some point the speed of the river exceeds c′. Hawking radiation could be feasible. One type of
1
School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St Andrews, Clearly, beyond this point waves can no longer recent proposal (10–12) suggests the use of ultra-
North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9SS, UK. 2Max Planck propagate upstream. The point of no return cold quantum gases such as alkali Bose-Einstein
Research Group of Optics, Information and Photonics,
Günther-Scharowsky-Strasse 1, Bau 24, D-91058 Erlangen, corresponds to the horizon of the black hole. condensates or ultracold alkali fermions (12).
Germany. Imagine another situation: a fast river flowing When a condensate in a wave guide is pushed
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: out into the sea, getting slower. Waves cannot over a potential barrier, it may exceed the speed
[email protected] enter the river beyond the point where the flow of sound (typically a few millimeters per second)

www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 319 7 MARCH 2008 1367

 REPORTS
and is calculated to generate a Hawking tem- oscillates at a significantly different frequency w. Figure 2 shows the difference in the spectrum
perature of about 10 nK (11). 3H offers a mul- Our probe-light laser is tunable over wavelengths of the probe light (incident with w1) with and
titude of analogs between quantum fluids and 2pc/w from 1460 to 1540 nm. While approach- without the pulses, clearly displaying a blue-
the standard model, including Einsteinian grav- ing the pulse, the Kerr contribution dn slows shifted peak at w2. To quantitatively describe this
ity (2). For example, the analogy between grav- down the probe until the probe's group velocity effect, we consider the frequency w′ in a co-
ity and surface waves in fluids (13) has inspired reaches the speed of the pulse. The trailing end of moving frame that is connected to the laboratory
ideas for artificial event horizons at the interface the pulse establishes a white-hole horizon, an frame frequency w by the Doppler formula
between two sliding superfluid phases (14), but object that light cannot enter, unless it tunnels  nu
so far, none of the quantum features of horizons through the pulse. Conversely, the front end w′ ¼ 1 − w ð2Þ
has been measured in 3H. Proposals for optical creates a black-hole horizon for probe light that is c
black holes (15, 16) have relied on slowing slower than the pulse. Because dn is small, the
down light (17) so that it matches the speed of initial group velocity of the probe should be For a stable pulse, w′ is a conserved quantity,
the medium (15) or on bringing light to a com- sufficiently close to the speed of the pulse. In whereas w follows the contours of fixed w′ when
plete standstill (16), but in these cases absorption microstructured fibers (22), the group-velocity dn varies with the intensity profile of the pulse
may pose a severe problem near the horizon, dispersion of light is engineered by arrangements (Fig. 3). For sufficiently large dn, the frequency w
where the spectral transparency window (17) of air holes (submicrometer-wide hollow cylin- completes an arch from the initial w1 to the final
vanishes. ders along the fiber). We selected a fiber in which w2; it is blue-shifted by the white-hole horizon.
On the other hand, is it necessary to physi- the group velocity of pulses near the 800-nm At a black-hole horizon, the arch is traced the
cally move a medium to establish a horizon? carrier wavelength of mode-locked Ti:sapphire other way round from w2 to w1. For the frequency
What really matters are only the effective prop- lasers matched the group velocities of probes in at the center of the arches, an infinitesimal dn is
erties of the medium. If they change, for example the infrared telecommunication band around sufficient to cause a frequency shift; at this fre-

