Chapter

Mechanical Separations
Practically every process operation requires the separa- data the range and distribution of particle sizes, or be in
tion of entrained material or two immiscible phases in a a position to intelligently estimate the normal and
process. This may be either as a step in the purification of extreme expectancies. Figures 4-1 and 4-1A give a good
one stream, or a principal process operation [64]. These overall picture of dimensions as well as the descriptive ter-
separations may be: minology so important to a good understanding of the
magnitude of a given problem. The significant laws gov-
1. liquid particles from vapor or gas erning particle performance in each range is also shown.
2. liquid particles from immiscible liquid
Particle sizes are measured in microns, g. A micron is
3. dust or solid particles from vapor or gas
1/1000 millimeter or 1/25,400 inch. A millimicron, m/t,
4. solid particles from liquid is 1/1000 of a micron, or 1/1,000,000 millimeter. Usually
5. solid particles from other solids particle size is designated as the average diameter in
microns, although some literature reports particle radius.
These operations may sometimes be better known as Particle concentration is often expressed as grains/cubic
mist entrainment, decantation, dust collection, filtration, feet of gas volume. One grain is 1/7000 of a pound.
centrifugation, sedimentation, screening, classification,
scrubbing, etc. They often involve handling relatively The mechanism of formation has a controlling influ-
large quantities of one phase in order to collect or sepa- ence over the uniformity of particle size and the magni-
rate the other. Therefore the size of the equipment may tude of the dimensions. Thus, sprays exhibit a wide parti-
become very large. For the sake of space and cost it is cle size distribution, whereas condensed particles such as
important that the equipment be specified and rated to fumes, mists and fogs are particularly uniform in size.
operate as efficiently as possible [9]. This subject will be Table 4-1 gives the approximate average particle sizes for
limited here to the removal or separation of liquid or dusts and mists which might be generated around process
solid particles from a vapor or gas carrier stream (1. and plants. Figure 4-2 indicates the size ranges for some
3. above) or separation of solid particles from a liquid aerosols, dusts and fumes. Table 4-2 gives typical analysis
(item 4). Reference [56] is a helpful review. of a few dusts, and Table 4-3 gives screen and particle size
Other important separation techniques such as pres- relationships. Table 4-4 gives approximate mean particle
sure-leaf filtration, centrifugation, rotary d r u m filtration size for water spray from a nozzle.
and others all require technology very specific to the
equipment and cannot be generalized in many instances.
Preliminary Separator Selection
Particle Size
The Sylvan Chart [2] of Figure 4-3 is useful in prelimi-
The particle sizes of liquid and solid dispersoids will nary equipment selection, although arranged primarily
vary markedly depending upon the source and nature of for dust separations, it is applicable in the appropriate
the operation generating the particular particles. For parts to liquid separations. Perry [23] presents a some-
design of equipment to reduce or eliminate particles what similar chart that is of different form but contains
from a fluid stream, it is important either to know from much of the same information as Figure 4-1 and 4-1A.

224
 Mechanical Separations 225

T a b l e 4-1 T a b l e 4-3
Sizes of C o m m o n D u s t s a n d M i s t s D r y P a r t i c l e S c r e e n Sizes

Average Particle Diameter, W.S. Tyler Screen

Dust or Mist Microns Scale Micron (approximate)
Human Hair (for comparison) . . . . 50-200 80 .................................. 174
Limit of visibility with naked eye.. 10-40 100 .................................. 146
Dusts 115 .................................. 123
Atmospheric dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 150 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Aluminum .................. 2.2 170 .................................. 89
Anthracite Coal Mining 200 .................................. 74
Breaker air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 250 .................................. 61
Mine Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9 270 .................................. 53
Coal Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 325 .................................. 43
Coal loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8
Rock drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
Alkali fume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Ammonium Chloride fume . . . . . 0.05-0.1-1 T a b l e 4-4
Catalyst (reformer) . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5-50
Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5-40-55 Approximate Particle Sizes From Liquid Full Cone
Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
Ferro-manganese, or silicon . . . . 0.1-1 Spray Nozzles*
Foundry air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 L i q u i d : Water
Flour-mill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fly Ash (Boiler Flue gas) . . . . . . 0.1-3
Iron (Gray Iron Cupola) . . . . . . 0.1-10 Operating Pressure, Approx. Mean Particle
Iron oxide (steel open hearth).. 0.5-2 Nozzle Size, In. Psig She, Microns
Lime (Lime Kiln) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-50 89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12oo
Marble cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 60 ............... 750
Pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2-2 ............... 10 ................ 1600
Sandblasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 40 ............... 1000
Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10 1 ............... 15 ................ 1750
Smelter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1-100 40 ................ 1250
Taconite Iron ore lX~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 ................ 2300
(Crushing & Screening) . . . . . 0.5-100 60 ................ 1800
Talc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 3 ............... 10 ................ 5300
Talc Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 30 ................ 4300
Tobacco smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2
Zinc oxide fume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05
Zinc (sprayed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 *Private communication, Spraying Systems Co., Bellwood, Ill.
Zinc (condensed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Mists
Atmospheric fog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15 E x a m p l e 4-1: B a s i c S e p a r a t o r T y p e S e l e c t i o n [2,17]
Sulfuric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5-15
Compiled from References 1, 13, and 15. A s u i t a b l e c o l l e c t o r will b e s e l e c t e d f o r a l i m e k i l n to
i l l u s t r a t e t h e u s e o f t h e Sylvan C h a r t ( F i g u r e 4-3). R e f e r -
r i n g to t h e c h a r t , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d m e a n p a r t i c l e
T a b l e 4-2 size o f t h e m a t e r i a l l e a v i n g t h e k i l n c a n v a r y b e t w e e n 3
Typical Dust Size A n a l y s i s * a n d 10 g r a i n s / c u ft w i t h 5 to 10 m i c r o n s r a n g e o f m a s s
m e a n p a r t i c l e size. A s s u m e a n i n l e t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 7.5
DUST g r a i n s / c u ft a n d i n l e t m e a n p a r t i c l e size o f 9 m i c r o n s .
Cement P r o j e c t i o n o f this p o i n t v e r t i c a l l y d o w n w a r d to t h e c o l l e c -
Kiln Foundry
Rock Exhaust Sand Limestone t i o n e f f i c i e n c y p o r t i o n o f t h e c h a r t will i n d i c a t e t h a t a low
Sp. Gravity . . . . . 2.63 2.76 2.243 2.64 r e s i s t a n c e c y c l o n e will b e less t h a n 5 0 % e f f i c i e n t ; a h i g h
Apparent Wt.,
Ibs./cu.ft. . . . . . 61.3 52.0 45.9 72.0 e f f i c i e n c y c e n t r i f u g a l will b e b e t w e e n 60 a n d 8 0 % effi-
Screen Analysis cient, and a wet collector, fabric arrester and electro-stat-
(Percent passed)
ic p r e c i p i t a t o r will b e 9 7 % - p l u s effi ci ent . T h e last t h r e e
100 Mesh . . . . . 98.8 99.6 91.2 85.6
200 Mesh . . . . . 92.8 92.2 78.4 76.4 c o l l e c t o r s a r e o f t e n p r e c e d e d by a p r e c l e a n e r so a h i g h
325 Mesh . . . . . 79.6 80.8 67.6 66.4 e f f i c i e n c y c e n t r i f u g a l will b e s e l e c t e d . U s i n g t h e a v e r a g e
400 Mesh . . . . . 70.8 73.2 64.4 63.2
Elutriation Analysis: l i n e o f this g r o u p , t h e e f f i c i e n c y will b e 7 0 % . T h e r e f o r e ,
Percent Under t h e e f f l u e n t f r o m this c o l l e c t o r will h a v e a c o n c e n t r a t i o n
Terminal Velocity
o f 7 . 5 ( 1 . 0 0 - 0.70) = 2.25 g r a i n s / c u ft.
320 I n . / m i n . . . 75.8 78.0 64.2 70.5
80 I n . / m i n . . . 37.0 61.0 53.9 52.0
20 I n . / m i n . . . 17.5 40.8 42.0 33.0 D r a w a l i n e t h r o u g h t h e initial p o i n t w i t h a s l o p e p a r -
5 In./min... 8.9 23.0 32.0 18.0 allel to t h e l i n e s m a r k e d " i n d u s t r i a l d u s t . " W h e r e devia-
*Compiled from Bulletin No. 1128, American Blower Corp., t i o n is n o t k n o w n , t h e a v e r a g e o f this g r o u p o f l i n e s will
Detroit, Michigan. n o r m a l l y b e s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e to p r e d i c t t h e m e a n par-
 Gravity Settling of Spheres in Still Fluid
Commercial
.Particle
. . . i .G. . .nero Common Methods Equipment for Spheres of
Diameter "los ifica~ of Measuring Collection or Unit Densily
Particol Size Critical Particle D i a m e t e r
Removal of in Air Above Which Low Will Not
Lows of Settling
Microns Particles from Diameter, Apply
o Gas Microns

I00,000 [100,000

5 Newton's Low

2
-In.-
ut : 1.74
C:0.44
gL DP (/~176
P
Dp,crit :Kcr
I Lpip,-p 1
i
3 , 0 0 0 : 1 :m. l
- I0,000--
-I l Kcr :2,360 for Newton's Low
,5 -~' i n . - ,
, ,I "
!

"!
L
, GI~

i E I

~.ooo
i

, ',
I ! I t
,
...
~
r

! ~I,000-- Intermediate Low Kcr = 4::5.5 for

c: ,8.~ N~~ Intermediate Law
~,~ L

Dp U4(psp)~
~ ,, O
I 11 i 0.153.g ~
o~
211I, ;1_ ~ "~ Ut :
Q3 O

m
o f,o.29/,, o.43

100, , , ~, o
e-

T -' I "=-= ~,~-', E

L
Stoke S' Law Kcr : 33 for Stokes' Low.
-I
I--
C:24 NRe
o t "*:" l I 2
9~ .,- e "C- r
g,.Dp (Ps-P)
o"- Ut - :Uts
~ ~ - (..3
18f.
LI_

iii r
IJ_

9 .The Cunninghom Correction on Stokes'

Stokes-Cunninghom Law ILow Becomes Important for Particles
l o t Diameters Under 3 Microns for
I Settling in Gases and Under 0.01
ut : K m uts I Micron for Settling in Liquids.
I !
- e- ,
i

I i._ ii 4-.
o i K m :l'l'Kme ( X m / D p) I
--- o "i ~ The Value Kme has Experimentally been Shown to lie Between 1.3 and 2.5
for Different Gases, Particle Sizes ,and Materials (Wasser, Physik.Z.,:54,
2 5 7 - 2 7 8 [ 1 9 5 3 ] ) . An Approximate Average Value Based on the Data of
Millikan is Fmpiricolly Given by

Kme : 1 . 6 4 4 + 0 . 5 5 2 e - ( 0 " 6 5 6 Op/km)

0
,.._
Brownian Movement Brownian Movement is o Random
E , Motion Superimposed upon the
Gravitational Settling Velocity of

5
,.-
9~
r
e-.
.o_
I--
~
I

!
Ax-
,•4gc 2
RTKm t
3-n" /u.. NDp
the Particle it Becomes Appreciobe
for Particles under 3 Microns
Diameter and Becomes Entirely
Predominant for Particles Under
O. I Micron.
O.C =
I
0.01
!

