PLATE BOUNDARIES WITH MAJOR STRIKE-SLIP COMPONENTS.

1. Introduction

A strike-slip plate boundary with a simple and 'pure' geometry could be fairly boring.
Luckily, most transcurrent boundaries show a complexity of geometries, and take advantage
of a host of crustal irregularities so that they are usually very interesting, showing a rich array
of patterns and behavior.

Some terminology for strike slip faults:

 strike-slip fault: strike-slip component, but dip unspecified.

 wrench fault: strike-slip component and subvertical orientation.

 transcurrent fault: major wrench fault.

 transform fault: plate boundary fault system linking other boundary types,
commonly linking spreading ridges (discussed in earlier lecture material on seafloor
spreading.

 boundary parallel movement: just as it sounds.

 transpression: combined major strike-slip and minor convergent component across

boundary/mobile zone.

 oblique convergence: combined major convergent and minor strike-slip component

across mobile zone.

 transtension: combined major strike-slip and minor divergent motion component

across boundary/mobile zone.
2. What are methods of determining offset history (sense of motion, amount, rates)?

As you might guess there are multiple approaches.

 offset of distinctive geologic features:

o sedimentary assemblages with unique point sources (e.g. unique channels and
fans), e.g. San Andreas.

o igneous bodies that intruded along fault, e.g. San Andreas (example from first
lecture).

o large scale offset of oblique older geologic belts, e.g. Alpine fault in New
Zealand.

 offset of geomorphic features (gives more recent history/rates). Neotectonics is a key

word for this approach.

 Image to the right shows offset of stream channel along the San Andreas. If the
alluvial deposits can be dated (which charcoal in the sediments often allows Carbon-
14 technigues to be used), then a rate of offset can be worked out. Image source:
USGS - http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/earthq3/surface.html - image by Robert E. Wallace.

 geodetically (gives modern pattern). PFO observatory. GPS networks and GPS
Geodesy now a standard tool.

 inferred from plate motions, e.g. Nares Strait.

  strain analysis of ductile fault zone (gives a minimum).

3. Transpression and transtension

On a plate scale what geometry should a transcurrent boundary have if it is to have pure
strike-slip motion along its length? Why do continental transforms not tend to show such a
geometry?

In this schematic example of the boundary between two plates (A and B) on an equal angle
stereonet plotted so that the pole of rotation and associated small and large circle paths for
movement between the two plates are shown, one can see how bends in the orientation of a
plate boundary can produce transpression and transtension. Remember that the small circle
paths are the ones that points on a rigid plate interior will follow. From the geometry it then
follows that: section ED of the plate boundary will be pure convergence, EF will be dextral
transpression, FG will be pure dextral transcurrence, GH will be dextral transtension, HI
will be pure dirvergence, IJ will be sinistral transcurrence (and has a transform fault
geometry), JK will be pure divergence, and KL will be dextral transcurrence (and also with a
transform fault geometry). Underlying stereonet image created with stereonet program -
infor at http://www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/faculty/RWA/programs/stereonet.html .

The simple approach is that locking bends produce transpression and releasing bends produce
transtension. The terminology may be thought of reflecting how crust is stronger in
compression than in extension, and so bends with a convergent component may lock up and
produce larger earthquakes.

The image to the right is an example of a locking bend geometry on a small scale for a
sinistral fault. Image

source: http://water.usgs.gov/ogw/karst/kig2002/rwh_karstification.html .

A standard model for the architecture of zones of transpression and transtenion are positive
and negative flower structures (respectively). This architecture can be thought of as
coupled transpression and transtension, because both the strike-slip and contractional
components are taken up on the same set of faults, which should be characterized by oblique
slip.
  classic expression is of a deep seated, subvertical fault zone that branches out with
ascent. The faults are oblique slip; i.e. they have both dip and strike-slip movement
patterns.

 positive flower structure has a hanging wall up component, i.e. a contractional

component with uplift.

 a negative flower structure has a hanging wall down component, i.e. an extensional
component.

 seen seismically. Can be reproduced in clay models.

 if this pattern characterizes the length of the zone, an important question is how is the
extensional or contractional component accomodated at depth?

Block diagrams of positive and negative flower structures from USGS

report: http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2003/of03-077/text.htm .

4. Evolution of a coupled, en echelon, system - linkage of earlier formed structures.

In class exercise: modeling of evolution of strike-slip features in homogenous material.
Using wet sand or clay as a deforming medium, we will simply watch the evolution of layers
of original intact material overlying a subvertical discontinuity moving in a strike-slip
fashion. One of the interesting lessons here is the complexity of the pattern that develops in
such a simple set-up. As the experimental set-up deforms answer the following questions.
What is the first set of structures to develop? What orientation do they have? What happens
to them as deformation continues? What structures develop subsequently? How do structures
link? In general, how would you describe the resulting feature after movement is complete?

YouTube video of similar experiment done in gypsum by Marc Holland -

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9QZX-2eCx3I . Note the changes along strike in the
features developed.

YouTube video of sand box experiment with releasing and locking bends from "The Geo
Models" effort - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C1BvRg8aYaU .

Coupled versus decoupled transpression and trantension

Characteristic features of a coupled en echelon system include:

 oblique slip and en echelon faults.

 for transpression, curved upthrust geometries.

 rotation of structures with time.

 very complicated histories.