Downloaded from http://science.sciencemag.org/ on November 16, 2018

as a propagating front, but the medium itself re- 1500 nm; standard optical fibers (20) do not quency, the group velocity of the probe matches
mains at rest, the situation is essentially indis- have this property. the group velocity of the pulse. Figure 2 shows
tinguishable from that in a moving medium. At the horizon of an astrophysical black hole, that both the blue-shifted and probe light are
Such ideas have been discussed for moving light freezes, reaching wavelengths shorter than spectrally broadened. These features are easily
solitons and domain walls (18) in superfluid 3H the Planck scale, where the physics is unknown. explained: The horizon acts only during the time
(2) and more recently for microwave transmis- [The Planck length is given by √{hG /c3}, where while probe and pulse propagate in the fiber,
sion lines with variable capacity (19), but they G is the gravitational constant.] Some elusive where only a finite fraction of the probe is
have remained impractical so far. trans-Planckian mechanism must regularize this frequency-shifted, forming a blue-shifted pulse
Here we report the first experimental ob- behavior (23, 24). In our case, the fiber-optical and also a gap in the probe light, a negative pulse;
servation of the classical optical effects of hori- analog of trans-Planckian physics is known and these pulses have a characteristic spectrum with a
zons, the blue-shifting of light at a white-hole simple—it is contained in the frequency depen- width that is inversely proportional to the fiber
horizon, and show theoretically that our scheme dance of the refractive index n, the dispersion of length. We compared the measured spectra with
combines several promising features for demon- the fiber. At the trailing end of the pulse, the in- the theory of light propagation in the presence of
strating quantum Hawking radiation in the op- coming probe modes are compressed, oscillating horizons and found very good agreement (25).
tical domain. Our idea, illustrated in Fig. 1, is with increasing frequency; they are blue-shifted. Imagine instead of a single probe a set of probe
based on the nonlinear optics of ultrashort light In turn, the dispersion limits the frequency shift- modes. The modes should be sufficiently weakly
pulses in optical fibers (20), where we exploit the ing by tuning the probe out of the horizon. In the excited that they do not interact with each other via
remarkable control of nonlinearity, birefringence, case of normal group-velocity dispersion, the the Kerr effect, but they experience the cross Kerr
and dispersion that is possible in microstructured blue-shifted light falls behind. At the black-hole effect of the pulse, the presence of the medium
fibers (21, 22). horizon, the reverse occurs: A probe slower than (Eq. 1) moving with the velocity u. The modes
Using a Ti:sapphire laser, we created 70-fs- the pulse is red-shifted and then moves ahead of constitute a quantum field of light in a moving
long nondispersive pulses (solitons) at a carrier the pulse. medium (25, 26). Classical light is a real electro-
wavelength of 803 nm and a repetition rate of 80
MHz inside 1.5 m of microstructured fiber (NL- Fig. 1. Fiber-optical ho- A
PM-750B from Crystal Fiber, Birkerød, Den- rizons. (A) A light pulse
mark). Each pulse modifies the optical properties in a fiber slows down in-
of the fiber because of the Kerr effect (20): The frared probe light, attempt-
effective refractive index of the fiber, n0, gains an ing to overtake it. The
additional contribution dn that is proportional to diagrams below are in the
the instantaneous pulse intensity I at position z co-moving frame of the
and time t pulse. (B) Classical hori-
zons. The probe is slowed
n ¼ n0 þ dn; dn º Iðz; tÞ ð1Þ down by the pulse until its
B C
group velocity matches
the pulse speed at the
This contribution to the refractive index n moves points indicated by black
with the pulse. The pulse thus establishes a dots, establishing a white-
moving medium, although nothing material is hole horizon at the back
moving. This effective medium naturally moves and a black-hole horizon
at the speed of light in the fiber, because it is at the front of the pulse.
made by light itself. The probe light is blue-
We also launched a continuous wave of shifted at the white hole until the optical dispersion releases it from the horizon. (C) Quantum pairs. Even
light, a probe, that follows the pulse with slightly if no probe light is incident, the horizon emits photon pairs corresponding to waves of positive frequencies
higher group velocity, attempting to overtake it. from the outside of the horizon paired with waves at negative frequencies from beyond the horizon. An
In order to distinguish the probe from the pulse, it optical shock has steepened the pulse edge, increasing the luminosity of the white hole.

1368 7 MARCH 2008 VOL 319 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org

 REPORTS
magnetic wave. So, according to Fourier analy- modes into each other, thus creating photons takes for the pulse to traverse it, z = z/u, and
sis, any amplitude oscillating as exp(−iwt) at a (8, 9). Even if all the modes are initially in their introduce the retarded time t = t − z/u. The phase
positive angular frequency w must be accom- vacuum states, the horizon spontaneously creates ϕ of each mode evolves as
panied by the complex conjugate amplitude at photon pairs. This process represents the optical
−w. In quantum field theory (8, 9, 25), the analog of Hawking radiation (7), and it occurs at ϕ ¼ −∫ðwdt þ w′dzÞ ð3Þ
positive-frequency modes correspond to the an- both the black-hole and white-hole horizon (25).
nihilation operators and the negative-frequency Photons with positive w′ correspond to the par- We assume that the mode conversion occurs in a
modes to the creation operators (26). Processes ticles created at the outside of the black hole (8, 9), narrow interval of retarded time t near a horizon
that mix positive and negative frequencies in the whereas the negative-frequency photons repre- around t = 0, where we linearize dn in t such that
laboratory frame (in the glass of the fiber) thus sent their partners beyond the horizon. In our
create observable light quanta. case, the photon pairs are distinguishable from nu
1− ¼ a′t ð4Þ
In the near ultraviolet around 300 nm, the the intense pulse, because their polarization can c
dispersion of microstructured fibers (22) is dom- be orthogonal to the pulse and their frequencies
inated by the bare dispersion of glass, where n0 differ from the carrier frequency by an octave. We obtain from the phase integral (Eq. 3) and the
rapidly grows with frequency (20) exceeding c/u. Furthermore, one can discriminate the Hawking Doppler formula (Eq. 2) the characteristic loga-
For such ultraviolet modes, the medium moves at effect from other nonlinear optical processes, rithmic phase at a horizon (8, 9). We use the
superluminal speed. We see from the Doppler such as four-wave mixing, because it is not sub- standard result (8, 9, 25): Hawking radiation is
formula (Eq. 2) that these superluminal modes ject to their phase-matching conditions (20). Planck-distributed with the temperature
oscillate with negative frequencies w′ in the co- Moreover, in addition to observing Hawking ra-
moving frame for positive frequencies w in the diation per se, one could detect the correlations of ℏa′
kB T ′ ¼ ð5Þ
laboratory frame, and vice versa. Moreover, each the Hawking partners—a feat that is impossible