--J 0 t

--0.0( I= --0
-~ Furnishes Average Particle Diameter,but no Size Distribution N mencloture'(Any Self-Consistent System of Units may be Employed; English units are given by
x Size Distribution may be Obtained by Special Calibration way of Example.)
C Overall Drag Coefficient, Dimensionless NRC = Reynolds Number ,Dimensionless-Do. F) ~ E/~o
Dp = Diameter of Spherical Particle,ft. Gas Constant, 1,546 (ft.-lb. Force) (I b'. mole)(F)
From Kinetic Theory of Gases" Dp crit =Critical Particle Diameter Above Which Low t Time ,sec.
will Not Apply, ft. T Absolute Gas Temperature, o F obs.,or o R
gc = Conversion Factor, :52.17 (lb. mass/lb. Force) / ut Terminal Settling Velocity of Particle Under
x,. : 3 p i p v (ft./sec.) Action of Grovity,ft./sec.
gL : Local Acceleration due to Gravity ,(ft.)/(sec.) Uts Terminal Settling Velocity of Particle as
V -N/"8gc RT/-,M (sec.) Calculated from Stokes' Law, ft./sec.
Kcr - Proportionality Factor, Dimensionless ~" Mean Molecular Speed, ft./sec.
Km = Stokes-Cunningham Correction Factor, Ax Average Linear Amplitude or Displacement of
Dimensionless Particle in Time t, ft.
Kme - Proportionality Factor, Dimensionless /o Fluid Density , lb. moss/cu, ft.
M - Molecular Weight, lb./mole M~s True Density of Porticle,lb. mass/cu, ft.
N = Number o-f,.Gas Molecules in o mole, Fluid Viscosity, (Ib, moss)/(ft.)(sec.)
2.76 x IO t'.` Molecules/lb. mole Xm Mean Free Path of Gas Molecules,ft.

Figure 4-1. Characteristics of dispersed particles. By permission, Perry, J. H., Ed., Chemical Engineers Handbook, 3rd. Ed., 1950, McGraw-
Hill Company, Inc.
 Mechanical Separations 227

SIZE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR-BORNE SOLIDS

RATE OF
DIAM.
SETTLING
U.S.
OF
PAR- ST'D SCALE OF IN F.P.M.
FOR
TICLES
SPHERES
IN
MICRONS
MESH
ATMOSPHERIC IMPURITIES SPEC. GRAV. 1
AT 7~.

9 , !

8ooo : ," J ,,.,i

6OOO ; 4 )-
l.,jl
! 1750
4000 ] !. i.i.i
"4:" 1
U r ~(
z nC OC
2000 10! 1--' -- k-

16 -~_ ,790
1000 ,
I"" -,-a"
800 20: ..14[9 ~,,. i I~ ~i.I
6OO 9 |--
i~555
400 ' 64 _.~| ,

= N u
200 60
128
100 ca
100 150, 59.2
80 200: v,~, ' ' |

60 250;. .,,:: ~ - 14.8

4~
I,..,, ~,I .~ "
40325- I~- i,i,i
.__,n
ro-~:
,.,., ~ ~ 1 ca
~ l

506
~, :3_ o ~
20 9 ,1 ~
u" '~-,
~
,1'
_
f,,,p ~.1 ~
uJ
r = ,, ~ ~ ,i-592
lo: . v4
=

v.-
8' I ' llml m
6: ,, ===1 .~. ~ .148
9
~
,,.,.
~ iu.
,.~.. ~
. ' ! r,-,'.,d.
-.,,
|
,.4, i',d~ I~_
uu I-. el-

E Z Z
=" qi ~ v~ r "

m r ca Ua
~- == ~
il ~007 ~
| u,w~ ~ i
-- :~-~ ~ PER HR. 9
i,,-i __J

[alP' ~
m i,n ~ ~.
i " ~ ,z" ' ;1.4" 9

ca m .~ .,,,,.uJ ~ _. , ,.,, . PER HR.

;~ I.-- -- =- ~ ~ "
/
ca ~ 3~i
- Q ~00007 =

", 1 ' uJ r r P". U

" ua ' =P" =E " ua q; " "

ua ~ O r I1,, uJC=} ..

=- Z r C) "= B ~ ,.., n_
.A =_ .. .. ..a ~ _ .~=
.01: in. _ _ _
-"J -- r. r r-i
-- ~ ,., -- 7.. ~; E..- -,-; "" ,.,,r ""." "
9 u.. =, ~ ,-:. ;. r_,-, ""~ :-~ ~ ~ - ~"~- ~ N
| | --
~"
=,
~
=-
~ = 42 r- - |
,..,..-
v

_ _ : = - _ _
r

Id=i n" ,--i ---=

MJ

1011! . . . . . . ,, m 0
IT IS ASSUMED T H A T THE PARTICLES ARE OF U N I F O R M SPHERICAL SHAPE H A V I N G
SPECIFIC G R A V I T Y ONE A N D T H A T THE DUST C O N C E N T R A T I O N IS 0.6 G R A I N S PER
1000 CU. FT. OF AIR, THE A V E R A G E OF M E T R O P O L I T A N DISTRICTS.

Figure 4-1A. Size and characteristics of air-borne solids. By permission, Hoffman Handy Engineering Data, Hoffman Air and Filtration Sys-
tems, Inc.

ticle size in the collector effluent. Where this line inter- A projection of this point of collector effluent vertical-
sects the horizontal line marked 2.25 grains/cu ft, a verti- ly downward shows that a second high efficiency centrifu-
cal line through the point will indicate the effluent mean gal will be less than 50% efficient. A wet collector, fabric
particle size of 6.0 microns. arrester and electro-static precipitator will be not less than
228 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

RAIN . . . . . . .
"
MIST
I
........ FOG
't ....
I
L, TOBACCO
, SMOKE
_,
I
DROPS GROUND LIMESTONE H2SO~ CONCENTRATOR ROSIN~ SMOK..~
I
MIST (~. SO,MIST
. . j . |,
CARBQN_ BLACK
PIG'MENTS I
r .., !
SULFIDE ORE FOR FLOTATION
i9 .., i :-] r
I~H4CL FUME I
! i
PULVERIZED C O A L ~:)RAY-DRIED MILK OIL SMOKE
C22-"Z- :i'" . rz///z//zz,/l/z/zz= " .,, " i
r STOKER FLY ASH
PULVERIZED-COAL
L.- ! ...... FLY DIAMETERS ___
OF
___
FOUNDRY DUSTS ~ ZINC OXIDE FUME GAS MOLECULES
, CEMENT DUSTI ALKALI FUME ]
I J ' MAGNESIIM OXIDE SMOKE
METALLURGICAL DUST
7"1
t I METALLURGICAL FUME
TYLER
Figure 4-2. Particle-size ranges for aerosols, SCREEN POLLENS BACTER IA l t VIRUS8 PROTEIN
E:--. ".-J
MESH 55 1(30 ) '
!0O325
dusts, and fumes. Courtesy, H. R Munger, Bat- t ~ II , I iiiii ! I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I000 I00 I0 1,0 o.t 0.o~ 0001
telle Memorial Institute. PARTICLE SIZE - MICRONS

93% efficient. Selection of a good wet collector will show The fundamentals of separation for a particle moving
an efficiency of 98%. The effluent leaving this collector with respect to a fluid are given by the drag coefficient of
will have a concentration of 2.25(1.00 - 0.98) = .045 Figure 4-6.
grains/cu ft. Using the line initially drawn, at the point The motion of particle and fluid are considered rela-
where it intersects the line of 0.045 grains/cu ft will indi- tive, and the handling of the relations are affected only by
cate a mean particle size in the effluent of 1.6 microns. conditions of turbulence, eddy currents, etc.

Guide to Dust Separator Applications Terminal Velocity

Table 4-5 [10] summarizes dry dust particle separators When a particle falls under the influence of gravity it
as to general application in industry, and Table 4-6 and will accelerate until the frictional drag in the fluid bal-
Figures 4-4 and 4-5 [42] compare basic collector charac- ances the gravitational forces. At this point it will contin-
teristics. Figure 4-5 presents a typical summary of dust col- ue to fall at constant velocity. This is the terminal velocity
lection e q u i p m e n t efficiencies which have not changed or free-settling velocity. The general formulae for any
significantly for many years except for specialized equip- shape particle are [13]:
ment to specialized applications.

Guide to Liquid-Solid Particle Separators 2gLm p ( 9 s --

1
P)
(4-1)
ut= ppsApC
Table 4-7 summarizes liquid particle separators as to
the general process-type application.
For spheres:

Gravity Settlers
4gLD
1
p (gs -- P )
3p C (4-2)
The use of these settlers is not usually practical for U t =

most situations. The diameters or cross-section areas

become too large for the handling of anything but the
(a) Spherical particles between 1500 and 100,000
very smal!est of flowing vapor streams. In general, gravity
microns; Newton's Law:
settlers of open box or tank design are not economical for
particles smaller than 325 mesh or 43/.t [23].
They are much more practical for solids or dusts, !
although even for these situations the flow quantities ./gL D p (Ps -- 9 )
U t 1.74 (4-3)
must be small if the sizes are not to become excessive. P
With unusually heavy a n d / o r large particles the gravity
separator can be used to advantage. C = 0.445 average drag coefficient
 Mechanical Separations 229

;0o ~ . . . . r ~ I ' "i

] DEVIATIONS 1 1
50 . . . . . . . d i .

'i - <.,> . I : _-

'. - _i lZ:: - : I . . . . . . .
I o4 I ~.. ,::in
I o~ FA
_ 9
~ 9 I ' - -- ~ -"/J -

~. c i I 'i~ u; :z:" ~ 7.5 GR.I CF. ... - 9~-~

5 - . -zr
~ _~_= ,-
= - :a
_,= ' ,=o.=.
i z z~oj I ~~/

- - ' - -
I --"
m,.
u~
_9 I < '<~
,
<'I
~
= =I,i.. : ~ w~-:
! ,, ' '
I liA ~ "
I
~_

-
>4. ...,, i o o ~_,,, =- I . . . . . . .
ilro ~ _ o~=E .,/
0.5- ~_
_ ~-~
-
. . .
,
.
.
.
. . .
.
. .
.
. .
hi i

12::1.
ff
, , - - -; , 9 , , , ,

o i / i
_OJ . . . . - ~ .
I

~ , ~ : __ . . . . .
r

r-- I i O0 .. ! ..
0.05 i J II . ~ ~ 2 ' 2 " 5l ( ~ I -- .9 E ) = ;( ~I ~ I
..I = - ] , !

o . . . . i i . . . . . i
I-- u.A." 9 =E----- ~ . . . . . . . . . . .
i",,,I 0 r

ci 0.01 " 0: , I'

n , ,
'l . I ,
, , : ,, , ,,

.i'i~ ~ . ,~ ~. ~ -- _. --.
0 Z i -

1005 I - ,,-- I'-- . . . . ,

,I . . . . , , ,

).Oq5 -- '=--- "' ,i I I i , i . . . .

. . . . . ~ : , ,
3 ~ I~, r ] ~I I I :
=~ .---- ._~ 0c 9 ~ ] ]
(:~ ::~ n . : . . . . . . . .
= ABRASIVE i lING
r Z I/) I

I~ :
§. . . . z . I BLASTITUMBLING q . . . . . . . . . . . .

_ nil (GR A D',~ MILLS

o 0.5 '~
~, "i
. . .
,~Cl[
.
MISTS-
.
_i_ DRIER.5 n t;II.N5 n COOLER - "" . . . . .

