PROTECTION SYSTEMS DEVICES

Introduction:

 Power-system protection is a branch of electrical power engineering that deals with

the protection of electrical power systems from faults through the isolation of
faulted parts from the rest of the electrical network.

 The objective of a protection scheme is to keep the power system stable by isolating
only the components that are under fault, whilst leaving as much of the network as
possible still in operation. Thus, protection schemes must apply with
very pragmatic and pessimistic approach to clearing system faults. The devices that
are used to protect the power systems from faults are called protection devices.

 HV, MV and LV electric installations and equipment’s are subjected to internal and
external faults that can cause serious damages in persons and other equipment’s.
 To avoid and to minimize the consequences of those faults protection devices
associated to equipment’s that are able to break electric current are required.

Protection Devices:
In order to minimize the time of a fault switchgears and equipment’s are provided
with protective devices to detect them and to isolate the faulty part of installation.
It is required firstly, the early detection and localization of faults, and secondly, the prompt
removal from service of faulty equipment, in order to:
To safeguard the entire system to ensure continuity of supply.
To minimize damage and repair costs.
To ensure safety of personnel.
Requirements of a Protection System
 Speed
 Reliability
 Security
 Sensitivity
Purpose of Protection System

 Minimize damage

 Leave unaffected equipment in-service

 Maintain equipment operating limits

 Maintain electrical system stability

What Components (Equipment) Do We Protect?

• Generators

• Transformers

• Reactors

• Lines

• Buses

• Capacitors

The protection devices are

1. Fuse
2. Circuit breaker –ELCB , RCCB , MCB
3. Isolator
4. Lighting arrestor
 5. Earthing
6. Grounding
7. Bonding
8. Relay
9. Circuit Transformer
10.Potential Transformer.
1. Fuses:
The fuse is an electronic device, which is used to protect circuits from over
current, overload and make sure the protection of the circuit. There are many types
of fuses available in the market, but function of all these fuses is same.
Fuse consists of a low resistance metallic wire enclosed in a non-combustible
material. Whenever a short circuit, over current or mismatched load connection
occurs, then the thin wire inside the fuse melts because of the heat generated by the
heavy current flowing through it.
Therefore, it disconnects the power supply from the connected system. In
normal operation of the circuit, fuse wire is just a very low resistance component
and does not affect the normal operation of the system connected to the power
supply.
How Does Fuse work?

The fuses work on the principle of the heating effect of the current. It’s made up
of thin strip or strand of metallic wire with noncombustible material. This is connected
between the ends of the terminals. Fuse is always connected in series with the electrical
circuit.

When the excessive current or heat is generated due to heavy current flows in the
circuit, the fuse melts down due to the low melting point of the element and it opens the
circuit. The excessive flow may lead to the breakdown of wire and stops the flow of
current. The fuse can be replaced or changed with the new one with suitable ratings.

The fuse can be made up of the element like zinc, copper, silver &aluminum. They
also act as a circuit breaker which is used to break the circuit when the sudden fault
occurs in the circuit.

This is not only a protector but it is also used as a safety measure to prevent
humans from hazards...

How to choose a Fuse?

Fuse rating = (watts/volts) x 1.25

Say the power is 500 watts.

Fuse rating = (watts/volts) x 1.25
 Fuse rating = (500/240) x 1.25
Fuse rating = (2.083333333) x 1.25
Fuse rating = 2.604166667 amps
Next fuse up is a 3 amp fuse, use a 3 amp fuse.

Typical Fuse Ratings

 Clock radio – 3 amp.
 Coffee maker – 5 amp
 Dishwasher – 13 amp.
 DVD player – 3 amp.
 Electric blanket – 3 amp.
 Fan – 3 amp.
 Food mixer – 3 amp.
 Fridge – 3 amp.
 Hair dryer – 13 amp.
 Types of Fuses:

There are different types of fuses available in the market and they can be categories
on the basis of Different aspects.

Good to know: Fuses are used in AC as well as DC circuits.

Fuses can be divided into two main categories according to the type of input supply
voltage.

1. AC fuses
2. DC fuses

AC and DC Fuses

There is a little difference between AC and DC Fuses used in the AC and DC

Systems.
In a DC system, when the metallic wire Melts because of the heat generated by the over
current, then Arc is produced and it is very difficult to extinct this arc because of DC
constant value. So in order to minimize the fuse arcing, DC fuse are little bigger than an
AC fuse which increase the distance between the electrodes to reduce the arc in the Fuse.

On the other hand, i.e. in the AC system, voltage with 60Hz or 50Hz frequency
changes it amplitude from zero to 60 times every second, so arc can be extinct easily as
compared to DC. Therefore, AC fuses are little bit small in sizes as compared to DC fuses.

Typical Uses and Applications of fuses:

Electronic Fuses can be used in all types of electrical and electronic applications
including:

 Motors
 Air-conditions
 Home distribution boards
 General electrical appliances and devices
 Laptops
 Cell phones
 Game systems
 Printers
 Digital cameras
 DVD players
 Portable Electronics
 LCD monitors
 Scanners
 Battery packs
 Hard disk drives
 Power convertors

2. Circuit breaker:

Electrical circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated

automatically or manually for protecting and controlling of electrical power system.
In the modern power system the design of the circuit breaker has changed
depending upon the huge currents and to prevent from arc while operating.
 Electricity which is coming to the houses or offices or schools or industries or to
any other places from the power distribution grids forms a large circuit. Those lines which
are connected to the power plant forming at one end is called the hot wire and the other
lines connecting to ground forming other end.

