CHEMICAL PROCESSING OF

TEXTILES - I

S.Y (MMTT)
UNIT I
• Sizing: Sizing: Process, Purpose,
• Ingredients: Types, functions ,
• Adhesives: Classification, Starches- Properties, testing,
• Softeners: Types, properties, testing methods,
• Size paste formulation: Cotton, P/C, P/V blended yarn
UNIT II
• Grey fabric inspection: Purpose, Faults in grey fabric- four point & ten point
system of inspection, Criteria for rejection.
• Mechanical Pretreatments: Importance, application, types ,
• Shearing & cropping machine: 2 cutter and 4 cutter,
• Singeing: Importance, Construction & working principle of gas singeing
machines for woven and knitted fabric.
UNIT III
• Size on grey fabric: Identification,
• Desizing process: Purpose, Methods, Factors affecting process,
• Desizing machines: Batch wise & continuous,
• Desizing efficiency: Tegewa, weight loss percentage evaluation methods
UNIT IV
• Scouring: Importance, Mechanism and Reactions,
• Methods: Alkaline scouring, solvent scouring, bio-scouring,
• Scouring process: cotton, polyester (PET) and their blends, knit goods,
• Scouring machine: Batch-wise, semi continuous & continuous,
• Wool: Scouring, Crabbing, carbonization, and milling,
• Degumming of silk: Purpose, Methods - Soap, alkali, and enzyme,
Evaluation of scouring by absorbency, copper number, weight loss and
strength loss.
UNIT V
• Sodium hypochlorite bleaching: Purpose, mechanism, Procedure for cotton,
factors affecting to hypochlorite bleaching.
• Hydrogen peroxide bleaching: Purpose, mechanism, factors affecting, Role
of stabilizer, activator, Process for cotton, Polyester and their blends
Comparison between H2O2 & NaOCl bleaching,
• Sodium chlorite bleaching: Mechanism, Procedure for polyester. Wool, silk,
knits and colored woven goods: Precautions, procedure of bleaching.
• Machines: Batch wise, semi continuous & continuous methods of bleaching.
Efficiency of bleaching: Whiteness index.
• UNIT VI
Mercerization
• Mercerization: Importance, changes occurred in fibre,
• Causticization: Purpose, process, Factors affecting the mercerization process,
• Machines: Yarn mercerization, pad-chain, padless-chainless, hot
mercerization, liquid ammonia mercerization,
• Efficiency: BAN, Axial ratio, De-convolution count and absorbency method.
 SIZING
• Process of applying an adhesive coating on the surface
of the yarn.
• To improve the weave ability of warp yarn.
• Definition: Sizing is the process of giving a protective
coating on the warp yarn to minimize yarn breakage
during weaving process (especially with cotton yarn).
• The smallest error in sizing process may be very
harmful.
• This may increase warp breakage rate on the looms and
consequently reduce weaving production and quality.
• Therefore sizing is termed as the “Heart of Weaving”
 PURPOSE OF SIZING PROCESS

• To increase the strength of warp yarn.

• To increase the smoothness of the warp yarn.
• To reduce hairiness of warp yarn.
• To improve the weave ability of warp yarn.
• To increase the tensile or breaking strength for
cellulose yarn.
• To increase the elasticity.
• To reduce electrostatic formation for synthetic or
blended yarn.
 REQUIREMENT OF SIZING

• Sized warp must be strong and elastic.

• Yarn strength and loss in elongation should be within
admitted limits.
• The tension of warp yarn must be constant all the
time.
• must be efficient, economical and must ensure the
production of high quality size warps.
SIZING PROCESS

WARPING BEAM

SIZING

DRYING

WEAVER’S
 TYPES OF SIZING
• Sizing may be classified into Four types on the basis of
size% on the yarn.
i. Light Sizing :10% to 15%.
ii. Pure Sizing :16% to 25%.
iii. Medium Sizing :26% to 50%.
iv. Heavy Sizing :50% to 100%.

• Sizing process classified as mentioned below,

i. Pure Sizing : Size ingredients up to 10%
ii. Light Sizing : Size ingredients up to 11 – 15 %
iii.Medium Sizing : Size ingredients up to 16 – 20 %
iv.Heavy Sizing : Size ingredients above 40%
 PROPERTIES OF SIZE INGREDIENT

• Should be easy removable.