~ .FI. IE AND S' S I E I I - : TOOL,'PORTABLE~ ...........

z ,=z'i IN I 1 1 1 ' .... I -I , ! LYASH I P N E U M A T I C CONVEYING
z 0.I ---! C DI A:~Y ATMOSPHERIC DI ;TS ~ K E R ' ' I' I
0 " Zl"i
~l ~ 199
-z
13::

~
(i05-~
,

" / ~ .
:
," IIIi/ -
i

198
.... " III/A
o ,~ t ~ ;~ - .,r ~.~._~_/1 196

:" 0,01 /
<< i 9 : Iso

~- ).005--...- ! I ~ t80
i , , I
"~1:::i !
-- . .', i,i "I i 170
,~ - / i ~ ; , 160

OF SIZ S
- I ,,

o. t ~o too ioool
MEAN PARTICLE IN MICRONS
I

F i g u r e 4-3. R a n g e of p a r t i c l e sizes, c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a n d c o l l e c t o r p e r f o r m a n c e . C o u r t e s y A m e r i c a n Air Filter Co. Inc.

230 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

99,99 ...... 0.01

0.05
99.9 0.1
99.8 0,2
0.5
99,0 1,0

95,0 5,0
90.0 lO.O
20.0
d .2
o =.
'- 50.0 50.0 ,_o
=
0
_o
20,0 8
90.0
10,0
5.0 95.0
Fabric filter

1.0 99.0
0.5
0.2 99.8
Figure 4-4. Comparison chart showing ranges of 0.1 99.9
performance of several collection/control devices 0,05
in air streams. By permission, Vandegrift, et. al. 0.01 ........ -.......... 99.99
Chemical Engineering, D e s k b o o k Issue, June 18, 0.01 0.1 .......... 110
1973, p. 109. Particle diameter, microns

(b) Spherical particles between 100 and 1500 microns (d) Spherical particles between 0.1 and 3 microns:
d i a m e t e r [13]" Stokes-Cunningham Law [ 12]"

U t -- Kmuts (4-6)
0.71D 1.14 (D _ ~) ) 0.7
0"153gL p s
u t = (4-4) (4-7)
p 0.29 ~[ 0.43 K ~ - 1 + Kme ( ) ~ m / D p )

C = 18.5 N Re-0.6, (See Figure 4-1) Kme = 1.64 + 0.552e-(0"656Dp/~'m ) (4-8)

This represents a correction on Stokes Law and is sig-

(c) For spherical particles between 3 and 100 microns nificant for 3 micron and smaller particles in gases a n d
and Reynolds n u m b e r s between 0.0001 and 2.0, 0.01 micron and smaller particles in liquids. Table 4-8
Stokes Law: gives values of Km.
W h e n two free settling particles of different dimen-
CNRe = 24 sions, D ' p a a n d D'p2 and different densities, [:)pl and Pp2,
fall t h r o u g h a fluid of density, Pf, they will attain equal
velocities when:
F d = 3,n-lXUDp/g L

and: Opl _ Pp2 -Pf/n_ (4-9)

D p2 [:)pl - P f

2 (0s - O) where n = 1 in eddy-resistance zone (more turbulent) and n =

U t -" gLD P i8~1, (4-5) 0.5 in streamline fall.

Alternate Terminal Velocity Calculation

For particles smaller than 0.1g the r a n d o m Brownian
m o t i o n is greater than the m o t i o n due to gravitational set- In contrast to individual particles settling in a very
tling. Therefore the above relations based on Stokes Law dilute solution/fluid, is the case of s e d i m e n t a t i o n where
will not hold. particles must settle in m o r e c o n c e n t r a t e d environment,
 Mechanical Separations 231

Figure 4-5. Efficiency curves for various types of dust collection equipment as of 1969. Only marginal improvements have been made since
then. By permission, Sargent, G. D., Chemical Engineering, Jan. 27, 1969, p. 130.

and hence, particles influence adjacent particles. This is If, K < 3.3, then Stokes' law applies. If 3.3 <- K <_-43.6, the
often t e r m e d hindered settling [23,46]. D e p e n d i n g u p o n i n t e r m e d i a t e law applies, and if K > 43.6, Newton's law
the particles concentration, the h i n d e r e d terminal set- applies. If K > 2,360, the equations should not be used.
tling velocity will generally be somewhat lower than for
the terminal settling velocity of a single desired particle in Values of a a n d bl
the same m e d i u m .
From Reference [46]:
K is a dimensionless n u m b e r that establishes the Law Range b1 a

regime of settling class, reference to the settling laws: Stokes' K < 3.3 24.0 1.0
Intermediate 3.3 _-<K = 43.6 18.5 0.6
Newton's K > 43.6 0.44 0
, [Pf(Dp-Pf)] 1/3
K = 34.8 D p g2 (4-10)
(text continued on page 234)
232 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

T a b l e 4-5
A p p l i c a t i o n s o f Dust Collectors in I n d u s t r y

COLLECTOR TYPES USED IN INDUSTRY

Concen- Particle Cyclone High Eft. Wet Fabric Hi-Volt See
tration Sizes Centrif- Collector Arrester Electro- Remark
Operation ugal static No.
Ceramics
a. Raw product handling light fine rare seldom frequent frequent no
b. Fettling light fine to rare occasional frequent frequent no
medium
c. Refractory sizing heavy coarse seldom occasional frequent frequent no
d. Glaze & vitr. enamel spray moderate medium no no usual occasional no
Chemicals
a. Material handling light to fine to occasional frequent frequent frequent rare
moderate medium
b. Crushing grinding moderate fine to often frequent frequent frequent no
to heavy coarse
c. Pneumatic conveying very fine to usual occasional rare usual no
heavy coarse
d. Roasters, kilns, coolers heavy reed-coarse occasional usual usual rare often

Coal Mining and Power Plant

a. Material handling moderate medium rare occasional frequent frequent no 8
b. Bunker ventilation moderate fine occasional frequent occasional frequent no 9
c. Dedusting, air cleaning heavy med-coarse frequent frequent occasional often no 10
d. Drying moderate fine rare occasional frequent no no 11

Fly Ash
a. Coal b u r n i n g m c h a i n grate light fine no rare no no no 12
b. Coal b u r n i n g m s t o k e r fired moderate fine to rare usual no no rare
coarse
c. Coal burning--pulverized fuel heavy fine rare frequent no no frequent 13
d. Wood burning varies coarse occasional occasional no no no 14

Foundry
a. Shakeout light to fine rare rare usual rare no 15
moderate
b. Sand handling moderate fine to rare rare usual rare no 16
medium
c. Tumbling mills heavy reed-coarse no no frequent frequent no 17
d. Abrasive cleaning moderate fine to no occasional frequent frequent no 18
to heavy medium

Grain Elevator, Flour and Feed Mills

a. Grain handling light medium usual occasional rare frequent no 19
b. Grain dryers light coarse no no no no no 20
c. Flour dust moderate medium usual often occasional frequent no 21
d. Feed mill moderate medium usual often occasional frequent no 22

Metal Melting
a. Steel blast furnace heavy varied frequent rare frequent no frequent 23
b. Steel open hearth moderate fine to no no doubtful possible probable 24
coarse
c. Steel electric furnace light fine no no considerable frequent rare 25
d. Ferrous cupola moderate varied rare rare frequent occasional occasional 26
e. Non-ferrous reverberatory varied fine no no rare ? ? 27
f. Non-ferrous crucible light fine no no rare occasional ? 28

Metal Mining and Rock Products

a. Material handling moderate fine to rare occasional usual considerable ? 29
medium
b. Dryers, kilns moderate med-coarse frequent frequent frequent rare occasional 30
c. Cement rock dryer moderate fine to rare frequent occasional no occasional 31
medium
d. Cement kiln heavy fine to rare frequent rare no considerable 32
medium
e. Cement grinding moderate fine rare rare no frequent rare 33
f. Cement clinker cooler moderate coarse occasional occasional ? ? ? 34

Metal Working
a. Production grinding, scratch
brushing, abrasive cut off light coarse frequent frequent considerable considerable no 35
b. Portable and swing frame light medium rare frequent frequent considerable no
c. Buffing light varied frequent rare frequent rare no 36
d. Tool room light fine frequent frequent frequent frequent no 37
e. Cast iron machining moderate varied rare frequent considerable considerable no 38
 Mechanical Separations 233

T a b l e 4-5
A p p l i c a t i o n for D u s t Collectors in I n d u s t r y ( c o n t . )

COLLECTOR T Y P E S U S E D IN I N D U S T R Y
Concen- Particle Cyclone H i g h Eft. Wet Fabric Hi-Volt See
tration Sizes Centrif- Collector Arrester Electro- Remark
Operation ugal static No.
P h a r m a c e u t i c a l a n d Food P r o d u c t s
a. Mixers, grinders, weighing,
blending, bagging, packaging light medium rare frequent frequent frequent ? 39
b. Coating pans varied fine to rare rare frequent frequent no 40
medium
Plastics
b. Raw material processing (See comments under Chemicals) 41
a. Plastic finishing light to varied frequent frequent frequent frequent rio 42
moderate
Rubber Products
a. Mixers moderate fine no no frequent usual no 43
b. Batchout rolls light fine no no usual frequent no 44
c. Talc dusting and dedusting moderate medium no no frequent usual no 45
d. Grinding moderate coarse often often frequent often no 46
Woodworking
a. Woodworking machiues moderate varied usual occasional rare frequent no 47
b. Sanding moderate fine frequent occasional occasional frequent no 48
c. Waste conveying, hogs heavy varied usual rare occasional occasional no 49

By Permission John M. Kane, Plant Engineering, Nov. (1954).

REMARKS REFERRED TO IN TABLE 4-5

1. Dust released from bin filling, conveying, weighing, mixing, 20. Collection equipment expensive but public nuisance com-
pressing, forming. Refractory products, dry pan and screen- plaints becoming more frequent.
ing operations more severe. 21. In addition to grain handling, cleaning rolls, sifters, purifiers,
2. Operations found in vitreous enameling, wall and floor tile, conveyors, as well as storing, packaging operations are in-
pottery. volved.
3. Grinding wheel or abrasive cut off operation. Dust abrasive. 22. In addition to grain handling, bins, hammer mills, mixers,
feeders, conveyors, bagging operations need control.
4. Operations include conveying, elevating, mixing, screening, 23. Primary dry trap and wet scrubbing usual. Electrostatic is
weighing, packaging. Category covers so many different ma- added where maximum cleaning required.
terials that recommendation will vary widely.
24. Cleaning equipment seldom installed in past. Air pollution
5. Cyclone and high efficiency centrifugals often act as primary emphasis indicates collector use will be more frequent in
collectors followed by fabric or wet type. future.
6. Usual set up uses cyclone as product collector followed by 25. Where visible plume objectionable from air pollution stand-
fabric arrester for high over-all collection efficiency. ards, use of fabric arresters with greater frequency seems
7. Dust concentration determines need for dry centrifugal; plant probable.
location, product value determines need for final collectors. 26. Most cupolas still have no collectors but air pollution and
High temperatures are usual and corrosive gases not unusual. public nuisance emphasis is creating greater interest in con-
8. Conveying, screening, crushing, unloading. trol equipment.
9. Remote from other dust producing points. Separate collector 27. Zinc oxide loading heavy during zinc additions. Stack tem-
usually. peratures high.
10. Heavy loading suggests final high efficiency collector for all 28. Zinc oxide plume can be troublesome in certain plant loca-
except very remote locations. tions.
29. Crushing, screening, conveying, storing involved. Wet ores
l 1. Difficult problem but collectors will be used more frequently often introduce water vapor in exhaust air stream.
with air pollution emphasis.
30. Dry centrifugals used as primary collectors, followed by
12. Public nuisance from boiler blow-down indicates collectors are final cleaner.
needed. 31. Collection equipment installed primarily to prevent public
13. Higher efficiency of electrostatic indicated for large installa- nuisance.
tions especially in residential locations. Often used in con- 32. Collectors usually permit salvage of material and also reduce
junction with dry centrifugal. nuisance from settled dust in plant area.
14. Public nuisance from settled wood char indicates collectors 33. Salvage value of collected material high. Same equipment
are needed. used on raw grinding before calcining.
15. Hot gases and steam usually involved. 34. Coarse abrasive particles readily removed in primary col-
16. Steam from hot sand, adhesive clay bond involved. lector types.
35. Roof discoloration, deposition on autos can occur with
17. Concentration very heavy at start of cycle. cyclones and less frequently with dry centrifugal. Heavy
18. Heaviest load from airless blasting due to higher cleaning duty air filters sometimes used as final cleaners.
speed. Abrasive shattering greater with sand than with grit 36. Linty particles and sticky buffing compounds can cause
or shot. Amounts removed greater with sand castings, less trouble in high efficiency centrifugals and fabric arresters.
with forging scale removal, least when welding scale is Fire hazard is also often present.
removed. 37. Unit collectors extensively used, especially for isolated ma-
19. Operations such as car unloading, conveying, weighing, stor- chine tools.
ing. (Remarks cont. on next page)
234 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Remarks from Table 4-5 (Cont.) and other fine additions make collection and dust free dis-
posal difficult.
0,4. Often no collection equipment is used where dispersion from
38. Dust ranges from chips to fine floats including graphitic exhaust stack is good and stack location favorable.
carbon. 45. Salvage of collected material often dictates type of high
39. Materials involved vary widely. Collector selection may de- efficiency collector.
pend on salvage value, toxicity, sanitation yardsticks. 46. Fire hazard from some operations must be considered.
40. Controlled temperature and humidity of supply air to coat- 47. Bulky material. Storage for collected material is consider-
ing pans makes recirculation from coating pans desirable. able, bridging from splinters and chips can be a problem.
41. Manufacture of plastic compounds involve operations allied 48. Production sanding produces heavy concentration of par-
to many in chemical field and vary with the basic process ticles too fine to be effectively caught by cyclones or dry
employed. centrifugals.
42. Operations are similar to woodworking and collector selection 49. Primary collector invariably indicated with concentration and
involves similar considerations. See Item 13. partial size range involved, wet or fabric collectors when
43. Concentration is heavy during feed operation. Carbon black used are employed as final collectors.

