0% found this document useful (0 votes)
801 views24 pages

Ozone Layer Depletion

The document discusses ozone layer depletion and the environmental issues it poses. It describes how ozone forms a protective layer in the stratosphere and its importance in absorbing harmful UV radiation. It then explains that depletion of the ozone layer is a serious problem, with the layer thinning at mid-latitudes and forming holes over Antarctica. The primary cause of depletion is chlorine and bromine atoms released by CFCs and related chemicals into the atmosphere. Increased emissions of these ozone-depleting substances have strengthened both polar ozone hole formation and mid-latitude thinning.

Uploaded by

Jayan Gj
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
801 views24 pages

Ozone Layer Depletion

The document discusses ozone layer depletion and the environmental issues it poses. It describes how ozone forms a protective layer in the stratosphere and its importance in absorbing harmful UV radiation. It then explains that depletion of the ozone layer is a serious problem, with the layer thinning at mid-latitudes and forming holes over Antarctica. The primary cause of depletion is chlorine and bromine atoms released by CFCs and related chemicals into the atmosphere. Increased emissions of these ozone-depleting substances have strengthened both polar ozone hole formation and mid-latitude thinning.

Uploaded by

Jayan Gj
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 24

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES PROJECT

ON

By
JAYAN GENESIUS JOSEPH

St.JOHN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &


TECHNOLOGY

TE-INFORMATION TECNOLOGY

ROLL NO- 14
Introduction to OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone is a colorless gas found in the upper atmosphere of the Earth and
formed by the action of ultraviolet radiation on oxygen. Ozone forms a
layer in the stratosphere, which protects life on Earth from the harmful
effects of ultraviolet radiation
Today, one of the most discussed and serious environmental issues are
the ozone layer depletion, the layer of gas that forms a protective
covering in the Earth's upper atmosphere. Ozone is formed when oxygen
molecules absorb ultraviolet photons and undergo a chemical reaction
known as photo dissociation or photolysis, where a single molecule of
oxygen breaks down to two oxygen atoms. The free oxygen atom (O),
then combines with an oxygen molecule (O2) and forms a molecule of
ozone (O3). The ozone molecules in turn absorb ultraviolet rays between
310 to 200 nm wavelengths and thereby prevent these harmful radiations
from entering the Earth's atmosphere. In the process, ozone molecules
split up into a molecule of oxygen and an oxygen atom. The oxygen
atom (O) again combines with the oxygen molecule (O2) to regenerate
an ozone (O3) molecule. Thus, the total amount of ozone is maintained
by this continuous process of destruction and regeneration.
Ozone layer depletion first captured the attention of the whole world in
the later half of 1970 and since then, many discussions and researches
have been carried out to find out the possible effects and the causes of
ozone depletion. Many studies have also been directed to find out a
possible solution.
The detailed mechanism by which the polar ozone holes form is
different from that for the mid-latitude thinning, but the most important
process in both trends is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic
chlorine and bromine. The main source of these halogen atoms in the
stratosphere is photodissociation of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
compounds, commonly called freons, and of bromofluorocarbon
compounds known as halons. These compounds are transported into the
stratosphere after being emitted at the surface. Both ozone depletion
mechanisms strengthened as emissions of CFCs and halons increased.

CFCs and other contributory substances are commonly referred to as


ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents
most harmful UVB wavelengths (270–315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV
light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere, observed and
projected decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern leading
to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs
and halons as well as related ozone depleting chemicals such as carbon
tetrachloride and trichloroethane. It is suspected that a variety of
biological consequences such as increases in skin cancer, cataracts,
damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean's
photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone
depletion.
Ozone cycle overview
Three forms (or allotropes) of oxygen are involved in the ozone-oxygen
cycle: oxygen atoms (O or atomic oxygen), oxygen gas (O2 or diatomic
oxygen), and ozone gas (O3 or triatomic oxygen). Ozone is formed in the
stratosphere when oxygen molecules photodissociate after absorbing an
ultraviolet photon whose wavelength is shorter than 240 nm. This
produces two oxygen atoms. The atomic oxygen then combines with O2
to create O3. Ozone molecules absorb UV light between 310 and