Whenever the electrical charge flows between these two lines it develops potential
between them. For the complete circuit the connection of loads (appliances) offers
resistance to the flow of charge and the whole electrical system inside the house or
industries will work smoothly.

They work smoothly as long as the appliances have sufficiently resistant and do not
cause any over current or voltage. The reasons for heating up the wires are too much
charge flowing through the circuit or short circuiting or sudden connection of the hot end
wire to the ground wire would heat up the wires, causing fire. The circuit breaker will
prevent such situations which simply cut off the remaining circuit.
Different Types of Circuit Breakers

The different types of high voltage circuit breakers which includes the following

 Air Circuit Breaker

 SF6 Circuit Breaker
 Vacuum Circuit Breaker
 Oil Circuit Breaker
 Air Circuit Breaker

Operation

All circuit breaker systems have common features in their operation, but details
vary substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit
breaker.
The circuit breaker must first detect a fault condition. In small mains and low
voltage circuit breakers, this is usually done within the device itself. Typically, the heating
or magnetic effects of electric current are employed.

Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged
with protective relay pilot devices to sense a fault condition and to operate the opening
mechanism. These typically require a separate power source, such as a battery, although
some high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protective
relays, and an internal control power source.

Once a fault is detected, the circuit breaker contacts must open to interrupt the circuit; this
is commonly done using mechanically stored energy contained within the breaker, such as
a spring or compressed air to separate the contacts.

Circuit breakers may also use the higher current caused by the fault to separate the
contacts, such as thermal expansion or a magnetic field. Small circuit breakers typically
have a manual control lever to switch off the load or reset a tripped breaker, while larger
units use solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the
springs.

The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating,
and must also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting (opening) the
circuit. Contacts are made of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys and other highly
conductive materials. Service life of the contacts is limited by the erosion of contact
material due to arcing while interrupting the current. Miniature and molded-case circuit
breakers are usually discarded when the contacts have worn, but power circuit breakers
and high-voltage circuit breakers have replaceable contacts.

When a high current or voltage is interrupted, an arc is generated. The length of the
arc is generally proportional to the voltage while the intensity (or heat) is proportional to
the current. This arc must be contained, cooled and extinguished in a controlled way, so
that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit. Different
circuit breakers use vacuum, air, insulating gas, or oil as the medium the arc forms in.

Different techniques are used to extinguish the arc including:

 Lengthening or deflecting the arc

 Intensive cooling (in jet chambers)

 Division into partial arcs

 Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in DC circuits.

Finally, once the fault condition has been cleared, the contacts must again be closed to
restore power to the interrupted circuit.

How to Determine Amperage of Circuit Breaker

Example for Fridge:

Device Watt / Volt circuit = Amps

Watt Device = 150

Volt circuit = 120

150 / 120 = 1.25 amps

Similarly ,

Fridge + Washing Machine +Video player = 1.25 + 2.70+ 0.33 = 4.28 amps

Application:

Protecting electric circuits against overload and short circuit currents.

3. Isolator:
Isolator is a manually operated mechanical switch which separates a part of
the electrical power. Isolators are used to open a circuit under no load. Its main
purpose is to isolate one portion of the circuit from the other and is not intended to
be opened while current is flowing in the line. Isolators are generally used on both
ends of the breaker in order that repair or replacement of circuit breaker can be done

without and danger.

Types of Electrical Isolators
There are different types of isolators available depending upon system requirement such
as

1. Double Break Isolator

2. Single Break Isolator
3. Pantograph type Isolator.
Depending upon the position in power system, the isolators can be categorized as

1. Bus side isolator – the isolator is directly connected with main bus
2. Line side isolator – the isolator is situated at line side of any feeder
3. Transfer bus side isolator – the isolator is directly connected with transfer bus.
Operation of Electrical Isolator
As no arc quenching technique is provided in isolator it must be operated when
there is no chance current flowing through the circuit.
No live circuit should be closed or open by isolator operation.
A complete live closed circuit must not be opened by isolator operation and also a
live circuit must not be closed and completed by isolator operation to avoid huge arcing in
between isolator contacts.
That is why isolators must be open after circuit breaker is open and these must be
closed before circuit breaker is closed. Isolator can be operated by hand locally as well as
by motorized mechanism from remote position.
Motorized operation arrangement costs more compared to hand operation; hence
decision must be taken before choosing an isolator for system whether hand operated or
motor operated economically optimum for the system.
For voltages up to 145 KV system hand operated isolators are used whereas for
higher voltage systems like 245 KV or 420 KV and above motorized isolators are used.
Use:
isolator switch is used to ensure that an electrical circuit is completely de-energized
for service or maintenance. Such switches are often found in electrical
distribution and industrial applications, where machinery must have its source of driving
power removed for adjustment or repair.
High-voltage isolation switches are used in electrical substations to allow isolation
of apparatus such as circuit breakers, transformers, and transmission lines, for
maintenance.
The disconnector is usually not intended for normal control of the circuit, but only
for safety isolation. Disconnectors can be operated either manually or automatically.