Table 4-6
Comparison of Some Important Dust Collector Characteristics*

Higher
Efficiency
R a n g e on
Particles Max.
Greater Pressure SENSIVITY TO T e m p . , F,
than Loss, Water, Gal. CFM CHANGE , Standard
Mean Size Inches per 1,000 H u m i d Air I Con-
Type in Microns Water CFM Space Pressure Efficiency Influence struction

Electro-Static 0.25 89 Large Negligible Yes Improves 500

Efficiency
Fabric:
Conventional 0.4 3 --6 Large As cfm Negligible May make i 180
recondition-
ing difficult
Reverse Jet 0.25 3 --8 Moderate As cfm Negligible 200
Wet"
Packed Tower 1--5 5 N10 Large As cfm Yes
Wet Centrifugal 1--5 21~--6 3--5 Moderate As (cfm) 2
Wet Dynamic 1--2 Note 1 i a/~tol Small Note 1 Yes
No t None Unlimited
Orifice Types 1--5 2~--6 i 10--40 Small As cfm Varies with
or less design
Higher Efficiency:
Nozzle 0.5--5 2 --4 5 --10 Moderate As (cfm) 2 Slightly to None Note 2
Venturi 0.5--2 12 --20 ...... Small Moderately } Unlimited
Dry Centrifugal:
Low Pressure Cycle 20--40 3/~--I Large As (cfm) 2 Yes May cause 750
High Eft. Centrif. 10--30 3 --6 Moderate As (cfm) 2 Yes condensa- 750
Dry Dynamic 10--20 Note 1 Small Note 1 No tion and 750
Louver 15---60 1 --3 Small As (cfm) 2 Moderately plugging 750

Note 1" A function of the mechanical efficiency of these combined exhauster and dust collectors.
Note 2" Precooling of high temperature gases will be necessary to prevent rapid evaporation of fine droplets.
* By permission, John M. Kane, "Operation, Application and Effectiveness of Dust Collection Equipment," Heating and Ventilating.
Aug. 1952, Ref. (10)

(text continuedfrom page 231) F o r h i n d e r e d particle settling in a " m o r e c r o w d e d "

T h e t e r m i n a l settling velocity for single s p h e r e s can be e n v i r o n m e n t , u s i n g s p h e r i c a l particles o f u n i f o r m size"
d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g t h e c o n t r a s t s for t h e flow r e g i m e .

gts = g t (1 - c) m, ft/sec (4-12)

] 1/(2-n) R e f e r r i n g t h e a b o v e to o t h e r t h a n u n i f o r m s p h e r i c a l par-
t ( l n ) (p --P f)
Vt
--

i4aeD P
3blgnpf(-n)
P
'
ft/sec (4 11) ticles d o e s n o t c r e a t e a s i g n i f i c a n t loss in a c c u r a c y f o r
i n d u s t r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . F o r h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n , t h e val-
ues o f Vts are l o w e r t h a n Vt. In l a r g e p a r t i c l e s in small ves-
 Mechanical Separations 235

T a b l e 4-7
G e n e r a l A p p l i c a t i o n s of L i q u i d P a r t i c l e S e p a r a t o r s

COLLECTOR T Y P E S
Impinge-
Operation Concentration Particle Sizes Gravity ment Cyclone Scrubbers Electrical

Pipeline entrained liquid light fine to coarse No Frequent Yes Occasional Few
Compressor discharge liquid light fine No Frequent Occasional Occasional Rare
Compressor oil haze very light very fine No Frequent Frequent Frequent Occasional
Flashing liquid light to mod. fine to medium No Frequent Frequent Occasional Rare
Boiling or bubbling light to heavy fine to coarse Occasional Frequent Frequent Occasional Rare
Spraying light to heavy fine to coarse No Frequent Frequent Rare Rare
Corrosive liquid particles light to heavy fine to coarse Occasional Frequent Occasional Frequent Rare
Liquid plus solid particles light to heavy medium Occasional Occasional Frequent Frequent Occasional

100,000

N Symbols and Legend

= Areo of Porticle Projected on Plone Normol to
Ap Direction of Flow or Motion, sq. ft.
C =Overoll Drog Coefficient,Dimensionless
I0,000[~ Dp =Diometer of Porticle, ft.
Fd =Drog or Resistonce to Motion of Body in Fluid,
N: Poundols
NRe:Reynolds Number, Dimensionless
t,ooo
u :Relotive Velocity Between Porficle ond Moin Body
of Fluid, ft./sec.
II
g/! F :Fluid Viscosity,(Ib. moss)/(fO(secJ:Centipoises +1488
C
9.ca
~- 100
|11! __.Ha. P :Fluid Density ,(Ib. moss)/(cu, ft.)
2~ mBbl,,~,~mm (Any Consistent System of Units moy be Employed in
o Ploce of the English Units Specified)
o
//|
o
Spheres
Disks
Cylinders

0. I
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0. I 1.0 I0 I00 1,000 I0,000 I00,000 1,000,000
DpPu
Reynolds Number, NRe :

Figure 4-6. Drag coefficients for spheres, disks, and cylinders in any fluid. By permission, Perry, J. H., Chemical Engineers Handbook, 3rd Ed.,
McGraw-Hill Company, 1950.

!
sels, t h e wall e f f e c t c a n b e c o m e s i g n i f i c a n t (see R e f e r - Where D p = diameter of particle, in. or mm
e n c e [23]). a e = acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/s 2 or 9.8 m / s 2
Pp = density of particles, lb/ft 3 or k g / m 3
Pf = density of fluid, l b / f t 3 or k g / m 3
F o r a s i n g l e p a r t i c l e , Dp c a n b e t a k e n as 2 ( h y d r a u l i c bt = viscosity of fluid, cp
radius), and the Sauter mean diameter for hindered bl = constant given above
particles. n -- constant given in text.
236 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

T a b l e 4-8 Solve for settling velocity, V t"

Values of K,, for Air at Atmospheric Pressure 12
1/(2-0.6)
Particle Diameter, g t __ [ 4 ( 3 2 . 2 ) (0.01)(1 + 0.6) ( 5 0 0 - 0.08)
Microns 70 ~ F. 212 ~ F. 500 ~ F. 3 ( 1 8 . 5 ) (0.02) 0.6 (0.08)(1 - 0.06)

0.1 2.8 3.61 5.14

0.25 1.682 1.952 2.528
g t -- 9.77 f t / s e c
0.5 1.325 1.446 1.711
1.0 1.160 1.217 1.338
2.5 1.064 1.087 1.133 Reynolds number, N Re = D p V t P s /~t
5.0
10.0
1.032
1.016
1.043
1.022
1.067
1.033 =([0.011 (9.77) ( 0 . 0 8 ) )
~,L(12)l (0.02)(6.72 • 10 -4)

= (cp) (6.72 • 1 0 - 4 ) , lb/ft sec

m = exponent given by equations in Reynolds num-
ber table below NRe = 48.46
Vt = settling velocity for single spherical particle, ft/s Then, m = 4.375(NRe) -~176 = 4.375(48.46) -o.o865 = 3.1179
and m / s (terminal)
Vts = settling velocity for hindered uniform spherical For 0.1 volume fraction solids for h i n d e r e d settling
particle, ft/s or m/s (terminal) velocity:
c = volume fraction solids
K = constant given by equation above
NRe -- R e y n o l d s n u m b e r , Dp g t 0 f / g gts -- g t (1 - c) m
= 9.77(1 - 0.1) 3"1179
= 7.03 ft/sec

Values o f m NRe
(e) Particles u n d e r 0.1 micron:
4.65 < 0.5
4.375 (NRe) -0.0875 0.5 =
< NRe =
< 1,300
2.33 NRe > 1,300 Brownian m o v e m e n t becomes appreciable for particles
u n d e r 3 microns and predominates when the particle size
reaches 0.1 micron [13]. This motion usually has little effect
in the average industrial process settling system except for
NRe = D p V t P f / g , dimensionless (4-13)
the very fine fogs and dusts. However, this does not mean
that problems are not present in special applications.
E x a m p l e 4-2: H i n d e r e d S e t t l i n g V e l o c i t i e s Figure 4-1 gives the limiting or critical d i a m e t e r above
which the particular settling law is not applicable. Figure
Using the e x a m p l e of C a r p e n t e r [46]" 4-7 gives terminal velocities for solid particles falling in
standard air (70~ and 14.7 psia), and Figure 4-8 gives par-
9f = fluid density = 0.08 lb/cu ft ticles falling t h r o u g h water. If a particle (liquid or solid) is
= viscosity = 0.02 cp falling u n d e r the influence of gravity t h r o u g h a vapor
Pp = 500 lb/cu ft stream, the particle will continue to fall until, or unless
D p particle diameter, in. = 0.01
/ __

the vapor flow rate is increased up to or beyond the ter-

c = volume fraction solids, 0.1.
minal velocity value of the particle. If the vapor velocity
exceeds this, then the particle will be carried along with
Solving equation for K, for u n h i n d e r e d particle: the vapor (entrained).

