Language & Communication, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp.

155-166, 1994
Copyright 0 1994 Elsevier Science Ltd
Pergamon Printed in Great Britain. At1 rights reserved
0271-5309/94 $6.00 + 0.00

REPRESENTATION OF THE WRITTEN AND OR4L IN FINNISH

KALEVALA METER POETRY

LAURA M. STARK

In the attempt to delineate the nature and boundaries of oraiity and literacy, scholars have
examined non-literate and semi-literate cultures from perspectives inevitably influenced
by their own literacy. Other perspectives, those of the oral or primarily oral cultures
themselves, need to be taken into account. Peoples for whom writing is not a significant
mode of communication but have nonetheless been exposed to the technology of writing
may hold particular cultural impressions concerning its nature and role. Representations
embedded in oral folk poetry, for example, may lend valuable perspectives on how writing
is perceived in predominantly non-literate societies, and on the interaction between written
and oral language in such societies.
The oral poetry discussed in this article, Kalevala meter poetry, was sung in some areas
of modern-day Finland as well as Karelia and Ingria, located east and south-east of Finland,
respectively. My analysis is based on the large number of texts which were collected before
the genre died out at the end of the nineteenth century. The communities in which the
poems were sung were primarily oral, that is, the vast majority of the inhabitants were
not only unable to read or write, but they had limited contact with written forms of
communication. Yet Kalevala meter poetry includes references to writing which not only
show that members of the audience knew what writing was, but also suggest that their
perceptions concerning the nature and function of written and oral language differed from
ours.
In this paper I examine several of the most basic assumptions to be found in recent
literature on the subject of literacy and orality. The first is the view that writing is primarily
a medium to convey information through time. In most instances we know of, writing
originated as a tool for recording and storing information. It seems natural to expect that,
in societies where it is used at all, one of the functions of writing would be to facilitate
communication through time as an aid to memory: ‘Maybe the most obvious function of
writing is memory supportive’ (Commas, 1989, p. 11).
Because of its physical properties, writing is also widely held to be more permanent than
oral modes of communication. Goody (1968) contrasts ‘immediacy’ and ‘storage’ of cultural
information in order to define literate and non-literate societies, respectively (Street, 1984).
Ong also emphasises the ephemeral quality of orality:
Without writing, words as such have no visual presence, even when the objects they represent are visual.
They are sounds. You might ‘call’ them back-‘recall’ them. But there is nowhere to ‘look’ for them.
They have no focus and no trace (a visual metaphor, showing dependency on writing), not even a trajectory.
They are occurrences, events (Ong, 1982, p. 31).

Correspondence relating to this paper should be addressed to Laura M. Stark, Kurkisuontie 12 B7, NIP40 Helsinki,
Finland.

155
156 LAURA M. STARK

There is also a tendency to regard writing as more analytic, careful, and deliberate than
oral communication:
/in writing/ you have to make your language work so as to come clear all by itself, with no existential
context. The need for this exquisite circumspection makes writing the agonizing work it commonly
is . . With writing, words once ‘uttered’, outered, put down on the surface, can be eliminated, erased,
changed. There is no equivalent for this in an oral performance, no way to erase a spoken word (Ong,
1982, p. 104).

Writing may thus be assumed to be perceptually distinct from speech: a more self-conscious
act because of the inherent possibilities for modification.
Finally, our culture of literacy has produced the assumption of a functional distinction
between writing and orality:
There is no simple free variation in the choice of written or spoken modes for particuiar purposes (Street,
1984, p. 88).
The choice of medium is normally determined by the social function of the communication. In our society,
there are conventions, usually quite clear cut, which determine whether messages are relayed orally or
in writing and little choice is possible (Stubbs, 1980, p. 108, in Street, 1984, p. 88).