200 nm, following which ozone splits into a molecule of O2 and an


oxygen atom. The oxygen atom then joins up with an oxygen molecule
to regenerate ozone. This is a continuing process which terminates when
an oxygen atom "recombines" with an ozone molecule to make two O2
molecules: O + O3 → 2 O2

The overall amount of ozone in the stratosphere is determined by a


balance between photochemical production and recombination.
Ozone can be destroyed by a number of free radical catalysts, the most
important of which are the hydroxyl radical (OH·), the nitric oxide
radical (NO), atomic chlorine (Cl) and bromine (Br). All of these have
both natural and manmade sources; at the present time, most of the OH·
and NO· in the stratosphere is of natural origin, but human activity has
dramatically increased the levels of chlorine and bromine. These
elements are found in certain stable organic compounds, especially
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which may find their way to the
stratosphere without being destroyed in the troposphere due to their low
reactivity. Once in the stratosphere, the Cl and Br atoms are liberated
from the parent compounds by the action of ultraviolet light, e.g. ('h' is
Planck's constant, 'ν' is frequency of electromagnetic radiation)

CFCl3 + hν → CFCl2 + Cl

The Cl and Br atoms can then destroy ozone molecules through a variety
of catalytic cycles. In the simplest example of such a cycle, a chlorine
atom reacts with an ozone molecule, taking an oxygen atom with it
(forming ClO) and leaving a normal oxygen molecule. The chlorine
monoxide (i.e., the ClO) can react with a second molecule of ozone (i.e.,
O3) to yield another chlorine atom and two molecules of oxygen. The
chemical shorthand for these gas-phase reactions is:

Cl + O3 → ClO + O2

ClO + O3 → Cl + 2 O2

The overall effect is a decrease in the amount of ozone. More


complicated mechanisms have been discovered that lead to ozone
destruction in the lower stratosphere as well.

A single chlorine atom would keep on destroying ozone (thus a catalyst)


for up to two years (the time scale for transport back down to the
troposphere) were it not for reactions that remove them from this cycle
by forming reservoir species such as hydrogen chloride (HCl) and
chlorine nitrate (ClONO2). On a per atom basis, bromine is even more
efficient than chlorine at destroying ozone, but there is much less
bromine in the atmosphere at present. As a result, both chlorine and
bromine contribute significantly to the overall ozone depletion.
Laboratory studies have shown that fluorine and iodine atoms participate
in analogous catalytic cycles. However, in the Earth's stratosphere,
fluorine atoms react rapidly with water and methane to form strongly
bound HF, while organic molecules which contain iodine react so
rapidly in the lower atmosphere that they do not reach the stratosphere in
significant quantities. Furthermore, a single chlorine atom is able to
react with 100,000 ozone molecules. This fact plus the amount of
chlorine released into the atmosphere by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
yearly demonstrates how dangerous CFCs are to the environment.
Observations on ozone layer depletion
The most pronounced decrease in ozone has been in the lower
stratosphere. However, the ozone hole is most usually measured not in
terms of ozone concentrations at these levels (which are typically of a
few parts per million) but by reduction in the total column ozone, above
a point on the Earth's surface, which is normally expressed in Dobson
units, abbreviated as "DU". Marked decreases in column ozone in the
Antarctic spring and early summer compared to the early 1970s and
before have been observed using instruments such as the Total Ozone
Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS)

Lowest value of ozone measured by TOMS each year in the ozone hole.

Reductions of up to 70% in the ozone column observed in the austral


(southern hemispheric) spring over Antarctica and first reported in 1985
(Farman et al. 1985) are continuing. Through the 1990s, total column
ozone in September and October have continued to be 40–50% lower
than pre-ozone-hole values. In the Arctic the amount lost is more
variable year-to-year than in the Antarctic. The greatest declines, up to
30%, are in the winter and spring, when the stratosphere is colder.

Reactions that take place on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) play an


important role in enhancing ozone depletion. PSCs form more readily in
the extreme cold of Antarctic stratosphere. This is why ozone holes first
formed, and are deeper, over Antarctica. Early models failed to take
PSCs into account and predicted a gradual global depletion, which is
why the sudden Antarctic ozone hole was such a surprise to many
scientists.