Downloaded from http://science.sciencemag.org/ on November 16, 2018

2p
subluminal mode with positive w has a super- in astrophysics, because there the partner particles
luminal partner oscillating at the same co-moving are lost beyond the horizon of the black hole. where kB denotes Boltzmann's constant. For
frequency w′ but with negative laboratory fre- In order to give a quantitative argument for evaluating a′, we consider dn at t = 0, where
quency. The pulse does not change w′, but it may the Hawking effect in optical fibers, we describe
partially convert sub- and superluminal partner the propagation distance z in terms of the time z it a′ ¼ −
u ∂n
c ∂t j 0
¼−
u ∂dn
c ∂t j
0
ð6Þ
Fig. 2. Measurement of
blue-shifting at a white- Note that T′ denotes the Hawking temperature in

Normalized power density [ppm]

-20 w/o pulse [dBm] 12
hole horizon. The black with pulse [dBm] the co-moving frame, defined with respect to the
curve shows the power Doppler-shifted frequencies w′, a temperature that
Power density [dBm]

difference [ppm]
spectrum of probe light -50 9 is characterized by the Doppler-shifted Hawking
that has not interacted theory fit
frequency a′ in regions away from the pulse. We
with the pulses, whereas use the Doppler formula (Eq. 2) with the refractive
the green curve displays index (Eq. 1) and the linearization (Eq. 4) taken at
-80 6
the result of the interac- t = 0, and obtain
tion; both curves are rep-
resented on a logarithmic  u
scale. The difference be-
tween the spectra on a
-110 3
c
u
a′ ¼ 1 − n0 a ¼ dn a
c 0
j ð7Þ

linear scale, shown in red,

exhibits a characteristic -140 0 Consequently, the Hawking temperature T in the
peak around the blue- 1480 1490 1500 1510 laboratory frame is
shifted wavelength (w2) Wavelength [nm]
and another peak around
the spectral line of the probe laser (w1) due to a gap in the probe light; both features indicate the presence of
kB T ¼
ℏa
2p
, a¼−
1 ∂dn
dn ∂t j
0
ð8Þ
a horizon. ppm, parts per million.
Because T does not depend on the magnitude of
dn, even the typically very small refractive index
Fig. 3. Doppler contours. Wavelength [nm] variations of nonlinear fiber optics (20) may lead
The Doppler-shifted frequen- 1490 1500 1510 to a substantial Hawking temperature when dn
cy w′ of the probe is a con- 10
varies on the scale of an optical wavelength. This
served quantity. The pulse
shifts the laboratory frequen- is achievable with optical pulses of a few cycles
n in multiples of 10–7

cy w along the contour lines 8 (27, 28).