The representations found within Kalevala meter poetry reverse these basic assumptions
about spoken and written language. First, within the poetry, writing functions to transmit
information through space, not time. Oral poetry rather than writing functions to record
and preserve information. Secondly, writing is represented as transient and temporary while
oral poetry is depicted as the more permanent modality. Associated with this contrast is
the characterization of the writing process as less deliberate than the process of oral
composition. Finally, replacement of oral communication with literate communication or
vice versa within the poetry texts appears to affect neither the format nor the plot of the
poem. In other words, there was no representation of any functional distinction between
writing and speech.

Communication across space and time

Within the Kalevala meter poetry, the major function of writing was perceived to be
long-distance communication in the form of letters as shown from the following four poems
(excerpts lA, B, 2, 3):
(1A) Rekryyti-The Conscript (lines 1-18, collected in Stepu, Narvusi, Ingria, by
V. Porkka, 1883)

Meijen kudreva kuningas Our curly-haired king

vahoitukka linnan vanki the wax haired castle-captive
istuu, ajattelloo sat and considered
rautaisen rahin nenalll, upon a bench-end of iron
teki kirjat kiireest wrote letters in haste
papeerit pakoin periistl demanding papers
hihetteli meijan maille sent them to our lands
meijen maille maireille. to our lovely lands.

Ken nois kirjan katsojaksi Who should look at the letter

ken lehen levittiijiiksi? who spread out the leaf”?
Vallan staarasta tasane The parish elder
vallan kylma kymmenikko the cool parish dean
se nois kirjan katsojaksi he should look at the letter
se lehen levittljaksi. should spread out the leaf.

Mitti on kirjaa kirjutettu What’s written in the letter

ja pantu paperin pliille? and set out on the paper?
 FINNISH KALEVALA METER POETRY 157

(1A) continued

‘Ottakaamma soltaitta ‘Let us take soldiers

valitkaamma vankiloja! let us choose captives!’
(Kuusi et al., 1977, emphasis mine)

(IB) (Lines 3-19, sung by Anni, collected in P&p%%, Narvusi, Ingria, by V. Porkka,
1881-1883)

Meijen kuuluisa kunigas Our celebrated king

Vahoitukka, linnan vanhin wax-haired, eldest of the castle
LIhettellBii kirjojaa, sent letters
liihettelliiii, lenniiittelliiii, sent them, transmitted them
kolme kirjaa kesoissa: three letters in the summer:
Yhen tuulsi tuulta my&e, one blew along with the wind
toisen viersi vettP my&e, the second rolled along with the water
kolmas poschsilla porotti, the third arrived by post
kohallee konttorii. arrived at the [parish] office.
Ei oo kirjan katsojaa, There’s no one to look at the letter
ja lehen levittlijll, and spread out the page
paperin harottaijaa. open up the paper.
Meijen starschina tasaine, Our parish elder,
kyPn kudroi kymmenikkoi, the curly-haired dean of our village,
noisi kirjan katsojaksi, [he] started to look at the letter,
ja lehen levittjijiiksi, and spread out the page,
paperin harottajaksi. open up the paper.
Mitti kirjaa kirjoitettu, What is written in the letter,
ja pantu paperin pHBIIB? and set out on the paper?
(SKVR III: 988, translation and emphasis
mine)

(2) Iivana-Ivan (lines 18-34, sung by Poavila Sirkeinen, in Uhtua, Archangel Karelia,
collected by K. Karjalainen, 1894)

Laski hetin laivate mereh He launched the ships on the sea

nosti purjon puun nenihe raised the sail to the mast-top
voattien varpojen varahe, the cloth into the mast’s care
laskie karuuttelouve sailed steadily off
Inarihi ilkijBhe to Inari the evil
rohkijehe Ruotsin moaha. to the bold land of Sweden.
TyBnsi heiin kirjan kiirehestii He wrote a letter in haste
paperin pakon perfstii: and a demanding paper:
‘Onko linnassa lihoa ‘Is there meat in the castle
eli voita Volmarissa butter in Volmar
Iivanalla iltasekse for Ivan’s supper
venllPiselll verokse the Russian’s tribute
syyvl miehen nilklhisen for the hungry man to eat
haluta halunalasen?’ that the needy needs?’