BASIS ISOLATOR CIRCUIT BREAKER

Type of Isolator is an off load device Circuit Breaker is an On load

device device.

Operation It is operated manually. It is operated Automatically.

BASIS ISOLATOR CIRCUIT BREAKER

Action of It is a Mechanical device which It is an Electronic device made

device acts as a switch. by using MOSFET or BJT.

Function Isolator cut out a portion of a The Circuit breaker is a device

substation when a fault such as ACB or MCB, which
occurred. The other devices trips the entire system if there is
operate without any interruption. any fault.

Withstand They have the low withstand They have the high withstand
Capability capacity as compared to Circuit capability at the on load
Breaker. condition.

4. Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

What is an Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)

An ECLB is one kind of safety device used for installing an electrical device
with high earth impedance to avoid shock. These devices identify small stray
voltages of the electrical device on the metal enclosures and intrude the circuit if a
dangerous voltage is identified. The main purpose of Earth leakage circuit breaker
(ECLB) is to stop damage to humans & animals due to electric shock.
 An ELCB is a specific type of latching relay that has a structure’s incoming mains
power associated through its switching contacts so that the circuit breaker detaches the
power in an unsafe condition.
The ELCB notices fault currents of human or animal to the earth wire in the
connection it guards. If ample voltage seems across the ELCB’s sense coil, it will turn off
the power, and remain off until manually rearrange. A voltage sensing ELCB doesn’t
detect fault currents from human or animal to the earth.

Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

The ELCB notices fault currents of human or animal to the earth wire in the connection it
guards. If ample voltage seems across the ELCB’s sense coil, it will turn off the power,
and remain off until manually rearrange. A voltage sensing ELCB doesn’t detect fault
currents from human or animal to the earth .

How to Connect Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

The earth circuit is adapted when an ELCB is used; the connection to the earth rod
is accepted through the earth leakage circuit breaker by linking to its two earth terminals.
One goes to the fitting earth circuit protective conductor (CPC), and the other to the earth
rod or another kind of earth connection. Thus the earth circuit permits through the ELCB’s
sense coil.
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

Types of Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)

There are two types of Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)

 Voltage Operated ELCB

 Current Operated ELCB
Voltage Operated ELCB

Voltage-operated ELCB device is used to detect a voltage to choose the Earth

leakage. A single-phase voltage ELCB includes 6-terminals namely line in, line out,
neutral in, neutral out, Earth and fault.

The metal body of the load is associated with the fault terminal of the Earth
Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) & Earth terminal is associated with the ground. For
usual working, the voltage across the trip coil is ‘0’, as the Load’s body is isolated from
the supply line.

When an Earth fault happens on the load due to the interaction of line wire to the
metal body, a current will run through fault to the ground. The flow of current will set up a
voltage across the trip coil, which is associated between E & F. The energized trip coil
will tour the circuit to guard the load device & the user.

A voltage-operated ELCB detects a growth in potential between the threatened

consistent metalwork and a distant isolated Earth reference electrode. They work as a
sensed potential of around 50V to open the main breaker & separate the supply from the
threatened premises.A voltage-operated ELCB includes a second terminal for linking to
the remote reference Earth connection.

The Earth circuit is improved when an ELCB is utilized; the link to the Earth rod is
delivered through the ELCB by linking to its two Earth terminals. One terminal energy to
the installation Earth circuit protective conductor, aka Earth wire (CPC), and the other to
the Earth rod or some type of earth connection

Advantages of Voltage Operated ELCB

 ELCBs are less sensitive to fault conditions and have few nuisance trips.
 While current and voltage on the ground line generally fault current from a live
wire, this is not continuously the case, therefore there are conditions in which an ELCB
can annoyance trip.
 When an installation of the electrical instrument has two contacts to earth, a near
high current lightning attack will root a voltage gradient in the earth, offering the ELCB
sense coil with sufficient voltage to source it to a trip.
 If either of the soil wires become detached from the ELCB, it will no longer install
will frequently no longer be correctly earthed.
 These ELCBs are the necessity for a second connection and the opportunity that any
extra connection to ground on the threatened system can inactivate the detector.
Disadvantages of Voltage Operated ELCB

 They do not sense errors that don’t permit current through the CPC to the ground
rod.
 They do not permit an only building system to be simply divided into many sections
with independent error protection because earthing systems are typically used mutual
earth, Rod.
 They may be skipped by outside voltages from something associated with the
earthing system like as metal pipes, a TN-C-S or a TN-S earth mutual neutral and earth.
 As electrical leaky utilizations like washing machines, some water heaters and
cookers might source the ELCB to trip.
 ELCBs present an extra resistance & an extra point of failure in the earthing system.
Current Operated ELCB

RCCB is the generally used ELCB and it comprises of a three winding transformer,
that has two primary windings and also one secondary winding. Neutral & line wires
work as the two main windings. A wire wound coil is the minor winding. The flow of
current through the minor winding is “0” in the stable condition. In this condition, the flux
owed to the current over the phase wire will be deactivated by the current through the
neutral wire, meanwhile the current, that flows from the phase will be refunded to the
neutral.
 When an error occurs, a slight current will run into the ground also. This creates a
confuse between line and neutral current and that makes an unstable magnetic field. This
encourages a current flow through the minor winding, which is associated with the
sensingcircuit. This will detect the outflow and direct signal to tripping system.

5. Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCI)

A ground-fault occurs when there is a break in the low-resistance grounding path

from a tool or electrical system. The electrical current may then take an alternative path to
the ground through the user, resulting in serious injuries or death.

The ground-fault circuit interrupter, or GFCI, is a fast-acting circuit breaker

designed to shut off electric power in the event of a ground-fault within as little as 1/40 of
a second. It works by comparing the amount of current going to and returning
from equipment along the circuit conductors. When the amount going differs from the
amount returning by approximately 5 milliamperes, the GFCI interrupts the current.

The GFCI is rated to trip quickly enough to prevent an electrical incident. If it is properly
installed and maintained, this will happen as soon as the faulty tool is plugged in. If the
grounding conductor is not intact or of low-impedance, the GFCI may not trip until a
person provides a path. In this case, the person will receive a shock, but the GFCI should
trip so quickly that the shock will not be harmful.

The GFCI will not protect you from line contact hazards (i.e. a person holding two "hot"
wires, a hot and a neutral wire in each hand, or contacting an overhead power line).
However, it protects against the most common form of electrical shock hazard, the
ground-fault. It also protects against fires, overheating, and destruction of wire insulation.

For construction applications, there are several types of GFCIs available, with some
variations

Receptacle Type:

The Receptacle Type incorporates a GFCI device within one or more receptacle outlets.
Such devices are becoming popular because of their low cost.
Portable Type:

Portable Type GFCIs come in several styles, all designed for easy transport. Some
are designed to plug into existing non-GFCI outlets, or connect with a cord and plug
arrangement. The portable type also incorporates a no-voltage release device that will
disconnect power to the outlets if any supply conductor is open. Units approved for
outdoor use will be in enclosures suitable for the environment. If exposed to rain, they
must be listed as waterproof.

Cord-Connected Type:

The Cord-Connected Type of GFCI is an attachment plug incorporating the GFCI

module. It protects the cord and any equipment attached to the cord. The attachment plug
has a non-standard appearance with test and reset buttons. Like the portable type, it
incorporates a no-voltage release device that will disconnect power to the load if any
supply conductor is open.

5.Residual Current Circuit Breaker

Function:
Residual Current Circuit Breaker is essentially a device which senses current and
disconnects any low voltage (unbalanced current) circuit whenever there is any fault
occurs.
Purpose:
Residual Current Circuit Breaker basically is installed to prevent human from
shocks or death caused by shocks. It prevents accidents by disconnecting the main circuit
within fraction of seconds.
How Residual Current Circuit Breaker Works?
It has very simple working based on Kirchhoff's Current Law i.e the incoming
current in a circuit must be equal to the outgoing current from that circuit. This circuit
breaker is made such that whenever a fault occurs the current balance of line and neutral
did not matches (imbalance occurs, as the fault current finds another earthing path of
current).

Its circuit is made such that an every instance it compares the value of incoming
and outgoing circuit current. Whenever it is not equal, the residual current which is
basically the difference between the two currents actuates the circuit to trip/switch off.

Working Principle of Residual Current Circuit Breaker

Test Circuit:
The test circuit is always included with the RCD which basically connects between
the line conductor on the load side and the supply neutral. It helps to test the circuit when
it is on or off the live supply. Whenever the test button is pushed current starts flowing
through the test circuit depending upon the resistance provided in this circuit. This current
passes through the RCD line side coil along with load current.
But as this circuit bypasses neutral side coil of RCD, there will be an unbalance
between the line side and neutral side coil of the device and consequently, the RCCB trips
to disconnect the supply even in normal condition. This is how the test circuit tests the
reliability of RCCB.
Types of Residual Current Circuit Breaker
2 Pole: It is for single phase line consisting of one live and one neutral wire slot in it.

4 Pole: It is designed for three phase line consisting of 4 slots where three phase wires and
a neutral wire can be connected.

Conclusion: Hence it provides a real time protection device for major circuits used
commercially in industries and other high voltage commercial places where there is a
always a risk of shocks and accidental deaths due to it.

6. Miniature Circuit Breaker or MCB

What is MCB?
Nowadays we use more commonly miniature circuit breaker or MCB in low voltage
electrical network instead of fuse. The MCB has some advantages compared to fuse.

