How To Write A Movie Script
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brobbie2281How To Write A Movie Script
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brobbie2281c c
I'm a longtime user of Final Draft screenwriting software, but I
just came across a new online screenwriting software program that has a lot of the same
features. I'll check it out and post what I find out later. The other students in my screenwriting
course seem to really love it.
The Writers Store is running The Ultimate Screenwriting Library Giveaway until the end of
September. There is no purchase required and they are giving away my favorite screenwriting
software, Final Draft along with a bunch of other really useful software, DVDs and books. It
is worth checking out.
If you are new to screenwriting, planning to write a screenplay or script of any kind, the good
news is that writing in screenplay format is easier and more intuitive today than at any time
since first Lanier Word Processing Machine. Advances in screenwriting software now save
the hours you would previously have spent learning how to write a screenplay in professional
Hollywood format can now be allocated to polishing your plot, honing your dialogue, or
learning screenplay structure. Some think screenplay writing is eclipsing the pursuit of the
Great American Novel but it certainly isn't any easier. At any rate the making of movies is a
collaborative process which demands that those in screenwriting produce a document in
particular format, notation, and length called a 'script.'
This overview will begin acquaint you with the screenplay format writing rules and
screenwriting etiquette you'll need to know about, and as you browse the following material
you may notice the words 'don't', 'avoid' and '...' unless you are directing the movie.' Take that
advice to heart. As you become more familiar with the world of screenwriting you'll
understand why but for now the scope of this document prohibits a deeper explanation.
Learning how to write a screenplay involves many facets but I hope this basic information
will give you a head start on your endeavors, including practical information to help you get
your scripts read. And hopefully turned into movies.
1. What Exactly Is a Script? What Makes Good Story?
2. Script Styles, Submission Scripts, and Shooting Scripts
3. Spec Screenplay Page Properties and Script Length
4. Script Elements and Scene Heading
5. Action
6. Character Name
7. Dialogue
8. Parenthetical
9. Extension
10. Transition
11. Shots
12. Page Breaking, Finer Points, Dual Dialogue, and Adlibs
13. Abbreviations and Montages
14. A Series of Shots and Short Lines/Poetry/Lyrics
15. Intercuts
16. Titles or Opening Credits, and Superimpose or Title
17. Title Page
18. Production Drafts, Top Continued and Bottom Continued
19. Locking Your Script Pages and Locking Your Scenes
20. Header, Do's and Don'ts
21. Other Script Formats
22. Title Page of TV Movies
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A script is a document that outlines every aural, visual, behavioral, and lingual element
required to tell a story. Why "outlines"? Because film is a highly collaborative medium and
the director, cast, editor, and production crew will, based on your "outline", interpret your
story their way when it is filmed. They may consult you, or they may not. Other writers may
be brought in or you may be asked to re-write the entire thing. That's life, in the world of
screenwriting. But because so many people are involved in the making of a film, a script must
conform to standards that all involved parties understand and thus has a specific format or
layout, margins, notation, and other conventions. This document is intended to overview the
typical elements used screenplay writing.
It is crucial to remember that film is a VISUAL medium. You don't tell your audience your
story, you SHOW them. You must learn to write a screenplay VISUALLY. Write what they
will SEE and what they will HEAR. You might love your characters and know what they are
thinking, but the discipline of screenplay writing is how to show it on a screen. When it
happens, it may be just done with a look, often improvised on the movie set. So just write the
pictures, sounds, and speeches, and leave the rest for the filmmakers.
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Let's hazard a guess. The movies you loved most featured characters that swept you up, who
captivated your emotions, got you involved. The audience viewing a movie not only wants to
be interested in and care about the people they see on the screen, they want to be
PASSIONATE about them, whether they like them or not. Great heroes and heroines inspire
us; great villains make us want to jump into the screen!
There is always something at stake in a good movie. Not just something someone wants,
something that must be acquired, no matter what the risk, as in
. Or something highly desired by as many main characters as possible, like the
small black statue in
. Some times it can be an intangible thing, like the
freedom of a people in
or
. All these things drive the character's
quest, even gives the hero superhuman strength. It can be something personal (romance) or
for the good of all (saving the world from aliens) but it must be powerful and grow more
desperate as the story unfolds.