Sieltl on varsin vastajeltih: Back indeed came the answer:

‘Ei ole linnassa lihoa ‘There’s no meat in the castle
eika voita Volmarissa.’ no butter in Volmar.’
(Kuusi el al., 1977, emphasis mine)

(3) Uskollinen Morsian I-The Faithful Bride I (lines 17-21, singer unknown,
StiSksm%ki, HSme, collected by E. Lijnnrot, 1831)
This poem tells of a young maiden waiting for her betrothed to return from war.
158 LAURA M. STARK

She refuses to marry another soldier who has produced forged documents to prove
that her fiance’ is dead.

Eerikki vaha ritari Eerikki the little knight

valhekirjat kannatteli carried false letters
valhekirjat kiiruhulta: false letters Iwritten? in haste
Lalmanti se on sod&a voittu Lalmanti, he has been conquered in wars
pantu maahan paineloissa. brought to the ground in struggles.
(Kuusi et al., 1977, emphasis mine)

Writing was not used for recording information in order to communicate through time.
That was the domain of orality in the form of Kalevala meter poetry. Writing was not
memory supportive because systems of cultural meaning were being transmitted by oral
means. Mnemonic proficiency was highly valued, and formal oral skill was equated with
magic and power (excerpts 4A, B, 5). In ‘The Singing Match’ (excerpt 4A), Vainamoinen
and Joukahainen (‘Joukamoin’ in Ingrian dialect), two major protagonists of the Kalevala
meter poems, meet on the road and challenge each other to a test of oral skill. The outcome
of the match can be seen in excerpt 4B, in which the great power of both Vainamoinen’s
oral ability and vast memory are emphasized.

(4A) Kilpalaulunta II-The Singing Match II (lines 68-75, sung by Olgoi, in Hevaa,
Kaprio, Ingria, collected by V. Porkka, 1883)

Saoi vanha Vainamoin Old Vainamoin said

nuorelle Joukamoilen: to young Joukamoin:
‘Hoi sia nuori Joukamoin! ‘Hey young Joukamoin!
Muissatka sit5 ajaista Do you remember the time
kuin meroja kynnettiin when the seas were ploughed
kynnettiin kylvettiin were plowed up, were sown
kivet lyotiin kokkoon when the rocks beat together
rauniot rakennettiin when the cairns were first piled up
ajettiin altoi maalen? when the waves gave way to land?
Meroi on miun kuokkimaan The seas were of my scooping
kannoin juuret kaivamain the stump-roots of my digging
kivet luomani kokkoon the rocks of my gathering
rauniot rakentamain.’ and the cairns of my piling.’

Saoi vanha Vainamoin Old Vainamoin said

nuorelle Joukamoille: to young Joukamoin:
‘Liikkiiii kiissoin laulamaan ‘Let us have a singing-match
ja kiissoin sanelommaa: and a reciting-contest:
kumpi muistaa enemman let him who recalls the more
sen seissa tien selalhi, remain on the open road
kumpi muistaa vahemman let him who recalls the less
sen tielta pois paetak.’ from the road remove himself.’
(Kuusi ef al., 1977, emphasis mine)

(4B) Kilpalaulunta I-The Singing Match I (lines 39-59, Ontrei Malinen, Vuonninen,
Vuokkoniemi, Archangel Karelia, A. .I. Sjogren, 1825)

Sano nuori Joukahainen, The young Joukahainen said:

‘Tiian kuitengin v&h&en ‘And yet I know a little
ennemmaiset ymmartelen: I understand more:
 FINNISH KALEVALA METER POETRY 159

(4B) continued

tiian linnukse tiasen I know the tit is a bird

kiiskisen veen kalaksi the ruff is a water-fish
pajun puita vanhimmaksi the willow the oldest tree
tiiln kolkot kuokituksi I know the hollows were scooped
vuoret luovuksi kokohon the mountains heaped together
kalahauat kaivetuksi I know the fish-holes were dug
siverret syvennetyksi.’ the troughs of the sea deepened.’