• Should not harm to fabric.
• Solid content should be more.
• Should not change any colour on fabric.
• Should be quick dry properties.
• Should be economical & eco friendly.
 Components of Size paste
Primary Ingredients
•Adhesive
•Wetting agent

Secondary Ingredients
• Loading agents
• Brightening agent
•Anti foaming agent
•Antistatic agent
 Binders / Adhesive
• Natural
• Starch ( maize, rice, wheat and potato etc.)
• Gums from plants

• Synthetic
• Poly Vinyl Alcohol (PVA)
• Carboxy Methyl Cellulose (CMC)
• Poly Acetate (PA)
 Other Ingredients

Wetting agent Antifoaming agent

• TRO – Turkey red oil TRO – Turkey red Oil
Weighting agent Delusturing Agent
•Gypsum •Titanium Dioxide (TiO2)
• China clay Antistatic
•Calcium carbonate •Sapkostat oil
Preservatives
• Zinc sulphate
• Copper sulphate
 Starch

• Starch is the main sizing ingredients.

• They coat the warp yarn with a film & impart smoothness
by binding the projecting fibres to the yarn surface.
• The viscosity of the size solution is controlled by the
amount of starch, the recipe, degree of mechanical
mixing, temperature & time of boiling.
• e.g. Potato, CMS(Carboxy Methyl Starch),PVA
(Polyvinyl Alcohol), CMC
 Binder

• These materials penetrate into the yarn & contribute in

increasing yarn strength.
• These materials can be used as an independent gum &
substitute of starch products.
• e.g. Polyacrylamide, Polyacrylonetrile etc.
 Softener

• The hard fragile film is softened by addition of softener.

They increase flexibility of yarn after sizing.
• e.g. Tallow, Soap, Japanese wax, Modified wax, Artificial
wax.
 Anti-septic agent

• The size recipe consist starch which the protein

substances in the favorable medium for the development
of the micro-organism (Fungi, Mould etc).
• The sized warp or grey cloth is stored for long time; the
anti-septic agent is used to prevent the growth of
microorganism in the grey cloth.
 Weighting agent

• These agents are used to increase the weight of the fabric.

• The fabrics are to be sold at grey stage or require the
special type of finishing to get fuller appearance are sized
with the weighting agent.
• China clay, Glauber’s salt, Gypsum etc.
 RECIPE

• COTTON: Carded Yarn

• Modified Starch : 10.5 % on the weight of water

• Acrylic Binder (Liquid) : 6.6 %
• Lubricant : 0.7 %.
• Paste viscosity: 6.5±0.2 second,
• Solid: 12-13%
 COTTON

• Combed Yarn:

• Modified Starch : 12.5 % on the weight of water

• Acrylic Binder (Liquid) : 6.91 %
• Lubricant : 0.87 %
• Paste viscosity : 6.4±0.2 second,
• Solid: 12%
•
 RECIPE

• P/C Blended

• Modified Starch : 13 % on the weight of water

• PVA : 3.6 %
• Acrylic Binder (Liquid) : 8.4 %
• Lubricant : 0.87 %.
• Antistatic : 0.5 kg
• Paste viscosity : 7±0.2 second,
• Solid: 12-13%
 RECIPE PREPARATION
• Take standard volume (700 liters) of water (normal temperature) into the
pre-mixture through water flow meter, start the stirrer.
• Properly weigh all the chemicals required
• Add modified starch, PVA and then Acrylic binder slowly into the pre-
mixture.
• Stir the mixture for 15 minutes
• Start the stirrer of the cooker, transfer the mixture to the closed cooker
from pre-mixture vessel. Close all the open valves of the cooker.
• Heat the cooker mixture with the injection of direct steam, steam will
auto cut when the cooker temperature reaches the preset limit (110℃). It
takes around 30 to 35 minutes.
• Cook the mixture for another 40 minutes, the temperature of the cooker
will reach to around 120 to 125 ℃ depending on the size recipe.
• Start the stirrer of the storage vessel and then transfer the cooked size
paste to respective storage vessels.
• Add lubricant with the size paste at storage
• Maintain storage temperature at around 80-90 ℃.
 TESTING OF STARCH

Original wt – Final wt

% of Moisture content = --------------------------------------------- X 100

Original wt
Original wt – Final wt
% of Total Dissolved Solids= -------------------------------------- X 100
Original wt

Original wt – Final wt
% of Ash content = ---------------------------------- X 100
Original wt

% Starch content = 100 – (% Moisture content + % Total dissolved solids + % Ash

content)
 TESTING OF SILICONE OIL

• 1 gm of sample + 200 ml of 50% ethyl alcohol.