1. It automatically switches off the electrical circuit during abnormal condition of the
network means in over load condition as well as faulty condition. The fuse does not
sense but miniature circuit breaker does it in more reliable way. MCB is much more
sensitive to over current than fuse.
2. Another advantage is, as the switch operating knob comes at its off position during
tripping, the faulty zone of the electrical circuit can easily be identified. But in case of
 fuse, fuse wire should be checked by opening fuse grip or cutout from fuse base, for
confirming the blow of fuse wire.
3. Quick restoration of supply can not be possible in case of fuse as because fuses
have to be rewirable or replaced for restoring the supply. But in the case of MCB,
quick restoration is possible by just switching on operation.
4. Handling MCB is more electrically safe than fuse. Because of to many advantages
of MCB over fuse units, in modern low voltage electrical network, miniature circuit
breaker is mostly used instead of backdated fuse unit.
Only one disadvantage of MCB over fuse is that this system is more costlier than fuse unit
system.

Working Principle Miniature Circuit Breaker

There are two arrangement of operation of miniature circuit breaker.

One due to thermal effect of over current and other due to electromagnetic effect of
over current.

The thermal operation of miniature circuit breaker is achieved with a bimetallic

strip whenever continuous over current flows through MCB, the bimetallic strip is heated
and deflects by bending. This deflection of bimetallic strip releases mechanical latch. As
this mechanical latch is attached with operating mechanism, it causes to open the
miniature circuit breaker contacts. But during short circuit condition, sudden rising of
current, causes electromechanical displacement of plunger associated with tripping coil or
solenoid of MCB.

The plunger strikes the trip lever causing immediate release of latch mechanism
consequently open the circuit breaker contacts.

Miniature Circuit Breaker Construction

Miniature circuit breaker construction is very simple, robust and maintenance free.
Generally a MCB is not repaired or maintained, it just replaced by new one when
required. A miniature circuit breaker has normally three main constructional parts. These
are:

Frame of Miniature Circuit Breaker

The frame of miniature circuit breaker is a molded case. This is a rigid, strong, insulated
housing in which the other components are mounted.

Operating Mechanism of Miniature Circuit Breaker

The operating mechanism of miniature circuit breaker provides the means of manual
opening and closing operation of miniature circuit breaker. It has three-positions "ON,"
"OFF," and "TRIPPED". The external switching latch can be in the "TRIPPED" position,
if the MCB is tripped due to over-current. When manually switch off the MCB, the
switching latch will be in "OFF" position. In close condition of MCB, the switch is
positioned at "ON". By observing the positions of the switching latch one can determine
the condition of MCB whether it is closed, tripped or manually switched off.

Trip Unit of Miniature Circuit Breaker

The trip unit is the main part, responsible for proper working of miniature circuit
breaker. Two main types of trip mechanism are provided in MCB. A bimetal provides
protection against over load current and an electromagnet provides protection against
short-circuit current.

Operation of Miniature Circuit Breaker

There are three mechanisms provided in a single miniature circuit breaker to make it
switched off. If we carefully observe the picture beside, we will find there are mainly one
bi - metallic strip, one trip coil and one hand operated on - off lever. Electric current
carrying path of a miniature circuit breaker shown in the picture is like follows. First left
hand side power terminal - then bimetallic strip - then current coil or trip coil - then
moving contact - then fixed contact and - lastly right had side power terminal. All are
arranged in series.
 If circuit is overloaded for long time, the bi - metallic strip becomes over heated and
deformed. This deformation of bi metallic strip causes, displacement of latch point. The
moving contact of the MCB is so arranged by means of spring pressure, with this latch
point, that a little displacement of latch causes, release of spring and makes the moving
contact to move for opening the MCB.

The current coil or trip coil is placed such a manner, that during short circuit fault
the mmf of that coil causes its plunger to hit the same latch point and make the latch to be
displaced. Hence the MCB will open in same manner.

Again when operating lever of the miniature circuit breaker is operated by hand,
that means when we make the MCB at off position manually, the same latch point is
displaced as a result moving contact separated from fixed contact in same manner. So,
whatever may be the operating mechanism, that means, may be due to deformation of bi -
metallic strip, due to increased mmf of trip coil or may due to manual operation, actually
the same latch point is displaced and same deformed spring is released, which ultimately
responsible for movement of the moving contact.

When the the moving contact separated from fixed contact, there may be a high
chance of arc. This arc then goes up through the arc runner and enters into arc splitters and
is finally quenched. When we switch on an MCB, we actually reset the displaced
operating latch to its previous on position and make the MCB ready for another switch off
or trip operation.

7. Lightning Arrester

Introduction :

A Lightning Arrester, Surge arrester or Line arrester is a device used on electrical

power systems and telecommunications systems to protect the insulation and conductors
of the system from the damaging effects of lightning.
 The typical Lightning Arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a ground terminal.
When a lightning surge (or switching surge) travels along the power line to the Arrester,
the current from the surge is diverted through the Arrestor, in most cases to the earth.

Without good earth connections, even the most sophisticated of building lightning
protection installations will be ineffective. However, the only way to ensure that the earth
connections really are good is to test them. If protection fails or is absent, lightning that
strikes the electrical system introduces thousands of kilo Volts that may damage the
transmission lines, and can also cause severe damage to transformers and other electrical
or electronic devices.

What is a Lightning Arrester/Surge Arrester?

Surge arresters are devices that help prevent damage to apparatus due to high
voltages. The arrester provides a low-impedance path to ground for the current from a
lightning strike or transient voltage and then restores to a normal operating conditions. A
surge arrester may be compared to a relief valve on a boiler or hot water heater.