Sanoi siita Vainamoinen At that Vainamoinen said:

‘Lapsen on mieli, vaimon tunti, ‘A child’s mind, a woman’s lore
ei oo partasuun urohon is not a bearded hero’s.
Omat on kolkot kuokkimani The hollows were my scooping
vuoret luomani kokoh the mountains were my heaping
kalahauat kaivamani the fish holes were my digging:
Olin miekin miessa siella I was a man among men there
urohana kolmantena the third hero there
seistemantena urossa the seventh among heroes
kaarta taivon kantaissa bearing the arch of heaven
pielta ilmon pistaissl pushing up the sky’s pillar
taivosta tahittaissua spangling the heavens with stars
Otavaa ojentamassa.’ straightening out the Great Bear.’

Siita suutu Vainamoinen Vainamoinen grew angry

paalle nuoren Joukahaisen: towards young Joukahainen:
Laulo nuoren Joukahaisen he sang young Joukahainen
suohon suonivbistua in a marsh up to his belt
niityhyn nisulihoista in a meadow up to his waist
kainalosta kangahasen, in a heath to his armpit
laulo koiran Joukahaisen he sang Joukahainen’s dog
kynsin kylmiih kivehen with its claws in a cold rock
hampaihin vesihakoh, with its teeth in a wet log
laulo jousen Joukahaisen he sang Joukahainen’s bow
kaariksi vesien paBIle, to an arch on the water
laulo nuolen Joukavaisen sang Joukahainen’s arrow
haukaksi kiitiivaksi to a hawk streaking
ylahiiksi taivosella. high in the heavens.
Se siita hyvin hlpesi. Having done so he felt shame.

Sanoi sitta Joukahainen: At that Joukahainen said:

‘Myossytiis pyhat sanasi ‘Make your holy words harmless
periivyta lauhiesi: turn your sentences backwards:
annan kultia kyperan I’ll fill a helmet with gold
Oman plani paastimeksi for the release of my head
itseni lunastimeksi.’ for the ransom of myself.’
(Kuusi et al., 1977, emphasis mine)

In the following poem, the singer emphasizes her own power gained through oral skill:

(5) (Sung by Maria Luukka, collected in Vy&emmaa, Narvusi , Ingria, by J. Fr.

Ruotsalainen, 1900)

ku mie laulaja olisin, If I were a singer

ja se vanha virren seppl an old forger of the verses
. . .. .
laulaism meret muroksi I would break the sea with my singing
meren kalliot kaheksi sing the sea cliffs in two
meren liivat lintiloiksi the sands of the sea into stones
mere hiekat helmiloiksi the sea sand into pearls
160 LAURA M. STARK

suolaksi mere somerot! sea gravel into salt!

Niin mie linnat liittaisin I would make the castles move
jarvet jlrkayttlsin cause the lakes to tremble
linnat liioille tiloille the castles to spread wide
jlrvet jarkka kallahalle the lakes to the steep cliffs.
(SKVR 111: 2753, translation mine)

Permanence vs transience
In Kalevala meter poetry orality is represented as the mode which preserves
communication through time. Memorized words are therefore presented as ‘real’ and having
permanence. This is demonstrated by references to words preserved since childhood in the
‘shed loft’ (excerpts 6, 7), which is a metaphor for the ‘skull’, hence ‘memory’ (Kuusi et
al., 1977, p. 577). Singers of oral poetry were very conscious of the words they used and
of the process by which oral poetry was created: recollection and recitation of oral poetry
was perceived as a linear process, referred to metaphorically as spinning thread into ball
or laying down and marking a skiing track in the snow (excerpts 6, 8).