1/3
K = 34.81 (0.01)[ 0.08 (500-(0.02)
2 0.08)]
Pressure Drop

Pressure d r o p t h r o u g h gravity settlers is usually

K = 16.28 extremely low due to the very nature of the m e t h o d of
handling the problem.
T h e n , for K = 16.28 ( i n t e r m e d i a t e range), b = 18.5; n Figure 4-9 is convenient for quick checks of terminal
=0.6. settling velocities of solid particles in air and in water [23].
 Mechanical Separations 237

80
70 1.0 >-
I--
50 1.5
50 2.0
2.5 n-
9. ,~ L,9

! !
40
m
,.0
30 ,.o
. 0 b.I
,.0 n
, ~ (f)

U3
z 20
0
n."
15
I I
I
i-!- i ' i
~10
t-
w
8 f
,< 7
E3 6
i i i
.J
u
~- 4
I
~.- 3
TERMINAL VELOCITIES
FOR
SOLID SPHERICAL PARTICLES
IN
STANDARD AIR

1.0
.3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 60 70 8D I0 15 20 30 40 ..50 60 70 80 I00 150 200 300 400
TERMINAL VELOCITY- INCHES PER MINUTE
AIR VISCOSITY : 0 . 0 1 8 1 CENTIPOISE AND DENSITY : 0 . 0 7 4 9 L B S . / C U . FT. AT 7 0 ~

F i g u r e 4-7. Terminal v e l o c i t i e s f o r solid s p h e r i c a l p a r t i c l e s in s t a n d a r d air. C o u r t e s y of A m e r i c a n B l o w e r Div. A m e r i c a n R a d i a t o r and S t a n d a r d

Sanitary Corporation.

1,000

=o I00
.u_

.e.,
o
E
o

_e

b.
O
" I0

I0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0 O! O. I I0

Terminal Settling V e l o c i t y , Feet/Sec0nd

F i g u r e 4-8. Terminal settling v e l o c i t y of p a r t i c l e s in water. By p e r m i s s i o n , Lapple, C. E., Fluid and Particle Mechanics, 1st Ed., U n i v e r s i t y of
Delaware, Newark, 1954.
238 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Equivalent stond0rd
Tyler screen mesh
Theoretical screen mesh ~ o o ~ o o N oJ ~,. m oJ ~ r,- ~ ~
NLn ~ --oo~o ~'- ~ o J - - - - rdo,i
o o o o o, , o , o oo~176 o~
o. o. ,~9. N N
o o ~D ~- t o n ~ --
Q ~ N " ~) ~ .NT.--I I I I I

2
10

I0

10-'

~lO-Z
0
0

E
.m
m
4-.

10-3
0
. =C.

E Notes
I. Numbers on curves represent
I-- true (not bulk or apparent )
specific gravity of particles
referred to water at 4 ~ C.
2. Stokes-Cunningham corr-
ection factor is included for
fine particles settling in air.
3. Physical properties used
Temp. V i s c o s i t y Density
iO-5 Fluid ,~ centipoise Ib./cu.ft.
Air 70 0.0181 0.0749
Water 70 0.981 62.3

10-6
I l0 100 1000 t0,000
Particle diameter,/z,n
Figure 4-9. Terminal velocities of spherical particles of different densities settling in air and water at 70~ under the action of gravity. To con-
vert feet per second to meters per second, multiply by 0.3048. (From Lapple, et. al., Fluid and Particle Mechanics, University of Delaware,
1951, p. 292. By permission, Perry, J. H. Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6th Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. 1984, p. 5-67.
 Mechanical Separations 239

API-Oil Field Separators

The American Petroleum Institute Manual on Disposal

of Refinery Wastes provides specific design and construc-
tion standards for API-separators that are often used in
oilfield waste disposal [24].

Liquid/Liquid, Liquid/Solid Gravity Separations,

Decanters, and Sedimentation Equipment

Lamella Plate Clarifi< [seeFigure 4-10]

This angle plate gravity separator removes susPensions

of solids from a dilute liquid. The unit is more compact
than a box-type settler due to the increased capacity
achieved by the multiple parallel plates. The concept is
fairly standard (U.S. Patent 1,458.805myear 1923) but
there are variations in some details. For effective opera-
Typical
tion, the unit must receive the mixture with definite par- Both Sides
Of
ticles having a settling velocity. The units are not totally Lamella Plates

effective for flocculants or coagulated masses that may

have a tendency to be buoyant. O
Water Containing Clarified Water Liquid Sludge
Flow through the plates must be laminar, and the criti- Floc Particles w/Floc Particles Removal
Removed
cal internal areas are [25,54,61]:
Figure 4-10. Lamella Clarifier. By permission, Graver Water Div. of
9 Distribution of the inlet flow the Graver Co.
9 Flow between each parallel plate surface
9 Collection of clarified water clarifying, wastewater clarification and thickening. A good
summary discussion is given in Reference [27].
Because these units are essentially open, the "standard"
design does not fit into a closed process system without
Horizontal Gravity Settlers or Decanters, Liquid~Liquid
adding some enclosures, and certainly is not suitable for a
pressurized condition. Many processes require the separation of immiscible
Although the main suspended flow is through a top liquid/liquid streams; that is, water/hydrocarbon. The
mixing chamber, the mixture flows around the angled settling unit must be of sufficient height (diameter) and
(avg. 55 ~) parallel plate enclosure and begins its settling length to prevent entrainment of the aqueous phase into
path from the bottom of the plates, flowing upward while the hydrocarbon and vice versa. Horizontal units are usu-
depositing solids that slide c o u n t e r c u r r e n t into the bot- ally best for settling and possibly vented units for decanta-
tom outlet. The purified liquid flows overhead and out tion (but not always).
the top collecting trough.
Residence time of the mixture in the vessel is a func-
Manufacturers should be contacted for size/rating
information, because the efficiency of a design requires tion of the separation or settling rate of the heavier phase
proper physical property information as well as system droplets through the lighter phase. Most systems work sat-
isfactorily with a 30 minute to 1 hour residence time, but
capacity and corrosion characteristics.
this can be calculated [26]. After calculation, give a rea-
sonable margin of extra capacity to allow for variations in
Thickeners and Settlers
process feedrate and in the mixture phase composition.
Generally, large volume units for dewatering, settling From Stokes' Law, the terminal settling velocity:
of suspensions, and thickening of solids, and concentra-
tion of solids and clarification must be designed by the Vt = gDp2 (Pp - 9)/18g, ft sec (4-14)
specific manufacturer for the process conditions and
physical properties. Some typical processes involving this bt = viscosity of surrounding fluid, lb/ft sec
class of equipment are lime slurrying, ore slurrying, ore Dp = diameter of particle, ft
240 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

for a s s u m e d spherical particles in a surfactant-free system T h e m i n i m u m r e s i d e n c e t i m e as d e t e r m i n e d by

[26]. T h e m i n i m u m particle d i a m e t e r for m a n y fine dis- Stokes' Law t e r m i n a l settling velocity is:
persions is 100 microns; however, R e f e r e n c e [28] has
reviewed a wide variety of liquid d r o p data a n d suggests
tmi n -- h / v t , min (4-17)
that a g o o d choice is 150 m i c r o n or 0.15 cm or 0.0005 ft.
This is also the particle size u s e d in the API Design Manu-
al [24]. Using too large an a s s u m e d particle d i a m e t e r will hc = height of segment of circle, in.
cause the settler u n i t to b e c o m e u n r e a s o n a b l y small.
vt -- terminal settling velocity, in./min
A s s u m i n g a h o r i z o n t a l unit, as illustrated in Figure 4-
11, has a s e g m e n t of a circle e q u a l to 25% to 75% [27,26]
of the circular a r e a (the h i g h e s t of this s e g m e n t will be Average r e s i d e n c e time r e l a t e d to m i n i m u m r e s i d e n c e
a b o u t 30% to 70% of the d i a m e t e r ) , t h e n h e i g h t of the time is:
i n t e r f a c e will be [26]:
tav e = (t 7) (train) (4-18)
H / D = 0.8A/('rrD2/4) + 0.1, fl (4-15)

f = factor relating average velocity to maximum velocity

or, h c = 38.4A/('rrD) + 1.2D, in (4-15A)

where H = height of segment of a circle, fl This r e l a t i o n s h i p is r e l a t e d to the viscosities of the

h y d r o c a r b o n a n d a q u e o u s phases at the interface. Based
hc = height of segment of a circle, in.
on data f r o m d i f f e r e n t systems:
D = diameter of vessel, ft
A - area of segment of circle, sq ft
f = 2.0 (use for design)

T h e average v o l u m e t r i c r e s i d e n c e time in the settler is:

T h e active v o l u m e o c c u p i e d by e i t h e r p h a s e is:
tavg = 7.48 ( g s e t / F ) , min (4-16)
V = AL, cu ft (4-19)
gse t -- active volume of settler occupied by one of the phases,
cu ft
L = length of vessel, ft, inlet to outlet
F = flow rate of one phase GPM
tavg -- average residence time based on liquid flow rate and ves-
sel volume, min hc = 7.48 A g v t / ( f F ) (4-20)

Water alternate makeup

-I Washed hydrocarbon
HC inlet-HC outlet
=,.._
w
-
Hydrocarbon Mixer ] 4-----
to be washed (in-line) t Safety
plus water ,.-... i HLL
LC
. . . . . . |
~q'T , * I I, t' NLL
i f ' -
D I'
\i i,, t...," '" I LLL
I
i
i
I

*Velocity < 10"/min

l I
1
Alternate blowdown

Q I
I
Aqueous circulation i I
~<b-----4 I~
Blowdown to disposal

Figure 4-11. Settler vessel; runs full. Adapted by permission, Abernathy, M. W., Vol. 25, Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design, J.
J. McKetta, Ed., Marcel Dekker, 1987, p. 77 and Hydrocarbon Processing, Sept. 1977, p. 199 [25] and private communication.
 Mechanical Separations 241

For an aqueous-hydrocarbon or organic solvent mixture: O p t i m u m vessel diameter:

Assume 20% cross-sectional area is occupied by an
T h e top layer will be hydrocarbon, with the aqueous layer
emulsion a n d is recognized as a "dead volume." This is
droplets settling t h r o u g h the hydrocarbon. T h e terminal
actually the height over which the interface level will vary
velocity is:
d u r i n g n o r m a l operations [26].

Vhc = 12.86 (ASpGr)/]s in./min (4-21) At + Ab = 0.8 xD2/4 (4-24)

Vhc = terminal settling velocity of aqueous droplets in D = + [a/2 + (a 2 - 4 b ) 1 / 2 / 2 ] 1/2, ft (4-25)

hydrocarbon phase in top of vessel, in./min
ASpGr = differences in specific gravity of the particle and sur- where a = (1.889) (VhcfaqFaq + VaqfhcFhc) / (rVhcVaq) (4-26)
rounding fluid
]s - - viscosity of surrounding fluid, cp b = (3.505) (fhcFhcfaqFaq) / (r2VhcVaq) (4-27)

T h e economical vessel ratio is L / D = r

H e i g h t of h y d r o c a r b o n layer to the interface:

Modified Method of Happel and Jordan [29]

ht-- (7.48)AtLVha/fhcFh c (4-21A)
This m e t h o d is a modification of the earlier m e t h o d
h t - 38.4 At/(xD) + 1.2D (4-15A) [30] by Reference [26], as follows, a n d can be less con-
servative [26] than the original m e t h o d [30]. A basic
ht = height of continuous hydrocarbon phase in the top of assumption is that particles must rise/fall t h r o u g h one-
vessel, in. half of the d r u m vertical cross-sectional area [26].