In middle latitudes it is preferable to speak of ozone depletion rather


than holes. Declines are about 3% below pre-1980 values for 35–60°N
and about 6% for 35–60°S. In the tropics, there are no significant trends.

Ozone depletion also explains much of the observed reduction in


stratospheric and upper tropospheric temperatures. The source of the
warmth of the stratosphere is the absorption of UV radiation by ozone,
hence reduced ozone leads to cooling. Some stratospheric cooling is also
predicted from increases in greenhouse gases such as CO2; however the
ozone-induced cooling appears to be dominant.

Predictions of ozone levels remain difficult. The World Meteorological


Organization Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project—Report
No. 44 comes out strongly in favor for the Montreal Protocol, but notes
that a UNEP 1994 Assessment overestimated ozone loss for the 1994–
1997 period.
Chemicals in the atmosphere

CFCs in the atmosphere

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were invented by Thomas Midgley, Jr. in


the 1920s. They were used in air conditioning/cooling units, as aerosol
spray propellants prior to the 1980s, and in the cleaning processes of
delicate electronic equipment. They also occur as by-products of some
chemical processes. No significant natural sources have ever been
identified for these compounds — their presence in the atmosphere is
due almost entirely to human manufacture. As mentioned in the ozone
cycle overview above, when such ozone-depleting chemicals reach the
stratosphere, they are dissociated by ultraviolet light to release chlorine
atoms. The chlorine atoms act as a catalyst, and each can break down
tens of thousands of ozone molecules before being removed from the
stratosphere. Given the longevity of CFC molecules, recovery times are
measured in decades. It is calculated that a CFC molecule takes an
average of 15 years to go from the ground level up to the upper
atmosphere, and it can stay there for about a century, destroying up to
one hundred thousand ozone molecules during that time.

Verification of observations

Scientists have been increasingly able to attribute the observed ozone


depletion to the increase of man-made (anthropogenic) halogen
compounds from CFCs by the use of complex chemistry transport
models and their validation against observational data (e.g. SLIMCAT,
CLaMS). These models work by combining satellite measurements of
chemical concentrations and meteorological fields with chemical
reaction rate constants obtained in lab experiments. They are able to
identify not only the key chemical reactions but also the transport
processes which bring CFC photolysis products into contact with ozone.

The ozone hole and its causes


The Antarctic ozone hole is an area of the Antarctic stratosphere in
which the recent ozone levels have dropped to as low as 33% of their
pre-1975 values. The ozone hole occurs during the Antarctic spring,
from September to early December, as strong westerly winds start to
circulate around the continent and create an atmospheric container.
Within this polar vortex, over 50% of the lower stratospheric ozone is
destroyed during the Antarctic spring.

As explained above, the primary cause of ozone depletion is the


presence of chlorine-containing source gases (primarily CFCs and
related halocarbons). In the presence of UV light, these gases dissociate,
releasing chlorine atoms, which then go on to catalyze ozone
destruction. The Cl-catalyzed ozone depletion can take place in the gas
phase, but it is dramatically enhanced in the presence of polar
stratospheric clouds (PSCs).

These polar stratospheric clouds (PSC) form during winter, in the


extreme cold. Polar winters are dark, consisting of 3 months without
solar radiation (sunlight). The lack of sunlight contributes to a decrease
in temperature and the polar vortex traps and chills air. Temperatures
hover around or below -80 °C. These low temperatures form cloud
particles. There are three types of PSC clouds; nitric acid trihydrate
clouds, slowly cooling water-ice clouds, and rapid cooling water-ice
(nacerous) clouds; that provide surfaces for chemical reactions that lead
to ozone destruction.
The photochemical processes involved are complex but well understood.
The key observation is that, ordinarily, most of the chlorine in the
stratosphere resides in stable "reservoir" compounds, primarily
hydrochloric acid (HCl) and chlorine nitrate (ClONO2). During the
Antarctic winter and spring, however, reactions on the surface of the
polar stratospheric cloud particles convert these "reservoir" compounds
into reactive free radicals (Cl and ClO). The clouds can also remove NO2
from the atmosphere by converting it to nitric acid, which prevents the
newly formed ClO from being converted back into ClONO2.