(6) Loppusanat-Epilogue (lines 29-42, singer unknown, collected in Kemi, North

Ostrobothnia, 1803 or 1804, by Z. Topelius)

~erennemm~, heitt~nemm~ We will stop, we will leave it

luonemma, lopettanemma we will round off, we will end
paremmille laulajille for better singers
taitavammille runoille. more skillful. poets:
KBIrin virteni keriille 1’11wind my verse in a ball
sovittelen sommelolle, 1’11arrange it in a coil
panen aitan parven p&ihiin put it up in the shed loft
luisten lukkurjen sisBlle inside locks of bone
jost ei passe paivinahln whence it shall never be freed
selvil sina ikana nor ever get out
ilman luien lonsumata unless the bones are shaken
leukain leviamata the jaws are opened
hammasten hajoamata the teeth are parted
kielen keikkeleht8mltSi. the tongue set wagging.
(Kuusi et a!., 1977, emphasis mine)

(7) Alkusanat-ProIogue (lines 23-47, sung by Arhippa Perttunen, in Latvajarvi,

Vuokkini~mi, Archangel Karelia, collected by E. Lonnrot, 1834)

ltse laulan, milloin kuulen I myself sing when 1 hear

kuta kuulen, niin kujerran and what 1 hear I carol-
ennen saatuja sanoja words 1 found before
opetuita luottehia. charms I have been taught:
Omat on saamani sanani my own findings are my words
omat tieltl tempomani my own snatching from the road
plista heinln heiromani my grinding from the grass tops
kanarvoista katkomani. my snapping from the heather.

Olin pienng paimenessa When small I was a herdsman

lassa karjan katsomassa, as a child minding cattfe
menin silloin mlttlh&lle I went then to a hummock
kiven kirjavan sivulle to the side of a bright rock
paaen paksun iappehille the edge of a thick boulder:
 FINNISH KALEVALA METER POETRY 161

(7) continued

Niin saoin sanoa saatu I found words by the hundred

pantu aitna parven piijihiin put them up in the shed loft
kukkaroh kultaseh in a purse of gold
vaskiseh vakkaseh. in a copper box.

Kuin aika tosin tulee When the time is truly come

aukion sanasen arkun I’ll open the chest of words
kirjokannen kiimahutan the bright lid slam back
poikkipuolen polvilleni. right across my knees.
Ei sampo sanoja puutu There’s no lack of sampo-words
luottehia Lemminkainen: Lemminkainen charms:
luottehillen lahoovi he will rot upon the charms
virsillen vanhanoo. grow old upon the verses.
(Kuusi et al., 1977, emphasis mine)

(8) Alkusanat-Prologue (lines 48-52, sung by Mishi Sissonen, in Ilomantsi, North

Karelia, collected by D. E. D. Europaeus, 1845)

Ladun hiihan laulajille I’ll ski a trail for singers

osaaville tien ojennan: for the skilled set out a road
tlsta tlnne tie menevi from here to here the road goes
tie menevi, maa matavi the road goes and the land crawls
ura uusi urkenevi. a new track leads off.
(Kuusi et al., 1977, emphasis mine)

On the other hand, writing in Kalevala meter poetry is characterized as transient and
temporary, often written hastily, and always oriented towards an immediate, specific goal.
In contrast to our Western notion of writing as being more careful and conscious than
the temporary act of speaking, the common reference to kiire ‘haste, hurry’ in the description
of letter writing suggests that writing was an act which involved little deliberation or careful
planning (excerpt 9). In almost all versions of ‘The Conscript’ in Ingria, the verb katsoa
‘to look at’ is used where one would expect to find fukea ‘to read’, as in the reading of
letters (excerpt 10). This use of katsoa over lukea suggests a portrayal of the reading process
as quick and superficial, paralleling the characterization of writing as hasty and undeliberate.
These examples demonstrate how the nature of letter writing is represented as similar to
informal oral conversation.’

(9) Rekryyti-The Conscript (lines 1-18, collected in Stepu, Narvusi, Ingria, by V.

