INTRODUCTION TO_ ' GEOPHYSICAL Hee Fourth Edition Milton B. Dobrin Carl H. SavitFOURTH EDITION Milton B. Dobrin Late Professor of Geology University of Houston Carl H. Savit Adjunct Professor of Geology and Geophysics Rice University Western Geophysical Company (retired) Houston Assisted by sce Bloxsom Lynn with Norman Neidell, CTF vn, = ee McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY New York St.Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogoté Caracas Colorado Springs Hamburg Lisbon London Madrid Mexico Milan Montreal New Delhi Oklahoma City Panama Paris San Juan So Paulo Singapore Sydney Tokyo Torontoro 269 D615 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING INTERNATIONAL EDITION 1988 Exclusive rights by McGraw-Hill Book Co - Singapore for manufacture and export. This book cannot be re-exported from the country to which it is consigned by McGraw-Hill, 4567890 SEP 943 Copyright © 1988,1976, 1960 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. Copyright © 1952 by McGraw-Hill, Inc, All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. This book was set in Times Roman by Better Graphics, Inc. The editors were John Zumerchik and Steven Tenney. roduction supervisor was Salvador Gonzales. The drawings were done by J & R Art Services, inc. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PuMication Data Dobrin, Milton 8. (Milton Burnett) * Introduction to geophysical prospecting. a Bibliography: p Includes index. 1, Prospecting-Geophysical methods. |. Savit, Carl H. Il Title, TN269.06 1988 622.15 88-566 ISBN 0-07-017196-3 When ordering this title use ISBN 0-07-100404-1 Printed in SingaporeTo the Memory of Milton Dobrin and to Maxine Dobrin and Sandra SavitABOUT THE AUTHOR Carl H. Savit is a consulting geophysicist. After 38 years of service wit Western Geophysical Company, he retired as Senior Vice President, in whic position he had been responsible for the technical activities of the organizatio1 In 1970-71 he took a leave of absence to serve on the White House staff < Assistant for Earth, Sea, and Air Sciences to the President’s Science Adviso Among offices he has held are Editor of Geophysics, President of the Society « Exploration Geophysicists, and Chairman of the NRC-NAS Committee c Seismology. He has been and continues to be a member of many government: and organizational advisory boards, panels, and visiting committees. He is @ honorary member of SEG, a fellow of the GSA, and a member of oth professional societies, as well as holding California licenses in both geology an geophysics. He holds more than 41 U.S. patents and has written numerot papers and articles in his field.CONTENTS PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION 1 The Place of Geophysics in Oil and Mineral Explor: 4-1 GEOPHYSICS AND GEOLOGY 1-2 THE TECHNOLOGICAL CHALLENGE OF GEOPHYSICS 1-3 REVIEW OF GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 1-4 GEOPHYSICS IN OIL EXPLORATION 1-5 THE USE OF GEOPHYSICS IN MINING EXPLORATION 1-6 UNIT ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS BOOK Sewns = 2 How Seismic Waves Propagate 2-1 ELASTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLIDS 2-2 PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPRESSIONAL, AND SHEAR WAVES 2-3 TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES. 2-4 ATTENUATION, REFLECTION, REFRACTION, AND DIFFRACTION OF ELASTIC WAVES 2-5 GENERATION OF SEISMIC WAVES FOR PROSPECTING APPLICATIONS 2-6 ABSORPTION OF SEISMIC WAVES IN EARTH MATERIALS. 2-7 VELOCITIES OF SEISMIC WAVES IN ROCKS 2-8 PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN MEASURING SEISMIC-WAVE CHARACTERISTICS 2 & 868S8 BR RRB 3. Seismic Recording Instruments 31 GEOPHONES: 3-2 ANALOG RECORDING 3-3 DIGITAL RECORDING EQUIPMENT 3-4 OTHER FIELD INSTRUMENTATION x ABLSX% CONTENTS 4 Acquiring Seismic Reflection Data on Land 4-1 SINGLE-FOLD FIELD PROCEDURES: 4-2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SEISMIC NOISE TO BE SUPPRESSED IN FIELD RECORDING 4-3 ENERGY SOURCES FOR REFLECTION SHOOTING ON LAND 4-4 SHOT AND GEOPHONE ARRAYS 4-5 COMMON-DEPTH-POINT SHOOTING 4-6 SHEAR-WAVE DATA ACQUISITION 5 Acquisition of Seismic Data in Water-Covered Areas 5-1 GENERATION OF SEISMIC ENERGY UNDERWATER 5-2 MARINE ENERGY SOURCES 5-3 CABLES USED IN MARINE SHOOTING 5-4 REFLECTION PROCEDURES AT SEA 5-5 MARINE REFRACTION 5-6 NOISE PROBLEMS IN MARINE SEISMIC WORK 5-7 POSITION LOCATION FOR MARINE SURVEYS: 6 Computer Systems and Digital Filtering Concepts in Seismic-Data Processing 6-1 DATA PROCESSING WITH ANALOG SYSTEMS 6-2 DIGITAL COMPUTER SYSTEMS USED FOR SEISMIC-DATA PROCESSING 6-3 PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL FILTERING 7 Seismic-Data Processing 7-1 DEMULTIPLEX, GEOMETRY SPECIFICATION, AND OTHER FRONT END PROCESSING 7-2 DECONVOLUTION AND FILTERING 7-3 GEOMETRY OF REFLECTION PATHS 7-4 STATIC TIME CORRECTIONS 7-5 AMPLITUDE CORRECTIONS 7-6 DYNAMIC TIME CORRECTIONS-DETERMINATION OF SEISMIC VELOCITIES 7-7 MUTING 7-8 CMP STACK: MIDPOINT DISPLAY OF DATA SUMMATION 7-9 PLOTTING OF SEISMIC DATA 7-10 MIGRATION 7-11 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SHEAR-WAVE PROCESSING 8 Structural Geological Interpretation of Seismic Reflection Data 8-1 THE MEANING OF INTERPRETATION 8-2 CORRELATION OF REFLECTIONS 78 78 83 107 1 115 116 131 135 137 139 141 152 153 159 205 215 227 2879 Seismic Stratigraphy, Modeling and Inversion, and Hydrocarbon Indicators CONTENTS xi 8-3 RESOLUTION AND PRECISION OF SEISMIC REFLECTION MEASUREMENTS, 8-4 USE OF WELL DATA TO INTERPRET SEISMIC DATA 8-5 REFLECTION DATA OVER GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES SOUGHT IN OIL EXPLORATION 8-6 THE USE OF SEISMIC DATA TO DETECT DRILLING HAZARDS 9-1 REFLECTION AS A TOOL FOR STRATIGRAPHIC STUDIES 9-2 EXTRACTING LITHOLOGIC INFORMATION FROM REFLECTION DATA: MODELING AND INVERSION 9-3 SHEAR-WAVE DATA AND LITHOLOGIC INFORMATION 9-4 DIRECT DETECTION OF HYDROCARBONS: COMBINING SEISMIC STRATIGRAPHIC AND LITHOLOGIC TECHNIQUES 10 3-D Seismic Exploration aa) 12 10-1 WHY 3-D? 10-2 3-D SURVEY DESIGN AND ACQUISITION 10-3 DATA PROCESSING of 3-D Data 10-4 3-D MIGRATION 10-5 INTERPRETATION OF 3-D SEISMIC DATA Seismic Refraction Prospecting 11-1 REFRACTION VERSUS REFLECTION 11-2 WAVE PATHS AND TIME-DISTANCE RELATIONS FOR HORIZONTAL LAYERS 11-3 DIPPING BEDS WITH DISCRETE VELOCITIES 11-4 REFRACTION SHOOTING ACROSS A FAULT 11-5 REFRACTION IN A MEDIUM HAVING CONTINUOUS CHANGE OF SPEED WITH DEPTH 11-6 DELAY TIMES. 