• Shake well for dissolve.
• Add 5-10 ml of Na2CO3 solution for break emulsion.
• Separate oil layer floats on the top.
• Repeat washing for alkali remove.
• Then oil layer dissolved in 100ml ether solvent.
• Dry it.
• The beaker contained only oil of Silicone, do the
calculation.
 TESTING OF SILICONE OIL
• 20 ml Silicone in 50 ml measuring cylinder.
• Add 20 ml of 1,4 Dioxane and heat 60 ℃ for 2 hrs.
• Then cool it at room temp.
• Remove top layer of silicone oil and do the calculation.
 TESTING OF SILICONE OIL
• 20 ml of Silicone oil on 50 ml measuring cylinder.
• 20 ml of acetone and heat it 60 ℃ for 2 hrs.
• Then cool it at room temp.
• Remove top layer of silicone oil and do the calculation.
• Oil content = V2/V1 * 100%
• Where V1 = Volume of Si oil
• V2 = volume of oil layer
 Grey Fabric Inspection
Definition: Activities such as Measuring, Examining, Testing,
one or more characteristics of a product or source comparing
these with specific requirements to determine conformity.
Purpose:
• Producer want to know the quality of his products.
• Buyer wants to assure the product quality.
• To avoid the fabric wastage and time.
• Grey cloth from weaving/ knitting have many faults ( Broken
ends and picks, stains, missing yarns, holes and etc)
• Many of these faults can be corrected at grey stage before wet
processing.
How we have to do?
• Fabric inspection must be selected randomly.
• The fabric sample must be selected from different place,
different lot and different time.
• Inspector must use a packing list and select different bales
on different place.
• The samples should be selected from early, middle and
late production.
 Principles
• 3C’s of Inspection.
• Check

• Compare

• Conclude
Faults in Grey Fabric
 Inspection Standards
• Ten Point System
Oldest and most used in woven finished fabric
• Four point System
Widely adopted and used in knitted fabric
• The Graniteville’78 System
Major and minor types, used in garment pieces
 Four point System
• Widely adopted and used for knitted fabric.
• It’s a visual inspection system.
• Maximum of 4 penalty points can be assigned for any single
defect.
• The defects in both course/wale directions will be assigned
points.
• Its certified by American Society for Quality Control (ASQM)
and American Apparel Manufacturers (AAM).
SIZE OF DEFECT PENALTY POINTS

Up to 3 inches 1

3 – 6 inches 2

6 – 9 inches 3

Above 9 inches 4
 Point count calculation For Individual Roll
Points per 100 Sq. yards = Total linear points x 3600
--------------------------------------
Length in Yards x Fabric width in inches
• A fabric roll 130 yards long and 45 inch wide having following penalty
points . Calculate and conclude the fabric quality,
• 6 defects up to 3 inches, 5 defects in 3 – 6 inches, 2 defects in 6 – 9 inches,
4 defects have above 9 inches.
•Calculations:
• 6 defects up to 3 inches : 6 * 1 = 06
•5 defects up to 3 – 6 inches : 5 * 2 = 10
•2 defects in 6 – 9 inches : 2 * 3 = 06
•4 defects have above 9 inches : 4 * 4 = 16
---------
38 points

Points per 100 Sq. yards = Total linear points x 3600

--------------------------------------
Length in Yards x Fabric width in inches

Points per 100 Sq. yards = 38 x 3600

-------------------
130 x 45
= 23.38
 QUALITY ASSESST
• Points / 100 Sq Yds = 23.38
• As per the standard less than 40 points / 100 sq yds is
considered First Class.
• As per the standard more than 40 points / 100 sq yds is
considered Second Class.

• less than 20 points : A grade

• 21 – 30 points : B grade
• 31 – 40 points : C grade
• Above 40 points : D grade, its rejected.
 HOW TO REJECT THE FABRIC
• Different Colour Tags for Different Processes &
Defects.
• In export two types of tag used.
• Red tag It represented the critical defects.
• White tag It represented minor defects.
 Ten point System
• Widely adopted and used for woven fabric.
• It’s a visual inspection system.
• Maximum of 10 penalty points can be assigned for any single
defect.
• The defects in both warp/weft directions will be assigned points.