Porkka, 1883)

Meijen kudreva kuningas Our curly-haired king

vahoitukka linnan vanki the wax haired castle-captive
istuu, ajattelloo sat and considered
rautaisen rahin nenalla, upon a bench-end of iron
teki kirjat kiireest wrote letters in haste
papeerit pakoin per&t% demanding papers
lahetteli meijan maille sent them to our lands
meijen maille maireille. to our lovely lands.
(Kuusi et al., 1977, emphasis mine)
162 LAURA M. STARK

(10) Rekryyti-The Conscript (lines I-t& collected in Stepu, Narvusi, Ingria, by V.

forkka, 1883)

Ken nois kirjan katsojaksi Who should look at the letter

ken lehen IevittajSksi? who spread out the leaf?
Vallan staarasta tasane The parish elder
vallan kylma kymmenikko the cool parish dean
se nois kirjan katsojaksi he should look at the letter
se lehen levittgjaksi. should spread out the leaf.
(Kuusi et a/., 1977, emphasis mine)

Lack of functional distinction between writing and speech

In nineteenth-century Kalevala meter poetry, long distance conlmunication was usually
achieved by the protagonists in one of three ways: writing a fetter, making a journey to
delivera message orally, or sending oral messages via birds. Evidence from the poetry shows
that as awareness of writing entered communities, authors of Kaievala meter verse made
stylistic choices regarding the representation of writing and orality in their compositions.
Within Kalevala meter poetry, the different modes of written and oral communication
through space occur interchangeably and in similar verses. In poems such as ‘The Conscript’
or ‘Ivan’, the inclusion of references to writing did not restructure the original oral motifs
or their order, rather, references to letter writing were manipulated into the same framework
which had already been set up for references to orality. For example, an extremely common
motif in Ingria was the ‘message via birds’ motif which was borrowed from Russian folklore.
One example has the plot as follows: a young soldier far from home sees a flock of birds
flying overhead, calls out to them and requests that they convey a message to his mother.
A twist to this theme involves the insertion of a reference to writing into this traditionally
oral framework: the message sender writes a letter and tucks it under the wing before sending
the bird on its way.
Similarly, in Ingria from 1853 to 1909, those variants of the popular poem ‘The Conscript’
in which letters convey the king’s message existed side by side with variants in which the
king himself rides to the village to speak to its leaders personally. In some poems he first
sends a letter and then communicates a second message orally, and what is communicated
by Ietter and what is communicated orally appear to be interchangeable (excerpts llA,
B). Moreover, these different versions were often sung in the same villages and even by
the same singers. Similar contrasts are found for the Karelian poem ‘Ivan’ (excerpts 12A,
B), and the different versions of ‘The Warrior’s Departure’ in which the messages are in
some variants transmitted through letters (f3A) and in others through the spoken word
(f3B).

(1 IA) Rekryyti-The Conscript (lines I-18, collected in Stepu, Narvusi, Ingria, by

V. Porkka, 1883)
Version in which first a written letter communicates thnt young men are to be
conscripted, and then the question of who wiii be conscripted is proposed orally.

Meijen kudreva kuningas Our curly-haired king

vahoitukka hnnan vanki the wax haired castle-captive
istuu, ajattelloo sat and considered
rautaisen rahin nenllla, upon a bench-end of iron
teki k&at kiireest wrote letters in haste
 FINNISH KALEVALA METER POETRY 163

(11A) continued

papeerit pakoin per&& demanding papers

llhetteli meijan maille sent them to our lands
meijen maille maireille. to our lovely lands.

Ken nois kirjan katsojaksi Who should look at the letter

ken lehen levittiijlksi? who spread out the leaf?
Vallan staarasta tasane The parish elder
vallan kylm2 kymmenikko the cool parish dean
se nois kirjan katsojaksi he should look at the letter
se lehen tevitt%jiiksi. should spread out the leaf.

Mitii on kirjaa kirjutettu What’s written in the letter

ja pantu paperin piiiille? and set out on the paper?
‘Ottakaamma soltaitta ‘Let us take soldiers
valitkaamma vankiloja! let us choose captives!’