There are always obstacles, which provide that catchword that actors love so much --
CONFLICT. This is the heart of drama. Someone wants something and people and things
keep getting in the way of them achieving the goal. At times, the obstacles can be common to
both the hero and villain, and the ultimate goal a laudable one for both parties, as in
In that film, Arnold Schwarzenegger and Sinbad battle to achieve the same goal--
the acquisition of the last popular action figure for sale that Christmas season. Both of them
have promised their son, and they must not fail. Conflict and obstacles can be physical or
emotional. But they have to be in your story or you don't really have a story. In most good
stories, the protagonist will also have an inner obstacle, some mental or even spiritual
problem, that will be resolved by the time s/he reaches the outward, physical goal of the
story. Some people call this inner demon a "ghost," while others call it a "wound."
You need a hook. That's a songwriting term that describes that thing that catches the public's
attention. A popular Hollywood term is a "high concept." A better idea might be a simple
"What if?" In , for example, the concept is "What if the washed-up actors from
the crew of a cancelled but still popular sci-fi TV show are pressed into a real war in space by
aliens who think the TV show broadcasts they received were documentaries?" A good
enough "what if?" will set your script apart from the pack. It is why people will leave the
comfort of their homes and plunk down their hard-earned bucks at the local cineplex.
Hollywood buys genres. Agents, managers, and producers are drawn to and specialize in
specific genres so approaching them with something they can recognize is a good idea.
Successful stories have a fresh face but are identifiable. You know what makes your idea
unique, but can you describe it quickly to others? Is it a fast-paced thriller, romantic comedy,
action adventure?
Scripts have to look a certain way. I can't stress this point enough. You must present your
work like an insider. The sheer volume of submissions makes it so that if ANYTHING about
your script looks strange it's headed for the circular file. If you don't know the game they
won't play. The scriptwriter has to adhere to conventions covering everything from how
many pages to what font (Courier 12 pitch in the U.S.), and that's just the beginning. I
recommend you follow those rules, unless you're independently wealthy and plan to finance,
produce, and direct your movie. Even then, however, the people you'll need to work with will
be accustomed to standard formats.
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Below is a listing of the most common script formats in use today. This document will be
dealing with Feature Film/Television Movie of the Week which are very similar but the
others are distinctly different. Their attributes complement the needs of production distinct to
the medium, the working style of the actors, and production personnel:
In this document:
Screenplay / Feature Film
Television Movie of the Week
Not addressed:
Stage Plays and Musicals
Sitcoms (3-camera, 1-camera, tape and film)
Soap Operas/Daytime Television
Audio/Visual Scripts/Dual Column
Multimedia
Scriptwriters for any of the above formats will present their work in either of the two variants
below depending on whether they are trying to sell their work or have sold it and are working
in the production part of the process.
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AKA a cc . This is a script written without being commissioned or bought, on the
! hope that it will be sold. This overview will favor the philosophies of spec script
writing which is to say, 'stay out of the way of the collaborative process'! The do's and don'ts
you'll see here will reflect this philosophy.
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Once a script is purchased, it often goes through a series of rewrites before it is put into
production. Once that happens, the script becomes a 'Shooting Script' or Production Script.
All the scenes and shots of a shooting script are numbered and each scene and shot are
broken down into all the component pieces required to film it. The production assistants and
director can then arrange the order in which the scenes will be shot for the most efficient use
of stage, cast, and location resources.
Since feature screenplay format is the most popular form of script today, we will begin by
exploring that layout. Later, we'll discuss the other formats, building on what we've
discovered here.
A general comment about script formatting: Although a certain format has become more and
more standardized in recent years, there isn't ONE way, ONE set of margins, ONE style.
There is a RANGE OF CORRECTNESS. All the software program formats and
measurements fall within this range.
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Screenplays are traditionally written on 8 1/2" x 11" white 3-hole punched paper. A page
number appears in the upper right hand corner (in the header). No page number is printed on
the first page. The type style used is the Courier 12 font. The top and bottom margins are
between .5" and 1". The left margin is between 1.2" and 1.6". The right margin is between .5"
and 1".
The extra inch of white space on the left of a script page allows for binding with brads, yet
still imparts a feeling of vertical balance of the text on the page.
The Courier 12 font is used for timing purposes. One script page in Courier 12 roughly
averages 1 minute of onscreen film time. Experienced readers can detect a script by
merely weighing the stack of paper in their hand.