11-7 REFRACTION OPERATIONS IN THE FIELD 11-8 REFRACTION RECORDS; FIRST AND SECOND EVENTS 11-9 INTERPRETATION FOR COMMON SHOOTING ARRANGEMENTS, 11-10 CORRECTIONS USED IN REFRACTION ANALYSIS 11-11 DETAILING SALT DOMES BY REFRACTION 11-12 PRESENTATION OF REFRACTION DATA Gravity Prospecting: Principles and Instruments 12-1 THE PLACE OF GRAVITY IN OIL AND MINERAL EXPLORATION 12-2 GRAVITATIONAL FORCE, ACCELERATION, AND POTENTIAL 12-3 APPLICATION OF NEWTON'S LAW TO MASSES WITH LARGE DIMENSIONS RE 88 329 3 8 #8 a] 397 410 422 472 473 474 478 492 495, 495 498 499 503xl CONTENTS 13 14 15 16 7 12-4 THE EARTH'S GRAVITATIONAL FIELD AND ITS RELATION TO GRAVITY EXPLORATION 12-5 GRAVITATIONAL EFFECTS OVER SUBSURFACE BODIES HAVING DISCRETE SHAPES 12-6 INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING GRAVITY ON LAND 12-7 INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING GRAVITY AT SEA 12-8 BOREHOLE GRAVITY METERS 12-9 APPENDIX Gravity Field Measurements and Reductions 13-1 GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS ON LAND 13-2 MEASUREMENT OF GRAVITY AT SEA 13-3 AIRBORNE GRAVITY SURVEYS 13-4 DETERMINATION OF DENSITIES 13-5 REDUCTIONS OF GRAVITY DATA 13-6 TYPICAL GRAVITY ANOMALIES FOR VARIOUS GEOLOGICAL FEATURES The Interpretation of Gravity Data 14-1 DESIGN OF SURVEYS 14-2 IDENTIFYING THE SIGNAL BY DISPLAYING AND ENHANCING ANOMALIES 14-3 REGIONAL-RESIDUAL SEPARATION 14-4 DETERMINATION OF DENSITY FOR GRAVITY INTERPRETATION 14-5 QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATION Magnetic Prospecting: Fundamental Principles and Instruments 15-1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS, 15-2 MAGNETISM OF THE EARTH 15-3 MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OF ROCKS. 15-4 MAGNETIC EFFECTS FROM BURIED MAGNETIC BODIES 15-5 INSTRUMENTS USED FOR MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS, Magnetic Surveying Techniques 16-1 AIRBORNE DATA COLLECTION 16-2 MARINE DATA COLLECTION 16-3 MAGNETIC SURVEYS ON LAND. 16-4 DATA PROCESSING Interpretation of Magnetic Data 17-1 QUALITATIVE INTERPRETATION OF MAGNETIC DATA 17-2 INTERPRETATION OF TOTAL-FIELD DATA 17-3 DATA-ENHANCEMENT TECHNIQUES. 516 528 541 547 Sa88s 570 581 582 607 613 633 641 650 652 676 678 685 701 Ba817-4 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN MAGNETIC INTERPRETATION 17-5 INTERPRETATION OF DATA FROM MAGNETIC SURVEYS: 18 Electrical and Electromagnetic Prospecting Methods 18-1 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES ASSOCIATED WITH ROCKS. 18-2 DIRECT-CURRENT RESISTIVITY METHODS 18-3 NATURAL-SOURCE ELECTROMAGNETIC TECHNIQUES 18-4 THE SELF-POTENTIAL METHOD 18-5 ELECTROMAGNETIC PROSPECTING OF THE INDUCTIVE TYPE 18-6 INDUCED POLARIZATION INDEX CONTENTS 725 750 751 755 773 824 837 847PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION In characterizing the state of exploration geophysics today, I am prompted to refer to the first sentences of the prefaces of the second and third editions of this text. The lead sentence to the second edition reads ‘‘In the eight years since the first edition of Introduction to Geophysical Prospecting was pub- lished, there have been more extensive technical advances in the field of geophysical exploration than in any similar period since the earliest years of the art.”’ The third edition reads ‘‘Revolutionary changes since 1960 in all aspects of geophysical technology have necessitated a much more thorough revision of this text than is usually required between successive editions of a book.”* At the risk of being repetitious, I would begin this preface with the observa- tion that the pace of technological advance in geophysical prospecting, like that in most other technical disciplines is, if anything, accelerating. Even in so short a time as in the four years that this edition has been in preparation, whole sections have had to be revised, added, or omitted to keep pace with progress in technology. In exploration geophysics, progress has been made along a broad and diversified front. More data are gathered in the field. For example, within the last 60 years, the number of bits of information gathered in a seismic survey per mile of line surveyed has increased more than 10,000-fold. A further 10-fold increase is in the offing. Additionally, more types of data are being acquired. An example is gradient information in potential fields or shear-wave informa- tion in seismic prospecting. Because the power of computers (internal memory size multiplied by com- putation rate) has for 30 years or more been increasing 10-fold about every 2% years, computers have almost kept abreast of geophysical data flow, but, more nva XVI PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION importantly, greater precision is being achieved in the results of exploration and new geologic parameters are being extracted from computer processing of the acquired data. In the early years of exploration geophysics, progress was most rapid in instrumentation, so that now most measurements of physical properties or fields can be made and recorded as precisely and frequently as the inherent uncertainty of the quantities measured will permit. In recent years and for some time in the future, rapid progress has been and will be made in field techniques and in the analysis and interpretation of data. The present edition of this text is thus necessarily a ‘“‘freeze frame’’ of exploration geophysics as it was when those of us who contributed to the final result wrote. Nevertheless, the fundamental physical and geological principles embodied