of w′ as a function of the in- The Kerr nonlinearity (20) influences not
stantaneous dn; the same 6 only the probe modes but the pulse as well (20).
applies to the wavelength l = This self–Kerr effect shapes the pulse while it
2pc/w. If the pulse is suffi- propagates in the fiber. Regions of high intensity
ciently intense that dn reaches 4 lag behind, because for them the effective refrac-
the top of a contour, the probe tive index is increased. The black-hole horizon at
light completes an arch on 2 the front is stretched, but the trailing edge be-
the diagram while leaving comes extremely steep, infinitely steep in theory
the pulse; it is red- or blue- (20): The pulse develops an optical shock (20).
shifted, depending on its ini- 0 The steep white-hole horizon will dominate the
tial frequency. 1265 2 1255 1 1245 Hawking effect of the pulse. In practice, disper-
Frequency [THz] sion combined with other nonlinear optical

www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 319 7 MARCH 2008 1369

 REPORTS
processes in the fiber, in particular stimulated 4. W. G. Unruh, Phys. Rev. Lett. 46, 1351 (1981). 21. W. H. Reeves et al., Nature 424, 511 (2003).
Raman scattering (20), limit the optical shock. 5. T. Jacobson, Prog. Theor. Phys. 136 (suppl.), 1 (1999). 22. P. Russell, Science 299, 358 (2003).
6. G. Rousseaux, C. Mathis, P. Maïssa, T. G. Philbin, 23. G. t'Hooft. Nucl. Phys. B 256, 727 (1985).
Assuming that the steepness at the shock front is U. Leonhardt, http://arxiv.org/abs/0711.4767. 24. T. Jacobson, Phys. Rev. D 44, 1731 (1991).
comparable to twice the frequency of the pulse 7. S. M. Hawking, Nature 248, 30 (1974). 25. See the supporting material on Science Online.
carrier, 8 × 1014 Hz, the Hawking temperature 8. N. D. Birrell, P. C. W. Davies, Quantum Fields in Curved 26. U. Leonhardt, Rep. Prog. Phys. 66, 1207 (2003).
(Eq. 8) reaches 103 K, which is many orders of Space (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1984). 27. Few-Cycle Laser Pulse Generation and Its Applications,
9. R. Brout, S. Massar, R. Parentani, Ph. Spindel, Phys. Rep. F. X. Kärtner, Ed. (Springer, Berlin, 2004).
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analogs of the event horizon (10–12, 18). 10. L. J. Garay, J. R. Anglin, J. I. Cirac, P. Zoller, Phys. Rev. 29. We are indebted to G. Agrawal, M. Dunn, T. Hänsch,
Our scheme thus solves two problems at once Lett. 85, 4643 (2000). A. Miller, R. Parentani, and W. Sibbett for discussions
in a natural way: how to let an effective medium 11. S. Giovanazzi, C. Farrell, T. Kiss, U. Leonhardt, Phys. Rev. and technical support. We thank A. Podlipensky and
A 70, 063602 (2004). P. Russell for measuring the dispersion of our fiber. Our
move at superluminal speed, and how to generate 12. S. Giovanazzi, Phys. Rev. Lett. 94, 061302 (2005). work was supported by the Leverhulme Trust, Engineering
a steep velocity profile at the horizon. Here the 13. R. Schützhold, W. G. Unruh, Phys. Rev. D 66, 044019 and Physical Sciences Research Council, Continuous
various aspects of the physics of artificial black (2002). Variable Quantum Information with Atoms and Light, the
holes conspire together, in contrast to most other 14. G. E. Volovik, J. Exp. Theor. Phys. Lett. 76, 240 (2002). Ultrafast Photonics Facility at St Andrews, and Leonhardt
15. U. Leonhardt, P. Piwnicki, Phys. Rev. Lett. 84, 822 Group Aue.
proposals (1–4, 10–16).
(2000).
16. U. Leonhardt, Nature 415, 406 (2002).
References and Notes 17. P. W. Milonni, Fast Light, Slow Light and Left Handed Supporting Online Material
Light (Institute of Physics, Bristol, UK, 2004). www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/319/5868/1367/DC1
1. Artificial Black Holes, M. Novello, M. Visser, G. E. Volovik,
Eds. (World Scientific, Singapore, 2002). 18. T. A. Jacobson, G. E. Volovik, Phys. Rev. D 58, 064021 SOM Text
2. G. E. Volovik, The Universe in a Helium Droplet (1998). Figs. S1 to S13
19. R. Schützhold, W. G. Unruh, Phys. Rev. Lett. 95, 031301 Table S1
(Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2003).
References and Notes

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3. W. G. Unruh, R. Schützhold, Quantum Analogues: From (2005).
Phase Transitions to Black Holes and Cosmology 20. G. Agrawal, Nonlinear Fiber Optics (Academic Press, San 30 November 2007; accepted 24 January 2008
(Springer, Berlin, 2007). Diego, CA, 2001). 10.1126/science.1153625

can be created that exhibit similar architecture

Stimuli-Responsive Polymer and properties. The control of nanofiber inter-
actions exploited here in solid polymer materials
Nanocomposites Inspired by the is similar to that observed in aqueous dispersions
of poly(acrylic acid)-coated carbon nanotubes (8)