Vallan staarasta tasane The parish elder

vallan kupias kuuloisampi its most famous chief
tuli kyytill kylliiii drove to the village
ytivalolla, kuuvalolla by night-light, moonlight
pliv2n valkian valolla and in white daylight
hevosella hiirakalla on a mouse-hued horse
kalahavvin karvoisella, of a pike’s color
korjas kyliin kokkoo called the village together
ajo vallan vainiolle. drove the parish to the field.

Kysy kyl&n ukkoilta: He asked the old village men:

‘Onko vallassa varasta ‘Does the parish have a thief
pienen piilan tehnehil any petty wrongdoers
kovan kortisin klynehiti?’ frequenters of the tavern?’
(Kuusi et al., 1977, emphasis mine)

(11B) (Lines l-10, sung by Vappu, collected in Arsiansaari, Narvusi, Ingria, by V.

Porkka, 1881-1883)
Version in which a written letter serves the same function as was served by oral
interaction in IIA: to call the parish together and ask who should be conscripted.

Katrina kuuluisa kuningas ... Catherine, our celebrated king

teki kirjat kiireest, wrote letters in haste,
paperit paon periistii, demanding papers,
liihetti surun Suomenmaalle, sent a great sorrow to Finland
surun Suomen poikasille: a sorrow to the youths of Finland
korjatti pojat kokkoo called the boys together
vaaitti se valta kokkoo commanded the parish to gather
vallasta vanhat ukotki the old men of parish as well.
Kysytti va ukkololta: [The letter] asked the old men:
‘Onko vallassa varasta . . .’ ‘Does the parish have a thief . .’
(SKVR III: 986, translation and emphasis mine)

(12A) Iivana-Ivan (lines 18-34, sung by Poavila Sirkeinen, in Uhtua, Archangel

Karelia, collected by K. Karjalainen, 1894)
Version with reference to writing.

Laski he&n laivate mereh He launched the ships on the sea

nosti purjon puun nentie raised the sail to the mast-top
b4 LAURA M. STARK

(12A) continued

voattien varpojen varahc, the cloth into the mast’s care

laskie karuuttelouve sailed steadily off
lnarihi ilkijohe to lnari the evil
rohkijehe Ruotsin moaha. to the bold land of Sweden.
Tyiinsi heart kirjan kiirehestl He wrote a letter in haste
paperin pakon per&W and a demanding paper:
‘Onko linnassa lihoa ‘Is there meat in the castle
eli voita Volmarissa butter in Volmar
livanalla iltasekse for Ivan’s supper
venalaiselll verokse the Russian’s tribute
syyva miehen nllkahisen for the hungry man to eat
haluta halunalasen?’ that the needy needs?’
(Kuusi et al., 1977, emphasis mini

(12B) (Lines 16-19, sung by Teppana Kananaine, collected in Merilaakso, 1888)

Version in which message is communicated orally.

Petri tsaari, uros ulja, Peter the Great, valiant hero

Poika kaunis karjalainen beautiful Karelian boy
tuosta sanoiksi virkki, put this in words,
laati suorin lausehiksi: composed his clear statement:
‘Onko linnassa lihoa ‘Is there meat in the castle
tulevalle vierahaalle . . .’ for guests just arriving . .’
(SKVR I, part 2: 1055, translation and emphasis
mine)

(13A) Sotaanlahto II-The Warrior’s Departure II (lines 9-17, sung by Matti

Sutelainen, Metsipirtti, Karelian Isthmus, collected by A. A. Borenius, 1887)
Version with reference to writing.

Anterus koria poika Anterus the handsome boy

sulho nuoren nuorukkaine The young bridegroom in his prime
miehen kanta kaunukkaine fair beginning of a man
kirjal linnasta lahltti sent out letters from the evil town
paperit pahalta moalta: papers from the evil land
‘Itketk sie iso miuista ‘Will you weep, father, for me
kiu sovassa sorrettoane If I’m felled in war
linnan alla ammuttoane?’ and shot below the castle?’
‘Itken, armas poikuveini.’ ‘I will weep, my sweet offspring.’
(Kuusi ef af., 1977, emphasis mine)

(13B) Sotaanlahto I-The Warrior’s Departure I (lines 1-12, singer unknown, Juva,
Savo, collected by C. A, Gottlund, before 1871)
Version in which message is communicated orally.