in the discussions and derivations of the text will probably remain valid for a considerable time. While the essence of Introduction to Exploration Geophysics is and will remain the work of the late Dr. Milton Dobrin, in the task of preparing this edition I have had invaluable assistance from Dr. Heloise Bloxsom Lynn, without whose manifold talents and broad knowledge I would have found it impossible to complete the work. Special gratitude is expressed to three dis- tinguished geophysicists who wrote either new or largely new chapters in keeping with their special expertise. Dr. Norman Neidell wrote Chapter 9 on interpretation techniques, Dr. Ozdogan Yilmaz wrote the totally new Chapter 10 on three-dimensional seismic surveying, and Dr. Yoram Shoham completely rewrote Chapter 18, with special emphasis on the magnetotelluric method which has come into prominence since the third edition. Because Dr. Lynn and I have specialized in seismic exploration, we have depended on experts in other fields to bring up to date the chapters on non- seismic methods. For undertaking those endeavors I express my sincere appre- ciation to Dr. Richard J. Blakely, Mr. Gerald Connard, Mr. Eduard deRidder, Dr. Robert A. Fowler, Dr. Richard O. Hansen, Dr. Alan T. Herring, Dr. Robert Jachens, Dr. Patrick Taylor, and Dr. Robert Simpson, Jr. Tam particularly appreciative of the efforts of Barbara Anki, CPS, for her patience in typing the entire text, correcting my errors and omissions, and making what must have seemed like an interminable number of revisions and corrections. Finally, | express my deepest gratitude to my wife Sandra for her patient acceptance of my late hours and constant preoccupation with the work and for proofreading every word of what she must have felt to be an intermina- ble text. While Dr. Dobrin and all the people I have acknowledged have contributed to a greater or lesser extent to the work, I take full responsibility for the final text in that the ultimate decisions on what was or was not included and in what manner the material is presented was mine. Carl H. SavitPREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION Revolutionary changes since 1960 in all aspects of geophysical technology have necessitated a much more thorough revision of this text than is usually required between successive editions of a book. The present edition is different in so many ways from the previous one that it can almost be looked upon as a new book rather than as a revision. Three chapters (on acquisition of seismic data at sea, seismic data enhance- ment in digital processing centers, and direct detection of hydrocarbons using seismic data) are entirely new. The need for such chapters reflects the great advances made during the past decade or so in digital recording and processing of seismic data as well as in techniques for seismic prospecting in offshore areas. The development during the 1960s of a new generation of high-speed digital computers has had an enormous impact on all phases of applied geophysics— from the acquisition of data in the field to its ultimate interpretation. The computer has not only made it possible to obtain better-quality seismic data but also to derive from them new kinds of geological information that until recently were not considered obtainable by geophysics at all. To give such develop- ments proper coverage has required the introduction of material on many aspects of geophysics that were not even in existence when the second edition of this book was published in 1960. A significant innovation in the present edition is the use of elementary calculu: presenting the basic principles of the various geophysical methods. In earlier editions the calculus was not employed because of concern that many geologists using the book might not have studied this subject. Now nearly all geological curricula leading to a bachelor’s degree in geology require at least a xviiPe xviii PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION year of calculus, and the restriction against its use observed in previous editions no longer appears necessary. It is unlikely that those readers who are not familiar with calculus will encounter any real difficulty if they skip over the equations which use it, assume them to be correct, and determine their signifi- cance from pertinent discussions in the text. Applied geophysics has become so specialized in recent decades that few readers are likely to be equally interested in all its phases. Even in elementary courses in the subject, the emphasis on different topics will vary with the background and interests of the instructor. Among those working in the field of exploration some will be primarily concerned with techniques used in oil exploration and others with those most widely applied in the search for metallic minerals. Those involved with geophysics in either the oil or mining industry will probably have different areas of concentration, e.g., field operations, instruments, data processing, or geological interpretation. It is hoped that the needs of all such users will be met in this book. To meet the needs of instructors offering a one-semester course in applied geophysics who would like to use this time for more intensive study of specific aspects of the subject rather than for broad coverage of the entire book, the individual chapters have been designed to be self-contained so far as that is possible. The present edition, like previous editions, was written with the needs of geologists in mind and I have emphasized the geological applications of geo- physics. It is not possible for the geologist to use geophysical tools most effectively unless he has a thorough understanding of the physical principles behind the various methods, particularly those involved in the recording of field data and its processing. Geological considerations should guide all aspects of geophysical prospecting from choice of field recording parameters and processing programs to final mapping of results in