It will release high pressure until a normal operating condition is reached. When the
pressure is returned to normal, the safety valve is ready for the next operation. When a
high voltage (greater than the normal line voltage) exists on the line, the arrester
immediately furnishes a path to ground and thus limits and drains off the excess voltage.
The arrester must provide this relief and then prevent any further flow of current to
ground. The arrester has two functions, it must provide a point in the circuit at which an
over-voltage pulse can pass to ground and second, to prevent any follow-up current from
flowing to ground.
 Various types of surge voltages can occur in electrical and electronic systems. They
differ mainly with respect to their duration and amplitude. Depending on the cause, a
surge voltage can last a few hundred microseconds, hours or even days.

The amplitude can range from a few millivolts to some ten thousand volts.
Lightning strikes are a special cause of surge voltages. Direct and indirect strikes can
result not only in high surge voltage amplitudes, but also particularly high and sometimes
long current flows, which then have very serious effects

Working Principle of LA:

 The earthing screen and ground wires can well protect the electrical system against
direct lightning strokes but they fail to provide protection against traveling waves,
which may reach the terminal apparatus. The lightning arresters or surge diverts
provide protection against such surges. A lightning arrester or a surge diverted is a
protective device, which conducts the high voltage surges on the power system to the
ground.
 The earthing screen and ground wires can well protect the electrical system against
direct lightning strokes but they fail to provide protection against traveling waves,
which may reach the terminal apparatus. The lightning arresters or surge diverters
provide protection against such surges. A lightning arrester or a surge diverted is a
protective device, which conducts the high voltage surges on the power system to the
ground.
  Fig shows the basic form of a surge diverter. It consists of a spark gap in series with
a non-linear resistor. One end of the diverter is connected to the terminal of the
equipment to be protected and the other end is effectively grounded. The length of the
gap is so set that normal voltage is not enough to cause an arc but a dangerously high
voltage will break down the air insulation and form an arc. The property of the non-
linear resistance is that its resistance increases as the voltage (or current) increases and
vice-versa. This is clear from the volt/amp characteristic of the resistor shown in Fig
 The action of the lightning arrester or surge divert er is as under:
 (i) Under normal operation, the lightning arrester is off the line i.e. it conducts no
current to earth or the gap is non-conducting
 (ii) On the occurrence of over voltage, the air insulation across the gap breaks down
and an arc is formed providing a low resistance path for the surge to the ground. In this
way, the excess charge on the line due to the surge is harmlessly conducted through the
arrester to the ground instead of being sent back over the line.
 (iii) It is worthwhile to mention the function of non-linear resistor in the operation
of arrester. As the gap sparks over due to over voltage, the arc would be a short-circuit
on the power system and may cause power-follow current in the arrester. Since the
characteristic of the resistor is to offer low resistance to high voltage (or current), it
gives the effect of short-circuit. After the surge is over, the resistor offers high
resistance to make the gap non-conducting

Types of Lightning Arrester

 Rod gap arrester

 Sphere gap arrester

 Horn gap arrester

 Multi gap arrester

 Electrolyte type arrester

 Metal-oxide lightning arrester

Maintenance of Lightning Arrester

 Cleaning the outside of the arrester housing.

 The line should be de-energized before handling the arrester.

 The earth connection should be checked periodically.

 To record the readings of the surge counter.

 The line lead is securely fastened to the line conductor and arrester.

 The ground lead is securely fastened to the arrester terminal and ground.

Why Lightning Arrester Testing is Done?

If protection fails or is absent, lightning that strikes the electrical system introduces 1000
of kilo Volts that may damage the transmission lines, and can also cause severe damage to
transformers and other electrical or electronic devices. Lightning-produced extreme
voltage spikes in incoming power lines can also damage electrical home appliances that’s
why it is damn crucial to check the integrity of Lightning Arrester.

A direct lightning strike in the building can cause following damages:

 Impact on health or loss of life.

 Loss of technical services for the public.

 Loss of irreplaceable objects of cultural significance.

 Financial losses.

Lightning arrester testing should be scheduled as follows:

 Explosion-protected, physical structures should undergo a visual check every

6 months.
 The electrical test of the installations should be carried out once a year. •

 For systems with strict requirements in terms of safety technology, for example, the
legislator can prescribe a comprehensive check. This can be necessary if there has been a
lightning strike within a certain radius of the respective system.

Comprehensive testing in critical situations relates to physical structures that contain

sensitive systems or systems with a large number of persons.

Lightning protective devices are developed, tested, and classified according to their own
international series of product standards and they have defined protection functions and
performance parameters to make them suitable for use in corresponding protection
concepts.

Thus to achieve high system availability, system operators must regularly inspect and
maintain their electrical system. This is stipulated by legislators, supervisory authorities or
professional associations based on the respective system type. Regular testing and
maintenance of lightning protection systems (external and internal lightning protection) is
also required according to lightning protection standard IEC 62305-3.