Then, At = 1.2D[ (7.48)LVhc/(fhcFhc) -- 38.4/(xD)] -1 (4-22) t = h/v

At = cross-sectional area at top of vessel occupied by the con- t = (1/2)(7.48)[0.8 xD2L/4]Ft (4-28)
tinuous hydrocarbon phase, sq ft
Ab = cross-sectional area at bottom of vessel occupied by con- F t = flow rate of both phases
tinuous aqueous phase, sq ft vt = v -- terminal settling velocity, in./min

For the b o t t o m aqueous phase: This assumes 20% of the cross-sectional even as "dead vol-
ume." T h e height from the interface can be d e t e r m i n e d
h y d r o c a r b o n droplets settle out of the continuous aque- by c o m b i n i n g the above equations:
ous phase. T h e terminal velocity is for h y d r o c a r b o n
droplets: h = (0.748)xD2Lv/Ft (4-29)

T h e height for each interface is:

Vaq = 12.86 ( A S p G r ) / ~ a q , i n . / m i n (4-23)
h t = (0.748)xD2Lhhc/Ft (4-30)
Vaq -- terminal settling velocity of hydrocarbon droplets in
aqueous phase in bottom of vessel, in./min h b = (0.748)/1;D2Lvaq/Ft (4-31)
~aq -- viscosity of aqueous phase, cp
At = [(0.748) x D 2 L V h c / F t - 1.2D] xD/38.4 (4-32)
H e i g h t of aqueous layer to the interface:
Ab = [(0.748) g O 2 L v a q / F t - 1.2D] xD/38.4 (4-3~)
h b = (7.48) (AbLVaq) / (faqFaq) (4-21A) Example 4-3: Horizontal Gravity Settlers

h b = 38.4 Ab/'rrD + 1.2D (4-15A) Using the data from Sigales [31] a n d following the
design of [26]:
h b = height of continuous aqueous phase in bottom of vessel, Data for p r o p a n e / c a u s t i c wash:
in.
Fhc -- 95 G P M
Ab = cross-sectional area at bottom of vessel occupied by con-
Faq -- 39 G P M
tinuous aqueous phase, sq ft
Vaq = 5 i n . / m i n
Vhc = 120 in./min
A b = 1.2D[(7.48)Lvaq(fagFag ) - 3 8 . 4 / ( x D ) ] -1 (4-22) r = 3.4
242 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

T h e t e r m i n a l (highest calculated) settling velocity of the In s u m m a r y :

a q u e o u s d r o p l e t i n / t h r o u g h the h y d r o c a r b o n phase is:

Design Calculation Practical Design Use

Vhc = (1.2) (5 in./min) (95/39 GPM) = 14.6 in./min
Diameter 3.34 ft (40.08 in.) 3.5 ft. (42 in.) or 3.83 ft (46 in.)
Length HC inlet/outlet: 11 ft 12 or 14 ft
Because this is m o r e t h a n the 10 i n . / m i n r e c o m m e n d -
e d earlier, t h e n use:
A b e r n a t h y [26] has c o m p a r e d several design m e t h o d s
as follows:
Vhc - - 10 in./min

This Modified Rule-of-

A s s u m e for design: fhc = fag = 2 (from earlier discus-
Sigales Method Happel Happel Thumb
sion).
Diameter 2.67 ft 3.34 ft 3.36 ft 4.01 ft 4.1 ft
h t 10 in. 22 in. 22.6 in. 24 in. 32.5 in.
Then, a = (1.889[(10)(2)(39) + (5)(2)(95)]/[(3.4)(10)(5)] hb 8 in. 12 in. 11.3 in. 24 in. 16.7 in.
a = 19.22 Interface 14 in. 6 in. 6.4 in. 0 in. 0 in.
b = (3.505)(2)(95)(2)(39)/[(3.4)2(10)(5)] HC residence 1.1 min 4.4min 4.6min. 6.8 min. 10min.
time
b = 89.87

Solving for D: Decanter [32]

In m o s t g e n e r a l applications, a d e c a n t e r is a c o n t i n u -
D = [19.22/2 + [(19.22) 2 - 4(89.87)]1/2/211/2
ous gravity s e p a r a t i o n vessel t h a t does n o t r u n full, as con-
trasted to a settler t h a t usually r u n s full, with o n e s t r e a m
D = 3.34 ft or -2.83 ft (latter is an unreal negative number, exiting at or n e a r the top of a h o r i z o n t a l vessel. For m o s t
so use 3.34 ft) d e c a n t e r s , o n e p h a s e of a two-plane m i x t u r e overflows o u t
of the vessel (see Figure 4-12). T h e c o n c e p t of the
A r e a of s e g m e n t at top of vessel = A t, substituting into d e c a n t e r involves the b a l a n c i n g of liquid h e i g h t s d u e to
E q u a t i o n 4-22: d i f f e r e n c e s in density of the two phases, as well as settling
velocity of the heavier p h a s e falling t h r o u g h the lighter,
At = 1.2 D [(7.48) (3.4)D(10)]/[(2)(95)]-38.4/(TrD)] -a or the lighter rising t h r o u g h the heavier.
Settling Velocity: T e r m i n a l [32]
Using: L / D = 3.4:
For the b o t t o m s e g m e n t of the vessel, a q u e o u s layer:
Vd ~__ g d 2 (Od -- P c ) , f t / s e c (4-34)
18p c
Ab = 1.2(3.34) [(7.48)(3.34)(3.4)(5)]/[(2)(39)] - (38)/
rc(3.34)] -1 where Vd = terminal settling velocity of a droplet, ft/sec
Ab = 2.2448 sq ft g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.17 ft/sec-sec
d = droplet diameter, ft(1 ft = 304, 800pm, or l p m =
0.001mm)
T h e n , using E q u a t i o n 4-21A: Pd = density of fluid in the droplet, lb/cu ft
Pc = density of fluid continuous phase, lb/cu ft
ht - 7.48(4.942)(3.4)(10)/(2.0)(95) = 22.1 in. Pc = viscosity of the continuous phase, lb/(ft) (sec)
Note: 1 cp = 6.72 X 1 0 - 4 lb/(ft)(sec)
hb -- 7.48(2.2448)[(3.34)(3.4)](5)/(2)(39)] = 12.2 in.
pm = millimicron

Then, ht/D = (22.1)/(12) (3.34) • 100 = 55%

For a d e c a n t e r t h a t o p e r a t e s u n d e r gravity flow with n o
i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n flow control, the h e i g h t of the heavy
hb/D = 12.2/(12)(3.34) • 100 = 30% phase liquid leg above the i n t e r f a c e is b a l a n c e d against
the h e i g h t of o n e light p h a s e above the i n t e r f a c e [23].
Since h t a n d h b are b e t w e e n 30% a n d 70% of the diam- Figures 4-12 a n d 4-13 illustrate the density r e l a t i o n s h i p s
eter, the solution is acceptable. a n d the key m e c h a n i c a l details o f o n e style of decanter.
 Mechanical Separations 243

Decanter --~ [ .~~

LL
I I
Light phase overflow

I I
_.. "~ .~Top of light phase

c~ I ~ ~ Light phase
Drain interfa I I 24L =: ~ _2 _ ) _ J _ _ - - ~
for emulsion ~ ~..~'.~~'-.-7- Heavy phase out

Heavy phase
Zl Z, ' '1
t ' /
,.' ,!_,/i', l
Heavy phase out Light phase out
Interface

A;~

Figure 4-12. Gravity decanter basic dimensions. Adapted by permission, Schweitzer, RA., McGraw-Hill Book Co. (1979) [32].

Vessel heads bend or tangent

lines 15'+Z =,..._
v
l. -"" Z
l
I
15'
Partial baffle at interface clear
Inlet top 0.3Dand be 1'-6 "
&
2 '-0" in~-I--i vertibYl height only t~/ ! 4-trial outlet
estimated nozzles, one at
interface
Vessel We Min. 0.34D to 0.45Dj , / I .
I =-Interface
!
il
/
Dispersion Band _=_10%D ]o.,,o,o l l Y r
II

Tee on feed inlet

Velocity = 0.5-1 'sec About 0.25-0.30D
2" drain hole flush with floor
, 'iJ I
Baffle, solid except top 6" with
Perforated underflow baffle, 1" perf. holes on 1.5~ A
holes area approx = outlet areas Water phase out. Perforated
with min. 1/2"holes, tee Baffle height at estimated baffle, set min. 6" off bottom,
interface _= 2-4" from bottom, 2 to 3 times nozzle diameter
sealed at bottom

Figure 4-13. Decanter for Example 4-1.

244 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

T h e same results can be achieved with internal flat plate h = distance from center to given chord of a vessel, ft
baffles a n d outlet nozzles. I = width of interface, ft
D = decanter diameter, ft
(Zh -- Zi) 0h -- (Zl -- Z i ) P L (4-35) L = decanter length, ft
r = vessel radius, ft
Zh = heavy phase outlet dimension from bottom of horizontal
decanter Horizontal vessels as cylinders are generally m o r e suit-
zi = interface measured from bottom able for diameters up to a b o u t 8 feet than o t h e r shapes,
Zl = light phase outlet measured from bottom of decanter or vertical, due in part to the increased interfacial area
for interface formation. For a horizontal d r u m (See Fig-
Droplet diameter, w h e n o t h e r data is not available" ure 4-12):

= 150gm (d = 0.0005 ft) I = 2(r 2 - h2) 1/2 (4-37)

Reference [32] recognizes that this is generally on the A I = IL (4-38)

safe side, because droplets g e n e r a t e d by agitation range
500 to 5000 gm, t u r b u l e n t d r o p l e t range 200 to 10,000 A L = 1/2/1;r 2 - h(r 2 - h2) 1/2 - r 2 arc sin(h/r) (4-39)
gm. Due to limitations of design methods, decanters sized
for droplets larger than 300 g m often result in being too or use the m e t h o d s from the A p p e n d i x to calculate
small to work properly [32]. area of a sector of a circle. T h e arc is in radians:
T h e continuous phase moves t h r o u g h the vessel on a Radians = (degrees) (71:/180)
u n i f o r m flow equal to the overflow rate. To identify which
is the continuous phase (from [65] by [32]): A H = /~r 2 -- A L (4-40)

DL -- 4 AL/(I + P) (4-41 )
0 = QL
QH
L~ H
H~tL
/ (4- 36)
DH = 4 An/(I + 2 r c r - P) (4-42)

0 Result where P = 2r arc cos (h/r)

< 0.3 light phase always dispersed
0.3-0.5 light phase probably dispersed Degree of turbulence [32]"
0.5-2.0 phase inversion probable, design for worst case
2.0-3.3 heavy phase probably dispersed VcDHPc
> 3.3 heavy phase always dispersed NRe = (4- 43)
~t

where O~ = dispersed volumetric flow rate, cu ft/sec c = continuous phase

QL = volumetric flow rate, cu ft/sec, light phase DH = hydraulic diameter, ft = 4 (flow area for the phase in
QH = volumetric flow rate, cu ft/sec, heavy phase question/wetted perimeter of the flow channel)
9L = density of light phase fluid, lb/cu ft vc = velocity down the flow channel
9H = density of heavy phase fluid, lb/cu ft
gH = viscosity of heavy phase, lb/(ft) (sec)
laL = viscosity of light phase, lb/(ft) (sec) Guidelines for successful decanters [32]:

To begin, there is a dispersion b a n d t h r o u g h which the Re Results

phases must separate. G o o d practice [32] normally keeps < 5000 little problem
the vertical h e i g h t of the dispersed phase, HD < 10% of 5000-20,000 some hindrance
d e c a n t e r h e i g h t (normally a horizontal vessel), and: 20,000-50,000 major problem may exist
Above 50,000 expect poor separation
1/2HI~I/QD > 2 to 5 min

where AI = area of interface assuming flat interface, sq ft Velocities of both phases should be a b o u t the same
Ac = cross-sectional area allotted to light phase, sq ft t h r o u g h the unit. By adjusting m e c h a n i c a l internals, a
An - cross-sectional area allotted to heavy phase, sq ft ratio of < 2:1 is suggested (internals do n o t n e e d to be
HD = height of the dispersion band, ft equal) [32]. Velocities for e n t r a n c e a n d exit at the vessel
QD = volumetric flow, dispersed phase, cu ft/sec nozzle should be low, in the range of 0.5 to 1.5 ft/sec. T h e
 Mechanical Separations 245

f e e d m u s t n o t ' j e t " i n t o t h e vessel, a n d s h o u l d b e b a f f l e d and"

to p r e v e n t i m p i n g e m e n t in t h e m a i n l i q u i d body, k e e p i n g
t u r b u l e n c e to a n a b s o l u t e m i n i m u m to n o n e . Baffles D _-> 1/2(Qc/Vd) 1/2 => 1 / 2 ( 0 . 1 8 7 / 0 . 0 0 5 ) 1/2
c a n / s h o u l d b e p l a c e d in t h e f r o n t h a l f o f t h e u n i t to p r o - D = 3.057 ft
vide slow flow o f t h e fluids e i t h e r across t h e u n i t o r
u p / d o w n p a t h s f o l l o w e d by t h e l a r g e r stilling c h a m b e r , Length, L = 5D = 5(3.0) = 15 ft
b e f o r e f l u i d exits. (See F i g u r e 4-13)
I n t e r f a c e Level: Assume" H o l d i n t e r f a c e o n e f o o t b e l o w
Example 44: Decanter, using the method of t o p o f vessel to p r e v e n t i n t e r f a c e f r o m r e a c h i n g t h e t o p
Reference [32] oil o u t l e t .