geological terms. The book is also intended for students of geophysics who want a broad view of all phases of geophysics, particularly those outside their own areas of specialization. It is hoped that the book will be helpful to professional geo- physicists who would like to review basic principles and at the same time keep up to date on new developments. Continuing education courses in geophysics have been well attended in recent years, indicating a widespread need for such updating. It is hoped that this book will serve a broader purpose than the mere presentation of technical information. Geophysical prospecting is a field of activity that is of particular current importance because of its bearing on the maintenance of the world’s industrial economy as well as living standards in many parts of the world. Both of these are highly dependent on the continued extraction of needed energy and mineral resources from the earth. As the challenge of finding such resources has grown, there has been an increasing need for dedicated individuals of exceptional ability to choose applied geo- physics as a career. It would be most gratifying if this book could lead students with the necessary qualifications to consider careers in a field that can offer thePREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION xix dual satisfaction of helping meet society's material needs as well as of meeting the challenge, more and more exacting as time goes on, of unravelling the fragmentary clues left by nature to the location of the treasures still hidden in the earth. Many people have helped me with this edition in numerous ways during the time when I was writing it. I should like to acknowledge such assistance from Terry Spencer, of Texas A and M University; Carl Savit, of Western Geophysi- cal Co.; Harry Mayne, of Petty-Ray Geophysical; Leroy Brow, of Exxon, Inc.; Robert E. Sheriff, of Seiscom-Delta, Inc.; Harold Mooney, of the University of Minnesota; and Fred Hilterman, of the University of Houston; all of them have given me valuable information or material. Several geophysicists have reviewed portions of the manuscript relating to their areas of specialization and have given me the benefit of their comments. Among these are Mr. Savit, Mr. Mayne, and Dr. Sheriff as well as Thomas R. LaFehr of Edcon, Inc., and Ralph C. Holmer and George V. Keller of Colo- rado School of Mines. Ralph B. Ross, a consultant and John C. Hollister, retired chairman of the Geophysics Department of Colorado School of Mines, have read the entire manuscript. All of these reviewers have made many valuable suggestions for improving the book and their assistance is deeply appreciated. lam particularly indebted to Bernard F. Bash and John Hough, students at the University of Houston, for invaluable help in assembling the material for the book and to Mrs. Doris Segelhorst for her patient typing of what must have appeared to be an endless number of drafts of the text. Milton B. DobrinINTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTINGCHAPTER THE PLACE OF GEOPHYSICS IN OIL AND MINERAL EXPLORATION The extraction at a continually increasing rate of fossil fuels and useful minerals from the earth has raised the specter of impending shortages that could threaten the economy and way of life of the civilized world. Events of the middle 1970s have demonstrated how well founded this concern can be. The amounts of oil, gas, and metallic minerals that actually exist in the earth, both known and undiscovered, are of course limited, but the immediate problem as established reserves become scarce is to find new supplies the earth that will replace those which have been consumed. The exploration for energy supplies and mineral resources has become increasingly difficult as the ‘easy’? sources are discovered and exploited. To meet the challenge, earth scientists have developed more and more sophisticated techniques of exploration. Until well into the twentieth century the search for oil and solid minerals was confined to deposits directly observ- able on the surface in the form of seeps and outcrops or other exposures. When all accumulations in an area that could be discovered by such simple means had been found, it was necessary to deduce the presence of buried deposits indi- rectly by downward projection of geological information observable on the surface. As this approach reached the point of diminishing returns, new meth- ods of studying the subsurface were needed. They did not require any geo- logical observations, but they did involve physical measurements at the earth’s surface that would give information on the structure or composition of con- cealed rocks that might be useful for locating desired deposits. GEOPHYSICS AND GEOLOGY We designate the study of the earth using physical measurements at or above the surface as geophysics. While it is not always easy to establish a meaningful 1re 2 CHAPTER 1: THE PLACE OF GEOPHYSICS IN OL AND MINERAL EXPLORATION border line between geology and geophysics, the difference lies primarily in the type of data with which one begins. Geology involves the study of the earth by direct observations on rocks, either from surface exposure or boreholes, and the deduction of its structure, composition, or history by analysis of such observations. Geophysics, on the other hand, involves the study of those parts of the earth hidden from direct view by measuring their physical properties with appropriate instruments, usually on or above the surface. It also includes interpretation of the measurements to obtain useful information on the struc- ture and composition of the concealed zones. The distinction between the two branches of earth science is not clear-cut. Well logs, for example, are widely used in geological studies, even though they present the results of purely instrumental observations. The term borehole geophysics is often used to designate such measurements. In a broader sense, geophysics provides the tools for studying the structure and