Sea Cucumber Dermis or cellulose nanofibers (9), which have been

shown to exhibit large viscosity changes upon
variation of pH. The materials further comple-
Jeffrey R. Capadona,1,2,3 Kadhiravan Shanmuganathan,1 Dustin J. Tyler,2,3 ment other polymeric systems with morphing
Stuart J. Rowan,1,2,3,4* Christoph Weder1,2,4* mechanical behavior—for example, cross-linked
polymers that change cross-link density upon a
Sea cucumbers, like other echinoderms, have the ability to rapidly and reversibly alter the stiffness change in pH or ionic concentration (10, 11).
of their inner dermis. It has been proposed that the modulus of this tissue is controlled by The first series of nanocomposites studied is
regulating the interactions among collagen fibrils, which reinforce a low-modulus matrix. We based on a rubbery ethylene oxide–epichlorohydrin
report on a family of polymer nanocomposites, which mimic this architecture and display similar 1:1 copolymer (EO-EPI) (Fig. 1C) into which a
chemoresponsive mechanic adaptability. Materials based on a rubbery host polymer and rigid rigid cellulose nanofiber network was incorpo-
cellulose nanofibers exhibit a reversible reduction by a factor of 40 of the tensile modulus, for rated (Fig. 1, C and D). The EO-EPI matrix dis-
example, from 800 to 20 megapascals (MPa), upon exposure to a chemical regulator that mediates plays a low modulus and can accommodate the
nanofiber interactions. Using a host polymer with a thermal transition in the regime of interest, we uptake of several chemical stimuli. Cellulose nano-
demonstrated even larger modulus changes (4200 to 1.6 MPa) upon exposure to emulated fibers, isolated for this study from the mantles of
physiological conditions. sessile sea creatures known as tunicates (12),
were used as the reinforcing component. These
any echinoderms share the ability to has provided evidence that this defense mecha- “whiskers” exhibit high stiffness (tensile modu-

M rapidly and reversibly alter the stiffness

of their connective tissue (1). In the
case of sea cucumbers (Fig. 1, A and B), this
nism is enabled by a nanocomposite structure in
which rigid, high-aspect ratio collagen fibrils
reinforce a viscoelastic matrix of fibrillin micro-
lus ~143 GPa) (13) and dimensions at the nano-
meter scale (26 nm × 2.2 mm) (fig. S1). Similar
nanofibers can be obtained from a range of re-
morphing occurs within seconds and creates con- fibrils (2–4). The stiffness of the tissue is regu- newable biosources, including wood and cotton.
siderable survival advantages (1, 2). A series of lated by controlling the stress transfer between Whiskers from tunicates were used here because
recent studies on the dermis of these invertebrates adjacent collagen fibrils through transiently their aspect ratio is higher than that of cellulose
established interactions (5, 6). These interactions from other sources, which is advantageous for the
1
Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, are modulated by soluble macromolecules that formation of percolating architectures. Because
Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
2
Rehabilitation Research and Development, Louis Stokes
are secreted locally by neurally controlled effec- of the high density of strongly interacting surface
Cleveland DVA Medical Center, 10701 East Boulevard, tor cells. The dermis of the Cucumaria frondosa hydroxyl groups, cellulose whiskers have a strong
Cleveland, OH 44106, USA. 3Department of Biomedical and other sea cucumber species represents a tendency for aggregation (9, 14). The whisker-
Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH compelling model of a chemoresponsive material whisker interactions can be moderated by the in-
44106, USA. 4Department of Chemistry, Case Western in which a modulus contrast by a factor of 10 (~5 troduction of sulfate surface groups (Fig. 1C),
Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH
44106, USA. to ~50 MPa) is possible (7). Intrigued by this which promote dispersibility in select hydrogen-
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
capability and with the goal of creating new bond–forming solvents (14, 15). This balance of
[email protected] (C.W.); [email protected] dynamic materials for biomedical applications, attractive and repulsive interactions is the key for the
(S.J.R.) we set out to investigate whether nanocomposites fabrication of cellulose-whisker nanocomposites.

1370 7 MARCH 2008 VOL 319 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org

Fiber-Optical Analog of the Event Horizon
Thomas G. Philbin, Chris Kuklewicz, Scott Robertson, Stephen Hill, Friedrich König and Ulf Leonhardt

Science 319 (5868), 1367-1370.

DOI: 10.1126/science.1153625

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