A p l a n t p r o c e s s n e e d s a d e c a n t e r to s e p a r a t e oil f r o m Then, h = 0.5ft

water. T h e c o n d i t i o n s are" r = 3.0/2 = 1.5 ft
I = 2(r 2 - h2) 1/2 -- 2[(1.5) 2 - - ( 0 . 5 ) 2 ] 1 / 2 -- 2.828 ft
A o i 1 = (1/2)(-rr)(1.5) 2 - 0.5[ (1.5) 2 - - ( 0 . 5 ) 2 ] 1/2 -- (1.5) 2
Oil flow = 8500 l b / h r
arc sin (0.5 / 1.5)
P = 56 l b / c u ft = 3.534 - 0.707 - 0.765
la = 9.5 centipoise = 2.062 sq ft
Water flow = 42,000 l b / h r
9 = 62.3 l b / c u ft Note" I n r a d i a n s : Arc sin ( 0 . 5 / 1 . 5 ) = ( 1 9 . 4 7 / 1 8 0 ) ' r r =
/.t = 0.71 centipoise 0.3398

Units conversion: /1;(1.5)2 -- Aoi1 -- X(2.25) - 2.06 = 5.01

Awate r --

sq ft
Qoil = (8500) (56) (3600) = 0.0421 cu ft/sec P - 2(1.5) [arc cos (0.5/1.5)] - 3.69 sq ft
/-toil = (9.5)(6.72 • 10 -4) = 63.8 • 10 -4 lb/ft-sec Area interface, AI = (2.828)(15) = 42.42 sq ft
Qwater-- 42,000/(62.3)(3600) = 0.187 cu ft/sec
gw = (0.71)(6.72 • 10 -4) = 4.77 • 10 -4 lb/ft-sec S e c o n d a r y settling: C o n t i n u o u s phase water d r o p l e t s
to resist t h e oil o v e r f l o w r a t e if it gets o n w r o n g side o f
interface.
C h e c k i n g d i s p e r s e d p h a s e , E q u a t i o n 4-36:

Vwate r = Q o i l / A i -- 0.0421/42.42 = 0.0009924 ft/sec

0_ 0 . 0 4 2 1 I (56) ( 4 . 7 7 • 1~
0.187 (62.3) (63.8 • 10 -4) T h e n , f r o m settling-velocity e q u a t i o n :
= 0.010009
d = [(18)(6.38 x 1 0 - 3 ) ( 0 . 0 0 0 9 9 2 4 ) / ( 3 2 . 1 7 ) ( 6 2 . 3 - 56)] 1/2
d = 0.0007498 ft, (216 Bm)
T h e r e f o r e , l i g h t p h a s e is always d i s p e r s e d since 0 is less
t h a n 0.3. C h e c k i n g c o a l e s c e n c e time:
S e t t l i n g r a t e f o r d r o p l e t s o f oil t h r o u g h water: A s s u m e HD = h e i g h t o f d i s p e r s i o n b a n d - 10% of D =
A s s u m e d r o p l e t size is d = 0.0005 ft (150 lam), as earli- 0.3 ft
e r discussed. T i m e a v a i l a b l e to cross t h e d i s p e r s e d b a n d

Voil = (32.17)(0.0005)2(56 - 6 2 . 3 ) / [ ( 1 8 ) ( 4 . 7 7 • 10-4)] = 1/2(HD AI/QD) should be > 2 to 5 min

= - 0 . 0 0 5 ft/sec = 1/2[(0.3)(42.42)/(0.0421)]
= 150 sec, which is 2.5 min
The (-) sign m e a n s t h e oil rises i n s t e a d o f settles.
O v e r f l o w rate: S h o u l d b e a c c e p t a b l e , b u t is s o m e w h a t low.

A s s u m e I ( F i g u r e 4-12) is 8 0 % d i a m e t e r , D, o f vessel
Then Doil - 4(2.062)/(2.828 + 3.69) - 1.265 ft
a n d t h a t L / D - 5.
Voil-- 0.0421/(2.062) = 0.0204 ft/sec

Then, Qc/AI < Va

AI = IL = (0.8D)(5D) = 4D 2, then, (0.0204) (1.265)(56)
N Re oil --
= 226.5
Qc/4D 2 < Vd 6.38 • 10-3
246 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Dwate r - 4(5.01)/[2.828 + 2~ (1.5) - 3.69] = 2.34 ft T h e r e are basically three construction types for
Vwate r : 0.187/5.01 = 0.0373 ft/sec impingement separators:

(0.0373) (2.34)(62.3) 1. Wire mesh

N Re(water) = 4.77 • 10 -4 = 11,399
2. Plates (curved, flat or special shaped)
3. Packed I m p i n g e m e n t Beds
d = droplet diameter, ft
Knitted Wire Mesh
The degree of turbulence would be classified as accept-
able, but the unit must not be increased in capacity for A stationary separator element of knitted small diame-
fear of creating more water phase turbulence. ter wire or plastic material is formed of wire 0.003 in. to
0.016 in. (or larger) diameter into a pad of 4 inches, 6
inches or 12 inches thick and serves as the impingement
B. Impingement Separators
surface for liquid particle separation. Solid particles can
be separated, but they must be flushed from the mesh to
As the descriptive name suggests, the impingement
prevent plugging. Although several trade name units are
separator allows the particles to be removed to strike
available they basically perform on the same principle,
some type of surface. This action is better accomplished and have very close physical characteristics. Carpenter [4]
in pressure systems where pressure drop can be taken as a presented basic performance data for mesh units. Figure
result of the turbulence which necessarily accompanies 4-15 shows a typical eliminator pad.
the removal action.
Figure 4-16 pictorially depicts the action of the wire
Particle removal in streamline flow is less efficient than mesh when placed in a vertical vessel.
for turbulent flow, and may not be effective if the path of Referring to Figure 4-16, the typical situation repre-
travel is not well baffled. sents a vapor disengaging from a liquid by bursting bub-
The "target" efficiency for impingement units express- bles and creating a spray of liquid particles of various
es the fraction of the particles in the entraining fluid, sizes. Many of these particles are entrained in the moving
moving past an object in the fluid, which impinge on the vapor stream. The largest and heaviest particles will settle
object. by gravity downward through the stream and back to the
bottom of the vessel or to the liquid surface. The smaller
The target efficiencies for cylinders, spheres, and rib- particles move upward, and if not removed will carry
bonlike particles are given for conditions of Stokes Law in along in the process stream. With wire mesh in the mov-
an infinite fluid by Figure 4-14. ing stream, the small particles will impinge on the wire
If the particles are close e n o u g h together in the fluid surfaces; coalesce into fluid films and then droplets, run
to affect the path of each other, then Figure 4-14 gives to a low point in their local system; and fall downward
conservative efficiencies. For particles differing consider- through the up-flowing gas stream when sufficiently large.
ably from those given in the curves, actual test data The gas leaving is essentially free from entrained liquid
should be obtained. unless the unit reaches a flooding condition.

1.0 D b = Min. dia. of particle completely

to" collected, feet
>~0.9 Vo = Average velocity of gas, feet/sec.
| ._~ 0.8 ut = Terminal settling velocity of
3._0 particle under action of gravity, feet/sec.
.c: uJ 0.7 gL = 32.2 feet/sec. =
,=.,

0 g0.6
='- I - "
r c0.5
._~ o
" ~ 0.4
o~
.o
C
~ 0.a
t,,)
P cO.2
u. E
:3
-6 0.1 Figure 4-14. Target efficiencies for spheres,
>
0.0
cylinders, and ribbons. By permission, Perry, J.
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 H., Chemical Engineers Handbook, 3rd Ed.,
Separation Number, utVo/gLDb McGraw-Hill Company, 1950 [13].
 Mechanical Separations 247

When a gas is generated in, or passes through, a liquid (l), the

gas, on bursting from the liquid surface (2) carries with it a fine
spray of droplets-liquid entrainment-which are carried upward in
the rising gas stream (3). As the gas passes through the mist elimi-
nator, these droplets impinge on the extensive surface of the wire,
where they are retained until they coalesce into large drops. When
these liquid drops reach sufficient size, they break away from the
Figure 4-15. Details of wire mesh construction. Courtesy of Otto H. wire mesh (4) and fall back against the rising gas stream. In this
York Co. way, the entrained droplets are literally "wiped out" of the gas
which, freed from liquid entrainment, (5) passes on unhindered
through the mesh.
For special applications the design of a mist eliminator
Figure 4-16. Diagram of action of wire mesh in liquid-vapor separa-
unit may actually be an assembly in one casing of wire tion. Courtesy of Metal Textile Corp., Bulletin ME 9-58.
mesh and fiber p a c k s / p a d s or in c o m b i n a t i o n with
Chevron style mist elements (see Figure 4-17A and 17B
and - 1 7 C . ) This can result in greater recovery efficien- ditions which will prevail and select a mesh to fit as close
cies for small particles and for higher flow rates t h r o u g h to the conditions as possible. The p r o c e d u r e is outlined
the c o m b i n e d unit. Refer to the manufacturers for appli- below:
cation of these designs.
Mlowable vapor velocity (mesh in horizontal position)
Mesh Patterns

There are several types of mesh available, and these are Va = k [~/9I~ PV
identified by mesh thickness, density, wire diameter and Pv
weave pattern. Table 4-9 identifies most of the commer-
cial material now available. The knitted pads are available
in any material that can be f o r m e d into the necessary Va = maximum allowable superficial vapor velocity across inlet
weaves, this includes: stainless steels, monel, nickel, cop- face of mesh, ft/sec
per, aluminum, carbon steel, tantalum, Hastelloy, Saran, k = constant based on application, Table 4-10, average for
polyethylene, fluoropolymer, and glass multi-filament. free flowing system = 0.35 for 9-12 lb/cu ft mesh

Capacity Determination PL = liquid density, lb/cu ft

Pv = vapor density, lb/cu ft

The usual practice in selecting a particular mesh for a
given service is to d e t e r m i n e the m a x i m u m allowable
velocity and from this select a vessel diameter. In the case For other mesh densities, use k(52) of 0.4 for 5 l b / c u
of existing vessels where mesh is to be installed, the ft mesh (high capacity), and 0.3 for plastic mesh such as
reverse p r o c e d u r e is used, i.e., d e t e r m i n e the velocity con- Teflon | and polypropylene.
248 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

T a b l e 4-9
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of Wire Mesh T y p e s

Density, Surface Area Thickness, Min. Eft.