composition of the earth’s interior. Virtually all of what we know about the earth below the limited depths to which boreholes or mine shafts have pene- trated has come from geophysical observations. The existence and properties of the earth’s crust, mantle, and core have been determined by observations upon seismic waves from earthquakes, as well as by measurements of the earth’s gravitation, magnetic, and thermal properties. The tools and techniques developed for such studies have been used in exploration for hydrocarbons and minerals. At the same time, geophysical methods devised for Prospécting applications have been put to use in more academic research on the nature of the earth's interior, While this book will emphasize the economic applications of geophysics, it should be stressed that the areas of “‘pure’’ and “‘applied’* geophysics have so much interdependence that the separation is artificial at best. 1-2 THE TECHNOLOGICAL CHALLENGE OF GEOPHYSICS Geophysical exploration is a relatively new area of technology. Ferrous miner- als were sought with magnetic compasses as early as the 1600s, but only during the past century have special instruments been put to use in mining explora- tion. Geophysical prospecting for oil and gas is in its sixties, the first oil discovery attributable to geophysics having been made in 1924, Throughout its history, the tools and techniques of exploration geophysics have been con- tinually improved, both in performance and economy. This progress has been in response to an unrelenting pressure to develop new capabilities after existing ones have become inadequate to find enough new deposits. Except in areas newly opened to exploration, most geophysical surveys are undertaken where previous ones have failed because the instruments, field techniques, or inter- Pretational methods were not good enough. In other words, those accumula- tions which are capable of being located with existing technology are the only ones that will be discovered at a given time. Those remaining will not be found until the technology improves sufficiently to bring them to light. Thus the exploration geophysicist finds himself in the same situation as aREVIEW OF GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 3 man on an accelerating treadmill who must run faster and faster just to stay where he is. This problem is also faced by others involved in the exploration process, such as geologists and drilling engineers. The technological improvements in geophysical exploration have been of several types. In some cases, new techniques have been developed to solve problems associated with the environment where exploration is to be carried out. In offshore areas, or in deserts, Arctic tundra, or lava-covered terrain, special logistics are needed. Moreover, unique types of ‘noise’ in such areas often cause interference with desired geophysical information, and special techniques must be developed to suppress such interference. The introduction of analog computer technology in the 1950s and digital computers in the 1960s brought about new capabilities in the recording and processing of all kinds of geophysical data, making it possible to extract useful information otherwise concealed by undesired noise. The technological revolution following World War Il brought about many scientific developments which have contributed greatly to the effectiveness of geophysical exploration. Electronic computers, microminiature electronics, information-processing techniques, and navigation satellites, to cite some ex- amples of pertinent space-age developments, have all been put to extensive use by geophysicists searching for oil and other natural resources. 1-3 REVIEW OF GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING METHODS. The geophysical techniques most widely employed for exploration work are the seismic, gravity, magnetic, electrical, and electromagnetic methods. Less com- mon methods involve the measurement of radioactivity and temperature at or near the earth’s surface and in the air. Some of these methods are used almost entirely in the search for oil and gas. Others are used primarily in exploring for solid minerals. Most of them may be employed for either objective. Seismic, magnetic, and gravity prospecting are the chief tools for hydrocarbon exploration; seismic and electrical methods are the two chief tools used for mineral exploration. In the U.S.S.R., in former French tet ries, and, more recently, in parts of the United States, elec- tromagnetic methods have been applied routinely to the search for oil. Mag- netic and electromagnetic methods are employed for both types of prospecting. Seismic Reflection Method With this method—by far the most widely used geophysical technique—the structure of subsurface formations is mapped by measuring the times required for a seismic wave (or pulse), generated in the earth by a near-surface explosion, mechanical impact, or vibration, to return to the surface after reflection from interfaces between formations having different physical properties. The reflections are recorded by detecting instruments responsive to ground motion. They are laid along the ground at distances from the point of generation, which are generally small compared with the depth of the reflector. Variations in the reflection times from place to place on the surface usually indicate structural features in the strata below. Depths to, 4 CHAPTER 1: THE PLACE OF GEOPHYSICS IN OIL AND MINERAL EXPLORATION reflecting interfaces can be estimated from the recorded times and velocit information that can be obtained either from the reflected signals themselves 0 from surveys in: wells. Reflections from depths of 30,000 ft or more cai normally be observed by combining the reflections from the repeated sourc applications, so in most areas geologic structure can be determined throughou the sedimentary section. In recent years, reflection data have also been used for identifying lithology generally from velocity and attenuation