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Script writing software is pre-programmed with all these rules right out of the box.
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The average feature screenplay, traditionally, is between 95 and 125 pages long. In
Hollywood these days scripts generally don't run longer than 114 pages. Comedy scripts are
typically shorter, dramas longer. There are, naturally, variations. You could be writing an
action-packed film where your description takes only 10 seconds to read, but will take 45
seconds of film time. Here's an example:
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If you had a script full of scenes like this, you could come up with a short script in total
pages... but that doesn't mean when it is filmed it would be short. By the same token, another
writer could write the same scene and have it take up half a page. It just depends on the
writing style of the individual writer.
125 page scripts are considered on the long side for a screenplay. Length is a very important
component of the script. When you turn in a script to a producer, the very first thing s/he will
do is fan through the pages and look at the last page to see how long it is. It doesn't matter if
you've written the most incredible screenplay ever, if it's too long they may refuse to read it.
The Industry's aversion to long scripts is due to economic considerations. Films under two
hours mean more showings per day in a theater, which means more revenue for the exhibitor,
distributor, filmmaker, and possibly even you, the screenwriter.
When you realize your script is long and have to start cutting your work, keep in mind that if
a scene can be removed and the story continues to work, that scene wasn't necessary. EVERY
SCENE should not only move the story along to its conclusion; it should be an integral part
of the path to the climax.
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These are the unique margin, case, and position attributes that give feature film script text the
format and consistency expected by all participants. Once you are accustomed to them you'll
be able to tell your story the way an industry reader is accustomed to seeing it. The elements
for a script are:
Scene Heading
Action
Character Name
Dialogue
Parenthetical
Extensions
Transition
Shot
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Scene Heading are aligned flush left (which we learned is about 1.5" from the edge of the
paper) and are rarely long enough to reach the page margin.
The Scene Heading is written in ALL CAPS. Use a period after the INT. or EXT., a hyphen
between the other elements of the Slugline.
The Scene Heading, sometimes called Slugline, tells the reader of the script where the scene
takes place. Are we indoors (INT.) or outdoors (EXT.)? Next name the location:
BEDROOM, LIVING ROOM, at the BASEBALL FIELD, inside a CAR? And lastly it might
include the time of day - NIGHT, DAY, DUSK, DAWN... information to "set the scene" in
the reader's mind.
The Slugline can also include production information like CONTINUOUS ACTION(
, or
ESTABLISHING SHOT(
or STOCK
SHOT(
.
Here are examples of Scene Headings:
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Script writing software will automatically file each new Scene Heading you use. This
alleviates the need to retype the same text again and again, and it also helps you keep your
script consistent. There is nothing more distracting to the reader than to see one Scene
Heading read:
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and two pages later:
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Keeping Scene Headings consistent allows your reader to recognize locations and places and
not have to figure out if this is a new set (location). You don't want to take the reader's mind
off your story, ever.
Here is a sample in Scene Heading sample in script form:
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We have 'established' that we're in a marina at dawn.
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Action runs from left to right margin, the full width of the text on the page, the same as the
Scene Heading. Be sure to use the word wrap function of your script writing software, to
make editing and rewrites easy. Text is single-spaced and in mixed case.
When you introduce a speaking character for the first time, you should put the name in all
caps.
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Script writing software intuitively formats the spacing and text between different paragraph
styles for you as you type. All you worry about is your story!
The ACTION or Description sets the scene, describes the setting, and allows you to introduce
your characters and set the stage for your story. Action is written in REAL TIME.
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Every moment in a screenplay takes place NOW. Use the active voice (
) not the passive voice (
).
Always write in PRESENT TIME, not the past. (There are rare exceptions to this; for
example, John Milius'
had description in past tense like a novel, but
then, he also directed the film.)
Keep your paragraphs short... don't let them go on and on over 4 or 5 lines. The reader may
scan long action paragraphs without really reading them.
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The reader begins to form an idea about the setting and the action taking place. We know
we're on a boat, two characters have been introduced to us, we have some idea about their
physical appearance. And we have a clue to their relationship.
Avoid a compulsion to write camera angles and shots. If you must emphasize some shot,
write it on a single line. Angles and shots are the domain of the director an will likely be
added in the Shooting Script.
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The CHARACTER NAME is formatted in uppercase letters and indented 3.5" from the left
margin.