The role of sunlight in ozone depletion is the reason why the Antarctic
ozone depletion is greatest during spring. During winter, even though
PSCs are at their most abundant, there is no light over the pole to drive
the chemical reactions. During the spring, however, the sun comes out,
providing energy to drive photochemical reactions, and melt the polar
stratospheric clouds, releasing the trapped compounds. Warming
temperatures near the end of spring break up the vortex around mid-
December. As warm, ozone-rich air flows in from lower latitudes, the
PSCs are destroyed, the ozone depletion process shuts down, and the
ozone hole closes.

Most of the ozone that is destroyed is in the lower stratosphere, in


contrast to the much smaller ozone depletion through homogeneous gas
phase reactions, which occurs primarily in the upper stratosphere.
Interest in ozone layer depletion

While the effect of the Antarctic ozone hole in decreasing the global
ozone is relatively small, estimated at about 4% per decade, the hole has
generated a great deal of interest because:

 The decrease in the ozone layer was predicted in the early 1980s to
be roughly 7% over a 60 year period.
 The sudden recognition in 1985 that there was a substantial "hole"
was widely reported in the press. The especially rapid ozone
depletion in Antarctica had previously been dismissed as a
measurement error.
 Many were worried that ozone holes might start to appear over
other areas of the globe but to date the only other large-scale
depletion is a smaller ozone "dimple" observed during the Arctic
spring over the North Pole. Ozone at middle latitudes has declined,
but by a much smaller extent (about 4–5% decrease).
 If the conditions became more severe (cooler stratospheric
temperatures, more stratospheric clouds, more active chlorine),
then global ozone may decrease at a much greater pace. Standard
global warming theory predicts that the stratosphere will cool.
 When the Antarctic ozone hole breaks up, the ozone-depleted air
drifts out into nearby areas. Decreases in the ozone level of up to
10% have been reported in New Zealand in the month following
the break-up of the Antarctic ozone hole.

Consequences of ozone layer depletion


Increased UV

Ozone, while a minority constituent in the Earth's atmosphere, is


responsible for most of the absorption of UVB radiation. The amount of
UVB radiation that penetrates through the ozone layer decreases
exponentially with the slant-path thickness/density of the layer.
Correspondingly, a decrease in atmospheric ozone is expected to give
rise to significantly increased levels of UVB near the surface.

Increases in surface UVB due to the ozone hole can be partially inferred
by radiative transfer model calculations, but cannot be calculated from
direct measurements because of the lack of reliable historical (pre-
ozone-hole) surface UV data, although more recent surface UV
observation measurement programs exist (e.g. at Lauder, New Zealand).

Because it is this same UV radiation that creates ozone in the ozone


layer from O2 (regular oxygen) in the first place, a reduction in
stratospheric ozone would actually tend to increase photochemical
production of ozone at lower levels (in the troposphere), although the
overall observed trends in total column ozone still show a decrease,
largely because ozone produced lower down has a naturally shorter
photochemical lifetime, so it is destroyed before the concentrations
could reach a level which would compensate for the ozone reduction
higher up.

Ecological effects

Impact on the oceans

Increasing amounts of UV radiation will have an impact on plankton and


other tiny organisms at the base of the marine food web. These
organisms provide the original food source for all other living organisms
in the oceans. Plankton- phytoplanktons as well as zooplankton are
highly sensitive to UV radiation, as they lack the protective UV-B-
absorbing layers that higher forms of plants and animals have. (Phyto =
plant. Zoo = animal).
More UV-B radiation reduces the amount of food phytoplankton create
through photosynthesis. Zooplanktons, feeding off the phytoplankton,
are also affected. UV-B also damages small fish, shrimp and crab larvae.
It has been estimated that on shallow coastal shelves, a 16 percent
reduction of the ozone layer would kill more than 50 percent of e.g.
anchovy larvae, and cause a 5 percent drop in plankton numbers and a 6-
9 percent drop in fish yield.
Global warming

Ozone-layer depletion seems likely to increase the rate of greenhouse


warming, by reducing the effectiveness of the carbon dioxide sink in the
oceans. Phytoplankton in the oceans assimilates large amounts of
atmospheric carbon dioxide. Increased UV radiation will reduce
phytoplankton activity significantly. This means that large amounts of
carbon dioxide will remain in the atmosphere. A 10 percent decrease in
carbon dioxide uptake by the oceans would leave about the same amount
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as is produced by fossil fuel
burning.
Impact on land plants.