Specialist knowledge is required in order to carry out professional testing of lightning

protection systems. For this reason, this test must be carried out by a lightning protection
expert, like Carelabs.
 Inspecting the SPDs (Surge Protective Devices) is also part of this. The standard also
demands that maintenance is properly documented.

What is Done During Lightning Arrester Testing?

Protective measures against lightning strike events are stipulated in lightning protection
standard IEC 62305. Other standards in the series are IEC 61643-11, BS6651, IEC 61643-
21 and IEC 61643-31. Over twelve years, the protection system will test under all seasonal
conditions – these can significantly affect performance due to changes in resistance and
other characteristics. Following tests can be conducted:

 Resistance testing
 Continuity testing

 Ground or soil resistivity testing

 Visual inspection

Benefits of Lightning Arrester Testing

 Lightning protection testing would make sure that all structures, key electrical and
electronic installations are safe from the effect of lightning strike.
 The financial benefits are determined as follows: how does the total annual cost for
a lightning protection system compare to the costs of potential damage without a
protection system? The cost evaluation is based on the expenditures for the planning,
assembly, and maintenance of the lightning protection system.

8. Earthing :
 If there is a fault in your electrical installation you could get an electric shock if you
touch a live metal part. This is because the electricity may use your body as a path from
the live part to the earth part.

Earthing is used to protect you from an electric shock. It does this by providing a
path (a protective conductor) for a fault current to flow to earth. It also causes the
protective device (either a circuit-breaker or fuse) to switch off the electric current to the
circuit that has the fault.For example, if a cooker has a fault, the fault current flows to
earth through the protective (earthing) conductors.

A protective device (fuse or circuit-breaker) in the consumer unit switches off the
electrical supply to the cooker. The cooker is now safe from causing an electric shock to
anyone who touches it.

Minimum Earthing Resistance value = 5 ohm or less

Methods of Earthing:

There are several methods of earthing like wire or strip earthing, rod earthing, pipe
earthing, plate earthing or earthing through water mains. Most commonly used methods of
earthing are pipe earthing and plate earthing. These methods are explained below in
details.

Earthing Mat:

Earthing mat is made by joining the number of rods through copper conductors. It reduced
the overall grounding resistance. Such type of system helps in limiting the ground
potential. Earthing mat is mostly used in a placed where the large fault current is to be
experienced. While designing an earth mat, the following step is taken into consideration.
 In a fault condition, the voltage between the ground and the ground surface should
not be dangerous to a person who may touch the noncurrent-carrying conducting surface
of the electrical system.
 Electrical Earth mat Thickness – 12 mm

 The uninterrupted fault current that may flow into the earthing mat should be large
enough to operate the protective relay. The resistance of the ground is low to allow the
fault current to flow through it.The resistance of the mat should not be of such a
magnitude as to permit the flow of fatal current in the live body.

 The design of grounding mat should be such that the step voltage should be less
than the permissible value which would depend on the resistivity of the soil and fault
required for isolating the faulty plant from the live system.

Earthing Electrode:

In this type of earthing any wire, rod, pipe, plate or a bundle of conductors, inserted in the
ground horizontally or vertically. In distributing systems, the earth electrode may consist
of a rod, about 1 meter in length and driven vertically into the ground. In generating
substations, grounding mat is used rather than individual rods.
Pipe Earthing

This is the most common and best system of earthing as compared to other systems
suitable for the same earth and moisture conditions. In this method the galvanized steel
and perforated pipe of approved length and diameter in place upright in a permanently wet
soil, as shown below. The size of the pipe depends upon the current to be carried and type
of soil.

Normally, the size of the pipe uses for earthing is of diameter 40 mm and 2.5 meters in
length for ordinary soil or of greater length in case of dry and rocky soil. The depth at
which the pipe must be buried depends on the moistures of the ground.
The pipe is placed at 3.75 meters. The bottom of the pipe is surrounded by small pieces of
coke or charcoal at a distance of about 15 cm. Alternate layers of coke and salt are used to
increase the effective area of the earth and to decrease the earth resistance respectively.

Another pipe of 19 mm diameter and minimum length 1.25 meters is connected at the top
of GI pipe through reducing socket.

During summer the moisture in the soil decreases, which causes an increase in earth
resistance. So a cement concrete work is done to keep the water arrangement accessible,
and in summer to have an effective earth, 3 or 4 buckets of water are put through the
funnel connected to 19 mm diameter pipe, which is further connected to GI pipe.

The earth wire either GI or a strip of GI wire of sufficient cross section to carry faulty
current safely is carried in a GI pipe of diameter 12 mm at a depth of about 60cm from the
ground.

Plate Earthing

In Plate Earthing an earthing plate either of copper of dimension 60cm×60cm×3m of

galvanized iron of dimensions 60 cm× 60 cm×6 mm is buried into the ground with its face
vertical at a depth of not less than 3 meters from ground level.
 The earth plate is inserted into
auxiliary layers of coke and salt for a minimum thickness of 15 cm. The earth wire (GI or
copper wire) is tightly bolted to an earth plate with the help of nut or bolt. The copper
plate and copper wire are usually not employed for grounding purposes because of their
higher cost.