Before a character can speak, the writer inserts a CHARACTER NAME to let the reader
know this character's dialogue follows.
A character name can be an actual name (JOHN) or description (FAT MAN) or an
occupation (DOCTOR). Sometimes, you might have COP #1 and then COP #2 speaking. It is
okay to identify the speaking parts like this, but actors will like you more if you personalize
their part with a name. Try to be consistent.
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When you use script writing software the use of long, difficult to type character names is a
breeze. The programs automatically learn and keep track of the CHARACTER NAMES you
use, allowing for consistency and ease. No need fear those JACQUELINEs and DR.
FRANKENSTEINs; two quick keystrokes are all you will need to make them appear on the
screen.
Script writing software will also insert the correct spacing from the previous paragraph style,
saving you thousands of keystrokes during the writing process.
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DIALOGUE margin is indented 2.5" from the left margin. A line of dialogue can be from 30
spaces to 35 spaces long, so the right margin is a bit more flexible, usually 2.0" to 2.5".
DIALOGUE rules apply when anyone on screen speaks. During a conversation between
characters. When a character talks out loud to himself... even be when a character is off-
screen and only a voice is heard.
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Great dialogue is a window into the soul of your character. It sounds real... It's
conversational. The audience feels like a fly on the wall, hearing natural interplay between
characters. Great dialogue may use common language but express great passion, and even
become a catch phrase in popular culture, as the line from Clint Eastwood's
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"Go ahead. Make my day."
It's not a bad idea to read your dialogue aloud to see how it really sounds. If you have a
difficult time reading a line, it may not be good dialogue. You'll definit ely be able to tell if
you organize a reading of your script and hear it that way (best with professional actors, like
they do in Hollywood and on Broadway).
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Script writing software now has the capacity to read your dialogue back to you via your
computer's sound system. You assign a gender to your character name, even different
inflections, and you can have a staged reading of your script right there in your living room.
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Parentheticals are left indented at 3.0" and the right margin is 3.5" although that is a bit
flexible. As seen in our examples, a Parenthetical remark is NOT centered under the character
name.
A Parenthetical remark can be an attitude, verbal direction or action direction for the actor
who is speaking the part. Parentheticals should be short, to the point, descriptive, and
.
These days, Parentheticals are generally disfavored, because they give direction to an actor
that may not be appropriate once on the set. The slang term for them is "wrylies" as in:
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Parentheticals are also used in some scripts as the (continuing) notation. If a character is
speaking followed by an action line and then the same character continues speaking, this
notation can be used, but the New Spec Script frowns on all such superfluously inserted
notations.
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Script writing programs may give you the option of placing the (continuing) as a
parenthetical remark or on the same line as the Character name, looking much like an
Extension.
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The (CONT'D) is entered automatically by the script writing software if that option is chosen.
It indicates that the character continues speaking throughout the action.
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O.S. - Off-Screen
V.O. - Voice Over
An Extension is a technical note placed directly to the right of the Character name that
denotes HOW the character's voice will be heard by the audience. An Off-Screen voice can
be heard from a character out of the camera range, or from another room altogether.
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Some writers use O.C. (off camera) in place of O.S. The "beat" used above simply denotes
that Frankie pauses (perhaps formulating his next thought) before uttering his next bit of
dialogue.
Another common extension is V.O. That stands for Voice Over. Think of a V.O. as a
narration, or a character speaking while s/he isn't in the scene. Or s/he can be in the scene, but
also acting as narrator, reflecting on and describing some time gone by. This dialogue is
recorded and then laid in over the scene in editing.
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Our character Frankie is reminiscing about the morning on the boat in a Voice Over.
We must begin with this remark: Nowadays, in Spec Scripts, transitions are frowned upon, a
waste of a couple of lines you could better use for brilliant dialogue, and are only used when
absolutely necessary.
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When you DO use a Transition, the left margin is at 6.5" and a right margin of 1.0".
Transitions are formatted in all caps and almost always follow an Action and precede Scene
Headings.
Transitions you may be familiar with are:
CUT TO:
DISSOLVE TO:
SMASH CUT:
QUICK CUT:
FADE TO:
FADE OUT (never at the end of the script)
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The only time to use a Transition in a spec script is if it's integral to telling the story. For
instance, you might use a TIME CUT: to indicate passage of time. More commonly, a
DISSOLVE TO: indicates that time has passed. Or, you might need to use MATCH CUT: if
you want to illustrate that there is some correlation between something we just saw and
something in the new scene. The point is, unless you become quite skilled in screenwriting
don't use these things unless absolutely necessary, because the director of the film will
probably think of something different.