A high increase in UV radiation may disrupt many ecosystems on land.


Rice production may be drastically reduced by the effects of UV-B on
the nitrogen assimilating activities of micro-organisms. With a
diminishing ozone layer, it is likely that the supply of natural nitrogen to
ecosystems, such as tropical rice paddies, will be significantly reduced.
Most plants (and trees) grow more slowly and become smaller and more
stunted as adult plants when exposed to large amounts of UV-B.
Increased UV-B inhibits pollen germination.
Increased effects of air pollution

UV-B stimulates the formation of reactive radicals - molecules that react


rapidly with other chemicals, forming new substances. The hydroxyl
radicals, for example, stimulate the creation of tropospheric ozone and
other harmful pollutants. Smog formation creates other oxidized organic
chemicals, such as formaldehydes. These molecules can also produce
reactive hydrogen radicals when they absorb UV-B. In urban areas, a 10
percent reduction of the ozone layer is likely to result in a 10-25 percent
increase in tropospheric ozone.
More UV-B radiation seems likely to cause global increases in
atmospheric hydrogen peroxide. This is the principal chemical that
oxidizes sulfur dioxide to form sulfuric acid in cloud water, making it an
important part of acid rain formation.

Damage to materials

UV-radiation causes many materials to degrade more rapidly. Plastic


materials used outdoors will have much shorter lifetimes with small
increases of UV radiation. PVC sidings, window and door frames, pipes,
gutters, etc. used in buildings degrade faster.

Effects on humans

UVB (the higher energy UV radiation absorbed by ozone) is generally


accepted to be a contributory factor to skin cancer. In addition, increased
surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone, which is a health risk
to humans.

1. Basal and Squamous Cell Carcinomas — The most common forms


of skin cancer in humans, basal and squamous cell carcinomas, have
been strongly linked to UVB exposure. The mechanism by which UVB
induces these cancers is well understood—absorption of UVB radiation
causes the pyrimidine bases in the DNA molecule to form dimers,
resulting in transcription errors when the DNA replicates. These cancers
are relatively mild and rarely fatal, although the treatment of squamous
cell carcinoma sometimes requires extensive reconstructive surgery. By
combining epidemiological data with results of animal studies, scientists
have estimated that a one percent decrease in stratospheric ozone would
increase the incidence of these cancers by 2%.

2. Malignant Melanoma — another form of skin cancer, malignant


melanoma, is much less common but far more dangerous, being lethal in
about 15–20% of the cases diagnosed. The relationship between
malignant melanoma and ultraviolet exposure is not yet well understood,
but it appears that both UVB and UVA are involved. Experiments on
fish suggest that 90 to 95% of malignant melanomas may be due to
UVA and visible radiation whereas experiments on opossums suggest a
larger role for UVB. Because of this uncertainty, it is difficult to
estimate the impact of ozone depletion on melanoma incidence. One
study showed that a 10% increase in UVB radiation was associated with
a 19% increase in melanomas for men and 16% for women. A study of
people in Punta Arenas, at the southern tip of Chile, showed a 56%
increase in melanoma and a 46% increase in nonmelanoma skin cancer
over a period of seven years, along with decreased ozone and increased
UVB levels.
3. Cortical Cataracts — Studies are suggestive of an association
between ocular cortical cataracts and UV-B exposure, using crude
approximations of exposure and various cataract assessment techniques.
A detailed assessment of ocular exposure to UV-B was carried out in a
study on Chesapeake Bay Watermen, where increases in average annual
ocular exposure were associated with increasing risk of cortical opacity.
In this highly exposed group of predominantly white males, the evidence
linking cortical opacities to sunlight exposure was the strongest to date.
However, subsequent data from a population-based study in Beaver
Dam, WI suggested the risk may be confined to men. In the Beaver Dam
study, the exposures among women were lower than exposures among
men, and no association was seen. Moreover, there were no data linking
sunlight exposure to risk of cataract in African Americans, although
other eye diseases have different prevalences among the different racial
groups, and cortical opacity appears to be higher in African Americans
compared with whites

Misconceptions about ozone depletion


A few of the more common misunderstandings about ozone depletion
are addressed briefly here; more detailed discussions can be found in the
ozone-depletion FAQ.