SIZE OF DEFECT PENALTY POINTS

1 inch or lesser 1

1 – 5 inches 3

5 – 10 inches 5

Over 10 inches 10
A fabric roll of size 120 yards x 46 inch is inspected and the following
defects are found:

• The total defects points should be less than total

length of fabric inspected.
 PREPARATION BEFORE CHEMICAL
PROCESSES
Mechanical Cleaning of Fabrics
1. Brushing
 To remove the short and loose fibers.
 Brushing is mainly done to fabrics of staple fiber content.
 Brushing before cropping minimize pilling.
2. Cropping and shearing
• Shearing is an operation consists of cutting the loose strands of fibers
from either surface of a fabric with a sharp edged razor or scissors.
3. Singeing
• The aim of singeing is to bum-off the protruding fibers and hairs from
the fabric surface.
• The spinning process produces hairiness of the yam
and lower the yarn counts (Ne 26/1 - 36/1) greater is the degree of
hairiness.
Mechanical Pre-treatment: Importance,
application, types

70% of problems during

dyeing and finishing is

caused by pre-treatment.
 DESIZING PROCESS
• Desizing is done in order to removes the size from warp
yarn of the woven fabric.
• Warp yarn are coated with sizing agents period to weaving
in order to reduce their fractional properties, decrease yarn
breakage in loom and improve weaving productivity by
increasing weft insertion speed.
• The sizing materials present on warp yarn acts as a resist
toward dye and chemicals in textile wet processing.
• It must therefore be removed before any subsequent wet
processing of the fabric.
 OBJECTIVES OF DESIZING
• The main ingredient in size that is not water-soluble is usually
starch.
• Chemically starch is poly-glucopyranose in which straight
chain and branched chain polymers are present.
• Both the constituents of starch are insoluble in water but they
can be made soluble by hydrolysis of these long chain
compounds to shorter ones .
• Grey cotton fabric contains both natural impurities as well as
‘added matter’.
• The added matter is called ‘size’. It is added by man in a
process called ‘sizing’, as it facilitates weaving.
 MECHANISM

STARCH ( high mol. Wt and long chain length. Insoluble in

water)

DEXTRIN ( Low mol. Wt and insoluble in water)

DEXTRIN (Low mol. wt and soluble in water)

 METHODS OF DESIZING
• HYDROLYTIC METHOD
1) Rot steeping
2) Enzymetic
3) Acid steeping

• OXIDATIVE METHOD
1) Chlorine
2) Chlorine
3) Bromite

• NOVEL METHOD
1) Solvent
2) Low temp. plasma treatment
 ROT STEEP
• This is the oldest and cheapest method of desizing.
• Here no special chemical is used.
• The cloth is first passed through warm water at 40C in a
padding mangle where the cloth is squeezed to about 100%
expression.
• The cloth is then allowed to stand for 24 hours.
• The microorganisms, naturally present in water, multiply
and secrete starch-liquefying (hydrolysing) enzymes, which
break down the starch present in the size to water-soluble
products .
• The cloth is then washed to remove these products.
ROT STEEPING
 PROCESS CONTROL IN DESIZING

DESIZING
S.No parameter standard time instrument frequency
1. pH of bath As per desizing During pH indicator/ 3 per shift
agent desizing pH paper

2. Pick up variation, % (L- Avg. 15-20% During Lab Every 15 days

M-R) desizing measuremen
t
3. Temperature °C As per During Thermometer 3 per shift
desizing
desizing agent
 DESIZING EFFICIENCY

• Desizing Efficiency Test:

1. Conventional method.

2. TEGEWA method.
 Conventional Method

• Weight of the sized fabric (W1).

• Then desize the fabric, dry & take the weight (W2).
• After that the fabric is treated with 3gpl (35%) HCl at 70℃,
30 min. dry & take the weight of the fabric (W3).
• Total size = W1-W3.
• Residual size = W2-W3.