characteristics of the transmitted ant reflected seismic waves, and for detecting hydrocarbons, primarily gas, di rectly on the basis of reflection amplitudes and other seism The reflection method comes closer than any other prospecting technique t providing a structural picture of the subsurface comparable to what could bi obtained from a great number of boreholes in close proximity. Modern reflec tion record sections are similar in appearance to geologic cross sections, anc geologists must sometimes be cautioned not to use them as such without taking into consideration some potential hazards that might lead to erroneous inter pretation, even with good-quality reflection data. Under ideal conditions structural relief can be determined with a precision of about } percent of deptl below the surface. This method makes it possible to produce structural maps of any geologic horizons that yield reflections, but the horizons themselves usually cannot b¢ identified without independent geological information such as might be ob tained from wells. Reflection data can be used to determine the average velocities of seismic waves between the surface and the reflector. More impor. tant from a geological viewpoint, the velocities of seismic waves through depth intervals of a few percent of depth from the surface can now be obtained an¢ often provide a good indication of lithology. The usefulness of such informatior depends on the layering as well as on the problem at hand. With reflection methods, one can locate and map such features as anticlines, faults, salt domes, and reefs. Many of these are associated with the accumula- tion of oil and gas. Major convergences caused by depositional thinning can be | detected from reflection sections. The resolution of the method is now ap- proaching a fineness adequate for finding stratigraphic traps such as pinchouts | or facies changes. However, successful exploration for stratigraphic oil ac- cumulations by reflection techniques requires skillful coordination of geo- logical and seismic information. While current technological improvements have made it possible to obtain usable reflection data in many areas where reflections were formerly too poor to map, there are still places where reflection does not yield reliable informa- tion even though highly sophisticated data acquisition and processing tech- niques are used. In such intractable areas, other geophysical and geological methods must be employed. Seismic Refraction Method In refraction surveying, the detecting instru- ments record seismic signals at a distance from the shot point that is large compared with the depth of the horizon to be mapped. The seismic waves mustREVIEW OF GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 5 thus travel large horizontal distances through the earth, and the times required for the travel at various source-receiver distances give information on the velocities and depths of the subsurface formations along which they propagate. Although the refraction method does not give as much information or as precise and unambiguous a structural picture as reflection, it provides data on the velocity of the refracting beds. The method made it possible to cover a given area more quickly and economically than with the reflection method, though with a significant loss of detail and accuracy. Refraction is particularly suitable where the structure of a high-speed sur- face, such as-the basement or the top of a limestone layer, is the target of geological interest. If the problem is to determine the depth and shape of a sedimentary basin by mapping the basement surface, and if the sedimentary rocks have a consistently lower seismic velocity than do the basement forma- tions, refraction was in the past an effective and economical approach for achieving this objective. Airborne magnetics and, to some extent, gravity have replaced seismic refraction for such purposes. Because velocities in salt and evaporites are often greater than in surrounding formations, refraction has been useful in mapping diapiric features such as salt domes. Under favorable circum- stances, this technique has been used to detect and determine the throw of faults in high-speed formations, such as dense limestone and basement mate- rials. Despite its advantages, refraction is now rarely employed in oil exploration because of the larger-scale field operations required. Also, the reflection method has developed to the point that it can now yield nearly all of the information that refraction shooting could produce as well as relatively unam- biguous and precise structural information unavailable from refracted waves. Gravity Method In gravity prospecting, one measures minute variations in the pull of gravity from rocks within the first few miles of the earth’s surface. Different types of rocks have different densities, and the denser rocks have the greater gravitational attraction. If the higher-density formations are arched upward in a structural high, such as an anticline, the earth’s gravitational field will be greater over the axis of the structure than along its flanks. A salt dome, on the other hand, which is generally less dense than the rocks into which it is intruded, can be detected from the low value of gravity recorded above it compared with that measured on either side. Anomalies in gravity that are sought in oil exploration may represent only one-millionth or even one-ten- millionth of the earth’s total field. For this reason, gravity instruments are designed to measure variations in the force of gravity from one place to another rather than the absolute force itself. Modern gravimeters are so sensitive that they can detect variations in gravity to within less than one-hundred-millionth of the earth’s total field. The gravity method is useful wherever the formations of interest have densities that are appreciably different from those of surrounding formations. It is an effective means of mapping sedimentary basins where the basement