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Most Transitions are already programmed into script writing programs, capitalized and lined
up for those rare occasions when you can't resist to use one.
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(Remember, the Cut To: will probably be left out in most spec scripts these days. What it
indicates is a complete change of location.)
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Shots are formatted like Scene Headings, flush left margin, all uppercase. Blank line before
and after.
A SHOT tells the reader the focal point within a scene has changed. Here are some examples
of shots:
ANGLE ON --
EXTREME CLOSE UP --
PAN TO --
FRANKIE'S POV --
REVERSE ANGLE --
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As the writer, for reasons already mentioned you should be very judicious using a SHOT to
redirect the reader's focus. Your "directing" runs the risk of interrupting the flow of your
storytelling. If what you really want to do is direct films, do yourself a favor and DON'T do it
in a script you're trying to sell... wait until it sells and try to negotiate a package deal with you
on board as the director. This most often is a possibility after you've already had one of your
screenplays filmed.
Once in a while, calling a shot is necessary. You want the reader to see something not
obvious in the scene or you want to achieve a particular emotion or build to a climax. This
device allows you to achieve this goal.
If you are describing a prison riot, with a prisoner holding a guard at knifepoint, and you
want the audience to see a sharpshooter aiming at the prisoner, you might use a shot like this:
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Another shot used from time to time is INSERT. INSERT is used solely as a direction - to
focus on something integral to the scene, often something that the audience needs to read or
what would otherwise be too small to be clearly seen in a full, wide scene.
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A well-constructed action paragraph or a single line might achieve the same goal without
distracting the reader. Be vigilant of the flow of the story, and try not to interrupt it.
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If you still need convincing that script writing software is a useful tool for a screenwriter,
page breaking will clinch it for you: If you've followed the program's simple directions while
writing your script, then all of the following rules will automatically, dare we say ?,
self-execute right in front of your eyes, while you are writing. The software will
Never end a page with a Scene Heading. The ONLY time this is acceptable is if
another Scene Heading or Shot follows. (An example would be an Establishing shot
and then an interior scene heading.)
Never start a page with a Transition.
Automatically place Continued: notations when it breaks an Action paragraph or a
Dialogue.
Never end a page with a Character Name line. At least two lines of Dialogue if there
are that many (including a Parenthetical, if used) must follow.
Never end a page at a Parenthetical. Dialogue MUST follow.
If you have Dialogue, a Parenthetical and then Dialogue again, break the page
BEFORE the Parenthetical.
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Now you are familiar with the basic elements and directions for writing a spec script. With
these elements, or simply using a script formatting software, you will write a standardly
acceptable script. It will look professional, and the reader will not automatically assume you
are an amateur storyteller because you don't know basic screenwriting rules. Now there are a
few finer points we should discuss.
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When two of your characters speak simultaneously, that's called or
. In the script we've been following, our characters might have this conversation:
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All of the script writing programs let you write this style of dialogue with ease, but you
should probably avoid this device unless absolutely necessary.
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Amateur screenwriters often do it in emulation of some old favorite scene, or to try to
interject "conflict." However, you are more likely to distract the reader and disrupts the flow
of the story. Don't give them a reason to put your script down by interjecting unclear scenes
and dialogue.
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Sometimes in a script it's acceptable or even necessary to have a crowd scene with ad lib
dialogue. There are two basic ways of writing this.
The first way to do it is in an action line.
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The second choice is to do it is as a character and dialogue.
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The film industry uses several abbreviations as shortcuts in scripts. It's up to you whether you
use these abbreviations or not. Some readers find them distracting, while others prefer the
shorthand. We've already discussed several -- O.S., O.C., V.O. -- which are specific to
scripts. Here are some others.
b.g. = background
b.g. is used in an action paragraph.
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CGI = computer generated image
CGI denotes action that cannot be filmed normally and will require the use of computers to
generate the full imagery, as used in films like
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f.g. = foreground
f.g. is used in action the same as b.g., except the action takes place in the foreground.
SFX = sound effects
SFX tells the sound people an effect is needed.
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SPFX = special effects
SPFX announces that a special effect is necessary (one that might not require the use of CGI).