CFCs are "too heavy" to reach the stratosphere

It is commonly believed that CFC molecules are heavier than air


(nitrogen or oxygen), so that the CFC molecules cannot reach the
stratosphere in significant amount. But atmospheric gases are not sorted
by weight; the forces of wind can fully mix the gases in the atmosphere.
Despite the fact that CFCs are heavier than air and with a long lifetime,
they are evenly distributed throughout the turbosphere and reach the
upper atmosphere.

Man-made chlorine is insignificant compared to natural sources

Another misconception is that "it is generally accepted that natural


sources of tropospheric chlorine are four to five times larger than man-
made one". While strictly true, tropospheric chlorine is irrelevant; it is
stratospheric chlorine that affects ozone depletion. Chlorine from ocean
spray is soluble and thus is washed by rainfall before it reaches the
stratosphere. CFCs, in contrast, are insoluble and long-lived, allowing
them to reach the stratosphere. In the lower atmosphere, there is much
more chlorine from CFCs and related haloalkanes than there is in HCl
from salt spray, and in the stratosphere halocarbons are dominant. Only
methyl chloride which is one of these halocarbons has a mainly natural
source, and it is responsible for about 20 percent of the chlorine in the
stratosphere; the remaining 80% comes from man made sources.

Very violent volcanic eruptions can inject HCl into the stratosphere, but
researchers have shown that the contribution is not significant compared
to that from CFCs. A similar erroneous assertion is that soluble halogen
compounds from the volcanic plume of Mount Erebus on Ross Island,
Antarctica are a major contributor to the Antarctic ozone hole.

An ozone hole was first observed in 1956

G.M.B. Dobson (Exploring the Atmosphere, 2nd Edition, Oxford, 1968)


mentioned that when springtime ozone levels over Halley Bay were first
measured in 1956, he was surprised to find that they were ~320 DU,
about 150 DU below spring levels, ~450 DU, in the Arctic. These,
however, were at this time the known normal climatological values
because no other Antarctic ozone data were available. What Dobson
describes is essentially the baseline from which the ozone hole is
measured: actual ozone hole values are in the 150–100 DU range.

The discrepancy between the Arctic and Antarctic noted by Dobson was
primarily a matter of timing: during the Arctic spring ozone levels rose
smoothly, peaking in April, whereas in the Antarctic they stayed
approximately constant during early spring, rising abruptly in November
when the polar vortex broke down.

The behavior seen in the Antarctic ozone hole is completely different.


Instead of staying constant, early springtime ozone levels suddenly drop
from their already low winter values, by as much as 50%, and normal
values are not reached again until December.

The ozone hole should be above the sources of CFCs

Some people thought that the ozone hole should be above the sources of
CFCs. However, CFCs are well mixed in the troposphere and the
stratosphere. The reason for occurrence of the ozone hole above
Antarctica is not because there are more CFCs concentrated but because
the low temperatures help form polar stratospheric clouds. In fact, there
are findings of significant and localized "ozone holes" above other parts
of the earth.

The "ozone hole" is a hole in the ozone layer


There is a common misconception that “ozone hole” is really a hole in
the ozone layer. When the "ozone hole" occurs, the ozone in the lower
stratosphere is destroyed. The upper stratosphere is less affected, so that
the amount of ozone over the continent decreases by 50 percent or even
more. The ozone hole does not disappear through the layer; on the other
hand, it is not a uniform 'thinning' of the ozone layer. It is a "hole" which
is a depression, not in the sense of "a hole in the windshield."

World Ozone Day


In 1994, the United Nations General Assembly voted to designate the
16th of September as "World Ozone Day", to commemorate the signing
of the Montreal Protocol on that date in 1987.

You might also like