rocks have a consistently higher density than the sediments. It is also suitable fora 6 CHAPTER 1: THE PLACE OF GEOPHYSICS IN OIL AND MINERAL EXPLORATION locating and mapping salt bodies because of the generally low density of sal compared with that of surrounding formations. Occasionally it can be used fo groundwater studies and for direct detection of heavy minerals such as chro mites. Recently, extremely sensitive gravimeters have been used to detec underground tunnels and the locations of burial chambers in pyramids. Data from gravity surveys are more subject to ambiguity in interpretatior than with seismic surveys, because any gravity field can be accounted fo equally well by widely different mass distributions. Additional geophysical o geological information over a gravity anomaly will reduce the ambiguity anc increase the usefulness of the gravity data. Gravity measurements are routinely made in conjunction with marine seis mic work and are used as a minor supplement. Gravity surveys, unaccom panied by other methods, are no longer employed in oil and gas exploratiot except on rare occasions. Magnetic Method Magnetic prospecting maps variations in the magneti: field of the earth that are attributable to changes of structure, magnetic suscep tibility, or remanence in certain near-surface rocks. Sedimentary rocks gener ally have a very small susceptibility compared with igneous or metamorphi: rocks, which tend to have a much higher magnetite content, and most magneti: surveys are designed to map structure on or inside the basement or to detec magnetic minerals directly. The magnetic method was initially used for pe troleum exploration in areas where the structure in oil-bearing sedimentar: layers appeared to be controlled by topographic features, such as ridges o faults, on the basement surface. Since the development of aeromagnetic methods, most magnetic survey: undertaken for oil exploration are carried out to ascertain the thickness of the sedimentary section in areas where such information is not otherwise available (usually frontier areas). Interpretation of such data is complicated by the fac! that intrabasement susceptibility changes usually have a much more significan’ effect on the observed magnetic field than does structural relief on the base ment surface itself. In mining exploration, magnetic methods are employed for direct location 0 ores containing magnetic minerals such as magnetite. Intrusive bodies such at dikes can often be distinguished on the basis of magnetic observations alone Interpretation of magnetic data is subject to the same uncertainty as is founc in gravity work, because of the lack of uniqueness inherent in all potentia methods. Here again, the more geological information is available, the less the uncertainty in the final interpretation. Electrical Methods Electrical prospecting uses a large variety of tech. niques, each based on some different electrical property or characteristic o materials in the earth. The resistivity method is designed to yield informatior on formations or bodies having anomalous electric conductivity. The induced: polarization method, employed in the exploration for disseminated ore bodies such as sulfides, will give diagnostic readings where ionic exchanges take placeREVIEW OF GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 7 on the surfaces of metallic grains. Such effects cause perturbations in the falloff. of voltage across the ore mass when current passed through the mass from surface electrodes is suddenly cut off. The resistivity method has been used for a long time to map boundaries between layers having different conductivities. It is employed in engineering geophysics to map bedrock and in groundwater studies to determine salinity and the depth to the water table. Most recently it has been applied in the search for geothermal power because subterranean steam affects the resistivity of formations in a way that can often be diagnostic. Telluric current and magnetotelluric methods use natural earth currents (the latter involving natural alternating magnetic fields as well), and anomalies are sought in the passage of such currents through earth materials. In this respect, these methods are different from resistivity and induced polarization, which require artificial introduction of electricity into the earth. Magnetotelluric methods have been found to be the only effective method of oil and gas exploration in areas where seismic work is not practicable, particularly where multiple sheets of volcanic rocks overlie the sedimentary section. The self-potential method is used to detect the presence of certain minerals and metallic bodies that react with electrolytes in the earth in such a way as to generate electrochemical potentials. A sulfide body oxidized to a greater extent on its top than along its bottom will give rise to such potentials, which are detectable with electrodes at the surface. Electromagnetic methods detect anomalies in the inductive properties of the earth’s subsurface rocks. An alternating voltage is introduced into the earth by induction from transmitting coils either on the surface or in the air, and the amplitude and phase shift of the induced potential generated in the subsurface are measured by detecting coils and recorded. Ore of base metals can often be detected by this technique. The resistivity and magnetotelluric methods are used extensively in the U.S.S.R. for mapping sedimentary basins at the early stages of exploration for petroleum in new areas. Other electrical methods, such as the telluric, have been employed by French geophysicists in Europe and Africa. Elsewhere in the world, electrical techniques have been employed for engineering purposes and in the search for solid minerals, water supplies, and geothermal energy. Radioactive Methods Radioactive prospecting for minerals containing ura- nium has involved the use of geophysical tools (geiger counters and scintillation counters) and must therefore be looked upon as a