Kulerva Kalervan poika Kulerva, Kalcrva’s son

laksi soittelen sotaan went with music off to war
ilon Iyyjen muilen mailen plucking joy to other lands
kulleroijen Karjalaani. merrily to Karelia
San0 isiille sanoman: said these words to his father:
‘Hyvasti hyva is&i ‘Fare you well, my good father
ik&ri elatt5j5ni: my provider all my life:
itkeskos sina minua will you weep for me
 FINNISH KALEVALA METER POETRY 165

(13B) continued

koskas tiijat kuolleeni when you know that 1 am dead

meren jl%lle jllnneeni left on the sea ice
kansasta katoneeni lost to my people
vlesta vlheneeni?’ taken away from my folk?’
(Kuusi et al., 1977, emphasis mine)

Literacy and orality in an oral culture

The representation of literacy which emerges from Kalevala meter poetry is that of a
limited, functionally undistinguished modality. It does not exploit alternative images of
the technology of writing, especially those that are so familiar to us, such as memory-
supportive, permanent, or perfectable. Although actual perceptions of writing cannot be
inferred directly from representations within the poetry, the imagery does suggest at least
the possibility that members of these communities did not consider, or did not consider
important, those qualities of written communication which we perceive to be not only
intrinsic but advantageous vis-h-vis oral communication.
Current and past discussions of the differences between literacy and orality have tended
to focus on either views of literacy as a neutral technology (esp. Goody, 1968, 1977) or
as one whose meaning is socially constructed and embedded in ideology (Street, 1984).
Underlying both of these general views, however, are more fundamental and I would argue,
ethnocentric assumptions concerning the technological nature itself of written language
(and of orality) which are derived from our own culture of literacy. New perspectives which
have yet to be examined may be found in the ‘literature’ of oral cultures. References to
reading and writing in oral genres show that societies which are fundamentally oral have
specific representations of both literacy and orality which should be taken into consideration.
Such representations from Kalevala meter poetry raise the question of whether the qualities
we view as intrinsic to writing and orality may in fact be culturally specific.

NOTE

’ In the following poem, once the correct name for a newborn baby is chosen from church calendars, the name
‘echoes’ or ‘tinkles’ from the pages, emphasizing the auditory quality of orality rather than the visual aspect
of reading.

Michelle Menij~-Find~g a Husband (lines 13-19, sung by Arm, collected in J&venpera, Soikkola, Ingria,
by V. Porkka, 1881-1883)
A newborn’s name is chosen, in the iraditionat manner, from a Saint’s Day calendar.

Kirkkoherrat Kirjamoista church men from Kirjamoinen,

Lukkarit Luutisasta scholars from Luutinen,
pantii kirjat povvan pallle laid the books on the table
haroteltii kirjoja opened up the books
leviteltii lehtil spread out the pages.
Hekko kirjasta heliihti ‘Hekko’ tinkled from the book
alta kansiin kajahti. echoed from beneath the cover.
SKVR III: 1248 (translation mine)
166 LAURA M. STARK

REFERENCES

COULMAS, F. 1989 The Writing Systems of the World. Basil Blackwell, Oxford.
GOODY, J. (Ed.) 1968 Literacy in Traditional Societies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
GOODY, J. 1977 The Domestication of the Savage Mind. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
KUUSl, M., BOSLEY, K. and BRANCH, M. 1977 Finnish Folk Poetry-epic. Finnish Literature Society, London.
ONG, J. 1982 Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Methuen, London.
SKVR: Suomen Kansan Vanhat Runot (‘Ancient Poetry of the Finnish People’) 1908-1948. Finnish Literature
Society, Helsinki.
STREET, B. V. 1984 Literacy in Theory and Practice. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.