• Desizing Efficiency = (Total size – Residual size)/Total size X 100

 TEGEWA method
• Reagent:
• potassium iodide (10 gm. Of KI (100%) in 100 ml water, add
0.6358 gm of iodine (100%) stir and shake; iodine is completely
dissolved. Fill up to 800 ml with water then complete to 1000 ml
with ethanol. (Shelf life approx 6 months only).
• Method:
1. Spot drop wise solution onto fabric.
2. Rub in gently.
3. Assess change of color.
• Note: the test must be carried on fabric cooled down to room
temperature; residual alkalinity has to be neutralities prior to the
test.
 Assessment
• Grey fabric:
• No change of color = no starch size present.
• Pale blue to bluish = presence of starch size or blend
• Violet =of starch size with synthetic size
• Desized fabric:
• Pale blue to bluish violet = refer to violet scale TEGEWA
This indicates residual Starch content.
 SCOURING

• Natural fibers contain oils, fats, waxes, minerals,

leafy matter and motes as impurities that interfere
with dyeing and finishing.
• Synthetic fibers contain producer spin finishes,
coning oils and/or knitting oils.
• The process of removing these impurities is called
as Scouring.
• In generic it calling as Caustic Boiling or Alkali
Boiling.
 SCOURING
• Even though these impurities are not soluble in water,
they can be removed by
1. Extraction,
2. Dissolving the impurity in organic solvents,
3. Emulsification, forming stable suspensions of the
impurities in water
4. Saponification
5. Converting the contaminates into water soluble
components.
 Objects of Scouring
• To make the fabric highly hydrophilic.
• To remove impurities such as oils, waxes, gum, husks as
nearly as possible.
• To increase absorbency of fabric or textile materials without
physical and chemical damage.
• To produce a clean material by adding alkali.
• To make the fabric ready for next process.
 The changes occurring of cotton fibers
during scouring
• Saponifiable oils and free fatty acids are converted into soaps.
• Pectins and pectoses are converted into soluble salts of pectic
acid.
• Proteins are degraded to simple soluble amino acids.
• Mineral matters are mostly dissolved.
• Non-saponifiable oils are emulsified by the soluble soaps.
• Additive dirts are removed by washing.
• Residual sizing materials are broken down into soluble
products.
 CHEMICALS USED IN SCOURING PROCESS
Main chemicals Function
Caustic soda Neutralize acidic materials, saponify glycerides (waxes and
oil),solubilise silicates

Surfactants Reduce surface tension & minimize interfacial tension.

Detergents Emulsify oil, fats, waxes and remove oil-borne stains.

Chelating agent Deactivate metal ions

Sodium silicate Penetrate & break drown lignins

Soda ash Maintain pH

Solvent Assist emulsification by dissolving oily materials.
 FORM OF SCOURING
Yarn scouring:
• Hank form.
• Package form.
• Continuous sheet warp form.
Fabric scouring:
• Open width form :
• Jigger
• Winch
• Pad batch
• Rope form
• Kier
• Washer.
 ALKALINE SCOURING
• Caustic Soda (Strong) → 2-5% owf
• Soda ash (mild) → 0.3-0.5%
• Sequestering agent →0.05-0.5%
• Wetting agent → 0.25-1.0%
• M:L →1:4 to1:5
• Temp →100˚C-120˚C
• Time → 4 hrs – 6 hrs
 SOLVENT SCOURING
• Organic solvent medium to remove impurities such as
lubricating oils and spin finishes.
• Certain organic solvents will readily dissolve oils fats and
waxes.
• Removal of impurities by dissolution is called Extraction.
• For fabrics that do not have to be desized, solvent scouring
is an effective way of removing fibre producer finishes,
coning and knitting oils.
• Knitted fabrics made from nylon, polyester, acetate and
acrylics, are particularly amenable to this method of
preparation.
• Wool grease is effectively removed by solvent scouring.
 SOLVENTS
• Perchloro ethylene – (B.P. – 1210C, Non-flammable)
• Trichloro ethylene – (B.P. – 870C, Non-flammable)