Earthing Through Water Mains

In this type of earthing the GI or copper wire are connected to the water mains with the
help of the steel binding wire which is fixed on copper lead as shown below.
The water pipe is made up of metal, and it is placed below the surface of the ground, i.e.
directly connected to earth. The fault current flow through the GI or copper wire is
directly get earthed through the water pipe.
Purpose of Earthing

Safety for Human life/ Building/Equipments

Over voltage protection

Voltage stabilization

Method for Construction of Earthing Pit (Indian Electricity Board):

 Excavation on earth for a normal earth Pit size is 1.5M X 1.5M X 3.0 M.
 Use 500 mm X 500 mm X 10 mm GI Plate or Bigger Size for more Contact of
Earth and reduce Earth Resistance.
 Make a mixture of Wood Coal Powder Salt & Sand all in equal part
 Wood Coal Powder use as good conductor of electricity, anti corrosive, rust proves
for GI Plate for long life.
 The purpose of coal and salt is to keep wet the soil permanently.
 The salt percolates and coal absorbs water keeping the soil wet.
 Care should always be taken by watering the earth pits in summer so that the pit soil
will be wet.
 Coal is made of carbon which is good conductor minimizing the earth resistant.
 Salt use as electrolyte to form conductivity between GI Plate Coal and Earth with
humidity.
 Sand has used to form porosity to cycle water & humidity around the mixture.
 Put GI Plate (EARTH PLATE) of size 500 mm X 500 mm X 10 mm in the mid of
mixture.
 Use Double GI Strip size 30 mm X 10 mm to connect GI Plate to System Earthling.
 It will be better to use GI Pipe of size 2.5″ diameter with a Flange on the top of GI
Pipe to cover GI Strip from EARTH PLATE to Top Flange.
 Cover Top of GI pipe with a T joint to avoid jamming of pipe with dust & mud and
also use water time to time through this pipe to bottom of earth plate.
 Maintain less than one Ohm Resistance from EARTH PIT conductor to a distance
of 15 Meters around the EARTH PIT with another conductor dip on the Earth at least
500 mm deep.
 Check Voltage between Earth Pit conductors to Neutral of Mains Supply 220V AC
50 Hz it should be less than 2.0 Volts

8.Relay:

A relay is usually an electromechanical device that is actuated by an

electrical current. The current flowing in one circuit causes the opening or closing of
another circuit. Relays are like remote control switches and are used in many
applications because of their relative simplicity, long life, and proven high reliability.

Relays are used in a wide variety of applications throughout industry, such

as in telephone exchanges, digital computers and automation systems. Highly
sophisticated relays are utilized to protect electric power systems against trouble and
power blackouts as well as to regulate and control the generation and distribution of
power.
 In the home, relays are used in refrigerators, washing machines and
dishwashers, and heating and air-conditioning controls. Although relays are generally
associated with electrical circuitry, there are many other types, such as pneumatic and
hydraulic. Input may be electrical and output directly mechanical, or vice versa.

Working
All relays contain a sensing unit, the electric coil, which is powered by AC or DC current.
When the applied current or voltage exceeds a threshold value, the coil activates the
armature, which operates either to close the open contacts or to open the closed contacts.
When a power is supplied to the coil, it generates a magnetic force that actuates the switch
mechanism. The magnetic force is, in effect, relaying the action from one circuit to
another.

The first circuit is called the control circuit; the second is called the load circuit.
There are three basic functions of a relay: On/Off Control, Limit Control and Logic
Operation.
On/Off Control:

Types
There are two basic classifications of relays:
Electromechanical and Solid State.

Electromechanical relays have moving parts, whereas solid state relays have no moving
parts. Advantages of Electromechanical relays include lower cost, no heat sink is required,
multiple poles are available, and they can switch AC or DC with equal ease.

Electromechanical Relays

General Purpose Relay:

The general-purpose relay is rated by the amount of current its switch contacts can
handle. Most versions of the general-purpose relay have one to eight poles and can be
single or double throw. These are found in computers, copy machines, and other consumer
electronic equipment and appliances.

Power Relay: The power relay is capable of handling larger power loads – 10-50
amperes or more. They are usually single-pole or double-pole units.

Contactor: A special type of high power relay, it’s used mainly to control high
voltages and currents in industrial electrical applications. Because of these high power
requirements, contactors always have double-make contacts.

Time-Delay Relay: The contacts might not open or close until some time interval
after the coil has been energized. This is called delay-on-operate. Delay-on-release means
that the contacts will remain in their actuated position until some interval after the power
has been removed from the coil. A third delay is called interval timing. Contacts revert to
their alternate position at a specific interval of time after the coil has been energized. The
timing of these actions may be a fixed parameter of the relay, or adjusted by a knob on the
relay itself, or remotely adjusted through an external circuit

Solid State Relays

These active semiconductor devices use light instead of magnetism to actuate a switch.
The light comes from an LED, or light emitting diode. When control power is applied to
the device’s
output, the light General Purpose Relay is turned on and shines across an open space.

On the load side of this space, a part of the device senses the presence of the light,
and triggers a solid state switch that either opens or closes the circuit under control. Often,
solid state relays are used where the circuit under control must be protected from the
introduction of electrical noises.