Decoupled transpression, an alternate mode:

 type of strain partitioning where orogen parallel shear and orogen perpendicular
contraction are accomodated on different sets of structures.

 shear often concentrated in narrow zones, where as contractional features are by

necessity more widely distributed.

 weak and steep faults promote decoupling.

 Spitsbergen's fold-thrust belt is a good example.

 already been addressed in discussion of Fitch faults, Sunda style tectonism and
oblique subduction.

 transpression can be (and usually is) partially decoupled.

 

 Diagram depicting how the San Andreas fault system in the LA area is decoupled at a
shallow crustal level. Note that, in that the thrust and strike-slip faults join, at depth
the system may be coupled. Image take from http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1999/fs110-99/ .

Block rotation in transcurrent zones

 determination from paleomag studies.

 evolution of strike-slip duplexes.

 roller bearing tectonics.

Diagram from USGS publication showing the rotation of Puerto Rico in a complex sinistral
deformation zone. From: D.G. Masson and K.M. Scanlon, 1991, The neotectonic setting of
Puerto Rico - http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2000/of00-006/htm/neoset.htm , and modified from
modified from GSA Bulletin, 1991. v. 103, no. 1, p. 144-154.

5. Sedimentation in strike-slip basins

These are usually associated with transtension:

 moving sources.

 can be very deep basins.

 fault controlled sedimentation.

 simple YouTube block model of development of a basin and a releasing bend -

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X5SpPSSe8O4 .

 San Benardino Basin along the Sand Andreas is one example. San Joaquin basin is an
older example.
Examples

 San Andreas fault system.

 Photo to right is of trace of San Andreas fault. Yes, those are housing developments.
Photo fromhttp://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/earthq3/intro.html .

 Alpine fault, New Zealand.

 Dead Sea Transform.

 Denali Fault in Alaska.

 Red River fault, S central China.

 De Geer fault zone, Svalbard and NE Greenland.

 Nares Strait (?), between Greenland and Canadian Arctic.

 Great Glen fault, Scotland.

 Anatolian fault complex, Turkey.

Image below shows the major dextral strike-slip fault complex in Turkey. Earthquakes on
this fault have caused tremendous loss of life and abundant suffering. Note that the
 Anatolian block is a wedge that is moving out to the sice, and this could be considered as
an example of 'escape' tectonics. Map source is from USGS
site: http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2003/eq_030501/neic_tgac_maps.html

References:

Atwater, T., 1970, "Implications of plate tectonics for the Cenozoic evolution of western
North America," Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 81, no. 12, p. 3513-3536. This is a classic, early
paper on the evolution of the San Andreas system with time. This paper was one of the early
ones that showed the incredible explanatory power of plate tectonic paradigms in explaining
'continental' geology.

Ben-Avraham, Z. & Zoback, M., 1992, Transform-normal extension and asymmetric basins:
an alternative to pull-apart models; Geology, v. 20, p. 423-426.

Crowell, J.C., 1979, "The San Andreas fault system through time," Jour. Geol. Soc.
(London), vl. 136, p. 293-302. A good, solid, descriptive paper by a geologist who has
devoted much of his career to studying and understanding the San Andreas. This is a good
first paper to read to get introduced to California geology.

Cunningham, W. D. & Mann, P. (eds) Tectonics of Strike-Slip Restraining and Releasing

Bends. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 290, 169 – 188.
Howell, V.C., 1975, "Hypothesis suggesting 700km of right slip in California along
northwest-oriented faults," GEOLOGY, vol. 3, no. 2, p. 81-83. This short paper introduces
one to some of the types of arguments used in trying to document the movement history and
magnitude for transcurrent boundaries; a problem made more difficult by the observation that
historically the movement may be concentrated along different faults at different times.

Keller, E. A. & Pinter, N., 1996, Active Tectonics; Prentice Hall, Saddle River, New Jersey,
339 p. this is a good primer at the undergraduate level on neotectonics and approaches taken
to describe and measures such movements.

Lowell, J.D., 1972, Spitsbergen Tertiary Orogenic belt and the Spitsbergen fracture zone:
Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 83, p. 3091-3102. I couldn't help throwing this one in. I
disagree with many specific aspects of Lowell's model, but it is an important and useful
starting point.

Mount, V. S. & Suppe, J., 1992, Present-day stress orientations adjacent to active strike-slip
faults: California and Sumatra: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 97, p. 11,995-12,013.

Scholz, C.H., 1977, "Transform fault systems of California and New Zealand; similarities in
their tectonic and seismic styles," JGS, (London), vol. 133, pt. 3, p. 215-229. A useful
comparison between the two best known transcurrent faults in the world; this paper considers
the type of earthquake patterns and behavior in transcurrent faults.

Sylvester, A.G., (compiler), 1984, Wrench Fault Tectonics, AAPG Reprint Series, #28, 374
p. A collection of classic papers including some of the above. It is divided into 3 sections:
Observations, Experiment, and Theoritical Studies. The only weakness in this collection is
that it heavily emphasizes the San Andreas. A few more articles on the Alpine fault would
have been useful.

ten Brink, U. S. & Ben-Avraham, 1989, The Anatomy of a pull-apart basin: seismic
reflection observations of the Dead Sea Basin; Tectonics, 8, 333-350.

Wilcox, R.H. and others, 1973, "Basic Wrench Tectonics," Bull. AAPG. Vol. 57, no. 1, 74-
96. A classic paper, that is a must for anyone working with transcurrent tectonics; this paper
presents a powerful predictive model for the myriad of structures that can form in a wrench
fault setting.