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M.O.S. = without sound
The story goes that a German-born director (perhaps Josef von Sternberg, who discovered
Marlene Dietrich) wanted to shoot a scene without sound and told the crew to shoot "mit out
sound," a phrase which the crew found humorous and thus proliferated it. It is most
commonly used to show impending impact of some kind.
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POV = point of view
The camera 'sees' the action from a specific character's position
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A MONTAGE is a cinematic device used to show a series of scenes, all related and building
to some conclusion. Although a French word, it was created by Russian director Sergei
Eisenstein as a "montage of attractions" to elicit emotions on several levels. Most often it is
used as a passage of time device. Think of a baby being born, then rolling over, then taking
its first steps, and finally running through the sprinklers. For example:
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You can also number the scenes A), B), C) if you prefer. Either numbering format is correct.
(Note that the mother's emotions change through the montage from joy to weariness, once
Josh is completely ambulant there should be some element of the story that a montage will
illustrate.)
The MONTAGE is formatted as a single shot, with the subsequent scenes action elements of
the complete sequence. It isn't necessary, but some writers write END OF MONTAGE when
the montage is completed.
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A SERIES OF SHOTS is similar to a Montage, but it usually takes place in one location and
concerns the same action. Think of the movie
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A SERIES OF SHOTS is formatted as a SHOT. Just like a Montage, the shot series are action
paragraphs and may also be numbered 1) 2) 3).
A MATTER OF STYLE
Some writers will incorporate a series of shots into a script without noting it as such. This
generally contributes to a smoother flow of the action. The action lines might be short,
descriptive sentences on separate lines.
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Another style for writing the sequence above is:
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This particular style of writing takes more space on the page, but it also is a faster read. Why?
Look at all the white space in the second example... the reader's eyes can read that passage
very quickly.
Another style of writing has to do with EMPHASIS in the action element. Too often, readers
will skim a script, particularly if the action paragraphs are overly long. Here's an option of
how to get the necessary points across. Italics, bold or underlining are not used for emphasis.
# " &!
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Once in a while, it's necessary to write dialogue with a series of SHORT LINES. One
example might be if your character is reciting poetry, or singing a song.
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Song lyrics are typically written in all caps.
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2 3
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Occasionally in a script, you might want to cut back and forth between two or more scenes.
These scenes are occurring at the same time. Instead of repeating the Scene Heading for each
scene over and over, an INTERCUT is used. This gives the reader the sense that the scene is
moving rapidly back and forth between locations. There is a great sequence of intercuts in
" of shots of hunters out in the woods with a wedding going on
simultaneously, at a different location. Here's another example:
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Another type of INTERCUT is used when two characters are on the phone and you don't
want one half of the conversation to be O.S. - you want to show them both.
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In older films it was common to use a split-screen to show such a conversation. It's not
common these days, and unless you have a very good reason for writing it in, it is best to
INTERCUT.
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In some scripts you read, you'll see this notation:
BEGIN TITLES or BEGIN OPENING TITLES followed by END TITLES or OVER
OPENING CREDITS followed by END OPENING CREDITS. An example:
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!#
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Don't bother putting in Beginning and Ending titles. It is not usually done in a spec script, and
you can't predict where the producer and director will want to insert the titles, the sequence of
footage shot with the opening credits rolling over it. Don't give yourself the extra work.
c #
When the notation SUPERIMPOSE or TITLE OVER is used, text or an image is placed on
top of the film footage. Most of the time, it contains information the director thinks the
audience needs to know... like the place or time of the next scene.
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Only the text, "Daytona Beach, Spring Break, 1966" would appear toward the bottom of the
screen.
Any text, like subtitles or translations of foreign signs, etc., fall into this category.
Do not use SUPERIMPOSE: unless there is a definite need for it. It has been so overused, it
is some times spoofed, the way director Ron Howard did in c
.
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The TITLE PAGE has specific information on it. Type it in the same font as your script,
Courier 12. It should not be on special paper, no graphics - it should just contain only the
following information:
Centered on the page, vertically and horizontally - The title of your script in if
possible
Two lines below that, centered on the line - Written by
Two lines below that, centered on the line - Your Name (and co-writer, if any)
In the lower right hand corner your contact information (include agent or email address)
In the lower left-hand corner you can put Registered, WGA or a copyright notification.
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