• Solvent Scouring bath evaporate 80 - 90℃ washing

Advantages:
• Solvents dissolve almost all oils and waxes.
• They have low liquid surface tensions and quickly and easily wet
out and penetrate fabrics with waxes.
• They are much easier to evaporate than water, requiring less time
and energy.
• On the negative side hydrocarbon solvents are flammable and
present explosion hazards.
• Disadvantages:
• Carcinogens
• Atmospheric ozone depletion.
• Chlorinated hydrocarbons thermally decompose to
form phosgene and hydrochloric acids.
• These decomposition by-products are corrosive to
metals and also damage cellulosic fibers.
• Expensive so they must be recovered and purified by
distillation requiring special equipment.
• The distillation residue becomes a solid waste
disposal problem.
• Solvents do not aid in the removal of motes, metal
ions, starch and other solvent.
 BIO SCOURING
• An enzyme is defined as a protein complex composed of
about 200 to 250 amino acids.
• Enzymes are very large, complex, protein molecules consisting
of inter-twined chains of amino acids.
• They promote hydrolysis of impurities to form low molecular
weight, soluble fragment of impurities.
• The most important characteristic of the enzymes is their
specificity. They act upon a very specific substrate, under
narrow range of conditions of temperature, pH and agitation.
 PROCESS
• General understanding of distribution of impurities is as
follows:
• In the primary cell wall, the impurities are distributed like a
network in a binding matrix of pectins.
• Pectinases
• Pectinases penetrate the cotton cuticle through cracks or
micro pores and make contact with the pectic substances in
the cuticular layer of impurities.
• Pectic substances are hydrolyzed with the aid of pectinases
which result in the complete or partial removal of the
cuticle or the breakdown of the continuity of the cuticle.
• As a result of the hydrolysis of the pectin, the link between
the cuticle and the cellulose body breaks, leaving fibre in an
absorbent form
 RECIPES
FOR COTTON FOR PET

Caustic soda : 0.2 – 0.3 %

NaOH : 1-3 %
Soda ash : 2.0-3.0 %
Na2CO3 :1% Wetting agent : 0.5-1.0 %
Wetting agent : 0.2% Detergent : 1.0-2.0 %
Sequestering agent : 0.1% Sequestering agent : 1.0-2.0 %
Detergent : 0.1 – 0.3 % Temperature : 80-90oC
pH : 9-10
Temperature : 80-90oC
Time : 15 – 30 min
Time : 45 – 60 min
pH : 9-10
 Scouring process

• Batch process ( Jigger or Winch machine).

• Semi – continuous process ( Pad – batch
process).
• Continuous process ( Continuous range).
JIGGER MACHINE
WINCH MACHINE
KIER BOILING MACHINE
PAD – BATCH PROCESS
BATCHING MACHINE
PAD – DRY-PAD – STEAM PROCESS
CBR – CONTINUOUS BLEACHING
RANGE
CBR MACHINE
CBR FOR KNITTED FABRIC
 SILK DEGUMMING

• To impart soft handle and lustre to silk by removing sericin,

any impurities picked up during reeling throwing etc.
• Some natural wax, colouring matter and minerals may also be
removed during degumming.
• Sericin forms bulk of the gum or the outer protective coat in
a silk filament.
• Sericin can by removing by hydrolytic methods.
 SILK FIBRE CHEMICAL
CONSTITUTION

• FIBROIN : 70 – 75%
• SERICIN : 25 – 30 %
• WAX :2–3%
• NATURAL COLOUR : 1 – 1.5 %
• MINERALS : 0.5 – 1 %
 Boil-off in Soap
• It is an old process and seems to be still favoured commercially.
• Olive oil soap ( Marseille soap) is the most widely used soap.
• Recipe:
 Marseille soap : 20-30 % owf
 Time : 90-120 min
 Temperature : boiling temperature
 MLR : 1:40
• There have been attempts to first carry out partial degumming with a
spent or exhausted soap bath and complete the degumming in a fresh
bath.
• Alternately, addition of a small amount of alkali may result in saving of
both time and cost.
• Addition of upto 0.2% of free alkali does not result in weakening of
silk.
• However, excessive alkali in degumming liquor may result in loss of
strength, lustre and elasticity of silk.
• The amount of sericin removal also depends on the type of soap used
in the degumming process.
TYPE OF SOAP % OF DEGUMMING LOSS