geophysical method. Much of the surface exploration for uranium is carried out by amateurs equipped with detecting instruments. Industrial prospecting involves radioactive logging of exploratory drill holes and airborne surveys with scintillation counters. Earlier editions of this book contained chapters on exploration for radioactive miner- als, but the subject will not be covered in this edition because more coverage is needed for the state of the art in the more widely used areas of geophysics. Well Logging Well logging involves probing the earth with instruments that give continuous readings recorded at the surface as the instruments are pulled4 8 CHAPTER 1 THE PLACE OF GEOPHYSICS IN OIL AND MINERAL EXPLORATION up through the borehole. Among rock properties currently being logged with such instruments are electrical resistivity, self-potential, gamma-ray generation (both natural and in response to neutron bombardment), density, magnetic susceptibility, and acoustic velocity. Although well logging is one of the most widely used of all geophysical techniques, it would require a book as long as this even to introduce this subject properly. For this reason, well logging will not be covered here except for special applications such as velocity or density measurement. The reader interested in logging is directed to other publications devoted specifically to the subject 1-4 GEOPHYSICS IN OIL EXPLORATION Geophysics and Our Future Oil Supply During the latter part of 1973, the matter of maintaining needed supplies of petroleum products became one of the most critical issues faced by most Western countries since World War II. As long ago as 1956, Hubbert predicted that the United States would reach its peak petroleum production in 1969 or 1970, and that from then on new reserves would not keep pace with increased consumption. His prediction for the United States was reaffirmed! in 1969, and statistics now available indicate that his projections were correct. Since 1973, the dependence of the United States upon imported oil has increased, but it was not until the embargos of 1973 that limitations on the availability of oil were really felt, not only in the United States but in most other countries as well. The impact of the sudden shortage upon the economy and way of life in affected countries illustrates the value of effective oil exploration in maintaining the equilibrium of our industrialized economy. Hubbert! also predicted that peak production for the world as a whole would be reached between [990 and 2000, the former year applying if the most pessimistic published estimates were used. Figure !-] shows these projections. Hubbert’s analysis proves that any oil surplus or “‘glut’’ that we may experience is bound to be a temporary phenomenon. Our continued use of this resource must inexorably reduce the world’s supply, so eventually the price of oil (and gas) will have to increase to the point that alternative sources become economi The hydrocarbons now being extracted from petroleum to meet the demand for energy need not come from conventional sources, because they can, in principle at least, be extracted from tar sands or oil shales or be synthesized from coal. But the technological, economic, and environmental problems of changing over to such alternative sources are so formidable that we shall be almost entirely dependent on oil and gas in their present form for many years. Even when the capacity for large-scale conversion of other fossil fuels is achieved, there will be demand for all the conventional petroleum that can be produced as long as the costs of exploration and production do not become so great that other sources can be exploited more cheaply.FIGURE 1-1 GEOPHYSICS IN OIL EXPLORATION 9 4]. mo E aol. i Assuming total ees | recoverable reserves: 3 | of 2100 blion bbs, 3 2 | $ 10 o = World Production rate (| United States esate esate ete eatee a a, 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 Year Crude oil production for the United States and world since 1900 and projected into the 21st cen- tury. (From Hubert’ and API.) Present geophysical exploration techniques are limited in their usefulness in many long-known petroliferous areas. To find substantial new oil and gas reserves requires further technological development of geophysical methods or new frontiers to explore. Many undiscovered deposits are located under water or in environments, e.g., desert or tundra, where conventional geological exploration is not very promising. Other undiscovered deposits are entrapped in such a way that existing geophysical techniques are incapable of finding them, and the only effective means of discovery is costly wildcat drilling. Many such oil deposits have never been discovered because geophysical methods that will locate them have not yet been developed. The limitation also applies to some oil located in stratigraphic (as opposed to structural) traps, although the appearance since 1970 of techniques for direct detection of gas by seismic reflection is changing the prospects. Other potential improvements are cussed by Dobrin.? In consideration of these facts, the conclusion seems reasonable that no technical factor may be as important in governing the future supply of conven- tional oil as the development of improvements in geophysical techniques. Two areas for potential advances are particularly significant: (1) the attainment of capability for mapping productive structures in places where no usable data can be obtained by existing methods and (2) the further development and use of effective geophysical techniques for locating oil in stra’ i Of the many important technical advances in geophysi tion as a tool for oil exploration in the early 1920s, none has been responsible for any really significant increase in discovery rates. As pointed out by Lyons,> the ratio of discoveries in exploration wells located by geophysics remained constant through the 1950s at about one in six. Improvements in technology had ‘aphic traps.