TALLOW 18.30

OLIVE OIL 18.60

COCONUT OIL 16.00

SOYA BEAN OIL 19.00

COTTON SEED OIL 18.00

 Degumming with Alkali Buffer
• Though use of alkalis for degumming works out to be economical
as compared to soap degumming.
• Hence alkalis are not recommended to be used alone. With alkalis,
the pH of the boiling bath should be maintained between 9.5-10.5.
Below pH 9.5, the rate of degumming is too slow and above 10.5,
the risk of chemical damage is high.
• Alkaline buffers like sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate can
be used.
• In addition to the buffer, rate of degumming also depends on
concentration of electrolytes in degumming bath.
• Recipe:
 Sodium Carbonate (0.5 M) : 3 – 5 gpl
 Sodium Bicarbonate (0.05M) : 2 – 4 gpl
 NaCl : 1 – 2 gpl
 Temperature : 80 - 90°C
 Time : 20 – 30 min
• Presence of salt especially calcium salts in alkaline
degumming liquor increases the degradation of silk.
• Use of sequestering agents like sodium hydrogen
pyrophosphate has been known to reduce this damage.
 Degumming with Enzymes
• Degumming with enzymes is considered to be a safer method
which results in minimal damage to silk.
• Since it is carried out at milder temperature and pH, the natural
hydrophobic impurities are not removed effectively.
• Enzymes specifically targeting peptides bonds in silk.
• Since the constitution of sericin and fibroin is different, such
enzymes will have minimum action on fibroin.
• Enzymatic degumming is considered suitable only for yarn
degumming.
• They do not work well on fabrics, due to their inability to enter
the interstices of the fabric.
• The main enzymes used for silk degumming are Trypsin,
Papain and bacterial enzymes.
 Trypsin

• Trypsin is a serine protease with the highest activity

at pH range 7-9 and 35°C.
• Ammonium bicarbonate can be used as buffer.
• It is applied at 1- 2% owf for 1-4 h.
• Better degumming results when alkalis are
combined with proteolytic enzymes.
• It is reported that a pre-treatment with alkaline
solution swells sericin and results not only in better
degumming but also in better scouring (wax, fat
removal).
 Papain

• Papain is obtained from papyrus latex.

• It is the most effective at 70-90℃ temperature and
at pH-5.
• It is a sulphydryl enzyme and hence requires a
sulphydryl compound as an activator.
• Sodium hydrosulphide, sodium sulphoxylate,
sodium sulphite etc. have been used as activators.
• Papain has a wider specificity towards
polypeptides as compared to trypsin.
 WOOL SCOURING
• Keratin : 33 %
• Dirt : 26 %
• Suint : 28%
• Fat : 12%
• Mineral matter : 1%
• The amount of impurities especially the wool grease may
be so high that it may hinder the processing of wool.
• Scouring involves treatment with aqueous scouring
liquors containing mainly surfactants.
• Efficacy of scouring can be increased by mechanical
agitation or stirring action.
 TYPES OF WOOL
• Wool : Comes from: Sheep
• Lambswool :Comes from: Lamb
• Merino : Comes from: Merino sheep
• Cashmere :Comes from: Cashmere goat
• Mohair : Comes from: Angora goat
• Angora : Comes from: Angora rabbit
• Alpaca : Comes from: Alpaca (a llama-like
mammal)
 WOOL SCOURING- salient features

• Generally done at raw wool stage.

• Residual grease/wax is kept around 0.5-0.75%.
• Modern machines used – Hopper bottomed bowls.
• Older machines – Long bowls with flat bottoms.
• Older machines – 4-5 long bowls (35-40 m.)
• Modern machines – At least six bowls (16-28 m.)
 WOOL SCOURING RECIPE

Soap (%) Alkali (Na2CO3%) Temperature ( °C) Time (Min)

I BOWL 0.75 0.20 45-50 2.5-3

II BOWL 0.5 0.1 45-50 2-2.5

III BOWL 0.25 0.1 40-45 2

IV BOWL Water only - 40-45 1.5

pH should never be above 10.

Temp. – never above 60 °C.
 CARBONIZATION
• To remove cellulosic impurities from wool by treatment with
acid/acid producing salts.
• Vegetable matter which may be primarily cellulosic in nature,
consisting of seeds, burrs, grass etc.
• removal of vegetable matter from wool is treatment with mineral
acids, especially sulphuric acid.

• Sequences:

Acidification → Drying/Baking → Crushing → Dusting → Neutralization

 Processing Stages
• Treatment with (5-7% w/v) sulphuric acid & acid stable
wetting agent.
• Hydro extraction
• Drying at 60-70 °C to low regain
• Baking at 110 °C in dry heat for 2 min. (wool is
relatively stable to acidic conditions. The vegetable
matter turns brown/black, becomes brittle)
• Crushing to break the degraded vegetable matter to
small fragments by passing through heavy fluted rollers
• Dusted & Neutralized with sodium bicarbonate.
• Bleaching with acidic hydrogen peroxide to minimize
yellowing caused by carbonization
 Mercerization
• 1844 - John mercer observed the effect.
• Tension Mercerization (Lowe) & Slack Mercerization
(Mercer).
• PURPOSE:
• Improving lustre (silky look).
• Improving tensile strength.
• Improved dimensional stability.
• Increasing uniformity of dyeing.
• Improving colour yield.
• Improving Elasticity or Stretch material.
 Changing Happen at Mercerization
Process
• Mercerization causes swelling in fibre.
• Opening of fibre structure.
• Increase in amorphous content due to de-crystallization.
• Although mercerization is accompanied by swelling, it is
more closely related to internal modification of fiber.
• Effect is observed at 18-24 % w/w NaOH solutions.
• Higher no of –OH groups available as compared to un-
mercerized cotton.
• Higher moisture regain, dye-uptake and reactivity.
 TYPES
• TENSION MERCERIZATION:
• Improve lustre by applied tension.
• Luman became round shape.
• Dye affinity increase
• Moisture absorption increase.
• SLACK MERCERIZATION:
• Elongation and recovery property improved.
• No tension applied.
• Shrinkage control.
 POSSIBLE FOR?

• Grey goods.
• After desizing.
• After desizing & scouring.
• After bleaching.
• After dyeing.
 FACTOR AFFECTING PARAMETERS

• Twaddle
• Temperature
• Tension
• Time
 TWADDLE

• Concentration should be 52 – 56 º Tw.

• Good luster effect.
• Good swelling property.
• Good colour yield.
• If less than 52 º Tw there is mercerization effect.
 TEMPERATURE

• Better result in room temperature ( 18-25℃).

• In this temperature Cellulose I will convert to Cellulose II.
• High temperature will give better result but strength loss
will be resulted.
• Low temperature will not give lustre effect.
 TENSION

• Maximum tension 25 kN can apply ( depends upon fabric

construction).
• The tension is varied to allow 10% shrinkage to 4% stretch.
• Also related to pickup % of Caustic solution by fabric.
• If low pickup % tension should be more.
 TIME

• Very short time period.

• 30-60 sec period.
 PROCESS SEQUENCES

1. Impregnation with Caustic.

2. Apply tension.
3. Washing off process with tension state.
 HOT MERCERISATION
• At lower temperatures, NaOH solution of mercerizing strength
has high viscosity and surface tension.
• Poor penetration
• The treatment becomes non-uniform
• The basic problem of poor penetration leading to non uniform
mercerization.
• This can be tackled by carrying out mercerization with hot (60
to 100 °C) NaOH solution of mercerizing strength.
• Two stage process, in which the first stage is
treatment of cotton fabric with hot NaOH solution
of mercerization strength and the second stage is
the reduction in temperature of the treated fabric
to bring about the mercerization.
• As the temperature of the fabric is brought down,
swelling may start and the fabric may shrink and
hence the dimensions may need to be maintained
during cooling stage by desired applied tension.
Determination of degree of mercerization

• Quantitative test based on the ability of

mercerized cotton to absorb barium hydroxide
is widely used.
• Mercerized cotton can absorb more Barium
hydroxide than un-mercerized cotton and this
is the basis for this test. The test method is
described below:
 BARIUM ACTIVITY NUMBER (BAN)
• Mercerized and un-mercerized cotton samples (2 gm
each) are treated with 30 ml of N/4 Barium hydroxide
for two hours in conical flasks at room temperature.
• Preferential absorption of barium hydroxide by cotton
samples reduces the strength of Barium Hydroxide
solutions.
• The amount of Ba(OH)2 absorbed can be determined
by taking 10 ml of Ba(OH)2 solution from each of the
flasks and titrating it with N/10 HCl, phenolphthalein
being used as an indicator.
• Fresh Ba(OH)2 is also titrated (blank titration) to
accurately assess the actual Ba(OH)2 in solution.
• BAN = (B-M)
--------- X 100
(B-C)

• B = Volume of HCl (ml) required for blank titration

• M = Volume of HCl (ml) required with mercerized cotton
• C= Volume of HCl (ml) required with un-mercerized cotton

• For completely mercerized cotton the value of BAN is around

155 and for semi mercerized cotton it varies in between 115
and 130.
YARN MERCERISATION
PADLESS – CHAINLESS METHOD
PAD CHAIN MACHINE