General Type Lbs./cu. ft.* Sq. ft./cu, ft. In.** Wt. % Application
High Efficiency 12 115 4+ 99.9+ Relatively clean, moderate velocity.
Standard Eft. 9 85 4+ 99.5+ General purpose
Optimum Eft. or VH Efficiency, and
Wound type 13--14 120 4+ 99.9+ For very high efficency
Herringbone, High through-put or For services containin~ solids, or
Low Density 5--7 65___ 4--6+ 99.0+ "dirty" materials

*If the mesh is made of nickel, monel or copper, multiply the density values by 1.13, referenced to stainless steel.
** 4" is minimum recommended thickness" 6" is very popular thickness: 10" and 12" recommended for special applications such as fine
mists, oil vapor mist.
Compiled from references (3) and (21).

Reference [52] suggests "dry" mesh pressure drop of: where a = specific surface area, sq f t / c u ft
fc = friction factor, dimensionless
Apo = [fclapvVs/gc es] (27.7/144) (4-45) gc = gravitational constant, 32.2 lb-ft/lb-sec-sec
1= wire mesh thickness, ft
ApT = ApD + ApL (4-46) ApD = pressure drop, no entrainment, in. of water
ApL = pressure drop, due to liquid load, in. of water
For ApE see manufacturer's curves. ApT -- pressure drop, total across wet pad, in. of water
Vs = superficial gas velocity, ft/sec
A rough approximation of operating mesh pressure
e= void fraction of wire mesh, dimensionless
drop is 1 inch water or less. The calculated pressure drop
PL = liquid density, l b / c u ft
at the maximum allowable velocity is close to 1.5 inches of Pv = vapor density, l b / c u ft
water. Therefore: f= generally ranges 0.2 to 2 for dry mesh

PT = 1.5 (gact/gmax) 2 (4-47) Subscript:

How FLEXICHEVRON| Mist Eliminators Work Act = actual

Gases with entrained liquid droplets flow between the Max = m a x i m u m
zig-zag baffles. The gas can easily make the turns while the
liquid droplets impinge upon the walls of the baffles and
coalesce to a size such that they drop downward, T h e c o r r e l a t i o n factor, k, is a f u n c t i o n o f t h e l i q u i d d r o p
being too heavy to be carried in the gas.
size, l i q u i d viscosity, l i q u i d load, d i s e n g a g i n g space, type o f
m e s h weave, etc. k varies s o m e w h a t with system p r e s s u r e ; as
THECHEVRON p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s t h e k value d e c r e a s e s . T h e m a n u f a c t u r -
IMPINGEMENT ers s h o u l d b e c o n s u l t e d for final d e s i g n k valves for a sys-
PRINCIPLE DE-ENTRAINEDGASES

100

IMPINGEMENT ~, /
AND ~ TYPE 2 /

7o

MIST LADENG A S E S ~ ~' 99 ~ LARGEFALLING

DROPLETS 0 / /

FLOW 10 20 30 40
Droplet Size (microns)
Figure 4-17A. Separation/Impingement action of Chevron-style mist
eliminators. Flow is up the V-shaped plates assembly. Courtesy of Figure 4-17B. Capture efficiency vs particle size for four standard
Bulletin KME - 12, Koch Engineering Co. York-Vane mist eliminators. By permission, Otto H. York Co. Inc.
 Mechanical Separations 249

tem, because the wire style, size, and material also affect the
2.0-
value. For pressures below 30 psig, k = 0.35 avg., then
above 30 psig, k value decreases with pressure with an
approximate value of 0.30 at 250 psig and 0.275 at 800 psig.

1.0
/ Certain values have been found satisfactory for estimating
systems described in Table 4-10 and Table 4-11.
For conditions of high liquid loading, use caution in
design. Use the high velocities for very fine mist to
.90
remove the small particles, and use two mesh pads in
.80
series with the second mesh operating at a lower velocity
to remove the larger drops re-entrained from the first
mesh. Systems involving high viscosity fluids should be
TYPE 3 checked with the various manufacturers for their case his-
.50 tory experience. Lower k values are used for systems with
TYPE 2 high vacuum, high viscosity liquids, low surface tension
.40

Table 4-10
.3O
G
"k" Values for Knitted Mesh
::1::~
E B o t t o m o f m e s h a t l e a s t 12 i n c h e s a b o v e l i q u i d s u r f a c e
Service Conditions "k" General Type Mesh
.20
Glean fluids, moderate 0.35 to 0.36 Standard
liquid load, fits 90% of 0.35 High Efficiency
process situations 0.25 Very High Efficiency
o. High viscosity, dirty 0.40 Low density or
-l- suspended solids Herringbone, high
u)
(i) through-put
t-
Vacuum operations:
1
u
o .10 2" Hg. abs. 0.20 Standard or
.09 16" Hg. abs. 0.27 High Efficiency
Corrosive Chemical 0.21 Plastic coated wire,
.08 or plastic strand

Compiled from various manufacturer's published data. Note: k values

~ .06 for estimating purposes, not final design unless verified by manufactur-
u.I er. Unless stated, all values based on stainless steel wire.
nil: .05,

.04 Table 4-11

TYPE 4 f # ll Variation of k with Disengaging Height*
.03 Disengaging Height Above Mesh, Inches Allowable k Value
3 .......................... 0.12
TYPE 1 4 .......................... 0.15
5 .......................... 0.19
.02 i i i m I
i 6 .......................... 0.22
), i 7 .......................... 0.25
8 .......................... 0.29
9 .......................... 0.32
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.35
11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.38
12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.42
o12 o.'3 o14 o:s o;7 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.43
K-Factor, V/[(pl - pv)/pv] ''2 ft/sec (x 0.3048 = m/sec)
*By permission, O. H. York, Reference (21).
Note: Values based on 12 lb/cu ft wire mesh. Design practice normally
Figure 4-17C. Pressure drop vs K-factor for standard York-Vane mist does not exceed k of 0.4 even for higher disengaging height.
eliminators, air-water system. By permission, Otto H. York Co., Inc.
250 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

liquids and systems with very bad fouling conditions.

Table 4-11 indicates the effect of disengaging height on
the allowable k value. Similar relations should hold for
other mesh densities. .

Low Density or
Velocity Limitations High Through-Put Mesh--/
ulO0 r
Very low velocities will allow particles to drift through
.,..
r
Stondord Mesh ~ ,\~k
the mesh and be carried out with the leaving vapor. Mso,
~. 80
very high velocities will carry liquid to the top of the 4" 60
mesh, establish a "flooding" condition, and then re- U
entrain the liquid from the surface of the mesh. For most ='40
situations very good performance can be expected for all Dato for Air-Water
System
velocities from 30% to 100% of the optimum allowable ~, 20
Atmospheric Pressure
design velocity. The m i n i m u m allowable safe design veloc-
ity is 10 percent of the value calculated by the equation. I I I I
00 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16
The flooding velocity of the mesh is usually about 120 per-
cent to 140 percent of the m a x i m u m allowable velocity. Superficiol Vopor Velocity,Feet/Second
Generally the m a x i m u m allowable velocities are lower Figure 4-18. Typical wire mesh efficiency.
u n d e r conditions of pressure, and higher u n d e r condi-
tions of vacuum. The limits and ranges of each area being
100
d e t e r m i n e d by the relative operating densities of the
vapor and liquid, the nature of the entrainment, and the 90-
degree of separation required. 80
When the mesh is installed with the pad vertical or -o 421
/
inclined, the maximum allowable velocity is generally used at " 70 , ,) , , ,
"-~
o / 93"1 153 mm (6 thick except as noted
0.67 times the allowable value for the horizontal position. LU 60 f m Air/Water System

Design Velocity
~
~. 50 i/ Ambient Conditions
2.4 meters per second (8 feet per second
K=.085 (.280")
I I I I I
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
To allow for surges, variations in liquid load and pecu-
Droplet Size (microns)
liarities in liquid particle size and physical properties, use:
Figure 4-19. Capture efficiency vs particle size for four types of
VD = 0.75 g a (4-48) DEMISTER | knitted mesh mist eliminators. By permission, Otto H.
York Co., Inc.

for the design of new separators. When checking existing

vessels to accept wire mesh, some variation may have to be recovery efficiencies [see Figure 4-19]. Particles smaller
accepted to accommodate the fixed diameter condition, than this usually require two mesh pads or the fiber pack
but this is no great problem since the range of good oper- style discussed later. Carpenter [4,5] shows the calculated
ation is so broad. effect of decreasing particle size on percent e n t r a i n m e n t
removed at various linear velocities. For water particles in
Efficiency air at atmospheric pressure, the 8~t particles are 99 per-
cent removed at 3.5 ft/sec, the 7~t at 5 ft/sec, and the 6~t
For most applications the efficiency will be 98-99 per-
at 6.8 ft/sec. Excellent performance may be obtained in
cent plus as long as the range of operating velocity is
most systems for velocities of 30% to 110% of calculated
observed. The typical performance curves for this type of
values [35].
material are given in Figures 4-17B, 4-18, and 4-19. For
hydrocarbon liquid-natural gas system, guarantees are
made that not more than 0.1 gallon of liquid will remain Pressure Drop
in the gas stream per million cubic feet of gas. Special
designs using a 3-foot thick pad reduce radioactive Pressure drop through wire mesh units is usually very
entrainment to one part per billion [21]. low, in the order of 1-inch water gauge for a 4-inch or 6-
For the average liquid process entrainment the mesh inch thick pad. For most pressure applications this is neg-
will remove particles down to 4 to 6 microns at 95%+ ligible. If solids are present in the particle stream, then
 Mechanical Separations 251

solids build-up can become appreciable, and is usually the special situations have been placed at an angle to the hor-
guide or indicator for cleaning of the mesh. A 12-inch pad izontal, but these usually accumulate liquid in the lower
may require a 3-inch water drop. Figures 4-20 and 4-21 portion of the mesh. Since the material is not self-sup-
present the range of expected pressure drops for a spread porting in sizes much over 12 inches in diameter, it
of 3 to 1600 lb/hr-ft 2 for liquid rates. Although this is for requires support bars at the point of location in the vessel.
air-water system at atmospheric pressure it will not vary In most instances it is wise to also install hold-down bars
much unless the physical properties of the vapor and liq- across the top of the mesh in accordance with manufac-
uid deviate appreciably from this system, in which case the turers' instructions as the material will tend to blow
general Fanning equation can be used to approximate upward with a sudden surge or pulsation of vapor in the
the pressure drop u n d e r the new conditions. Approxi- system. Many early installations made without the bars on
mate values based upon air-water tests suggest these rela- top were soon found ineffective due to blowout holes, and
tions [ 3]: wire particles were found in pipe and e q u i p m e n t down-
For the standard weave, 4 inches thick: stream of the installation. Figures 4-22 and 4-23 show a
typical installation a r r a n g e m e n t in a vertical vessel. The
Ap = 0.2 VD2pv, in. water (4-49) mesh is wired to the bottom support bars and the hold-
down on top.
For the low density weave (high through-put), 6 inches A few typical arrangements of mesh in vessels of various
thick: configurations are shown in Figure 4-24.
Note that in some units of Figure 4-24 the mesh diam-
Ap = 0.12 Vo21:)v (4-50) eter is smaller than the vessel. This is necessary for best

Installation

5.0
The knitted mesh separator unit may be placed in a
pipe in which case a r o u n d fiat rolled unit is usually used, 4.0 /I
3.0 A 3 GPM/Sq.Ft. (. 12ma/min/m ~)
or it may be placed in a conventional vessel. Although the
9 2 GPM/Sq.Ft. (.08ma/min/m ~)
vessel may be horizontal or vertical, the mesh must always 2.0 9 1 GPM/Sq.Ft. (.04ma/min/m 2) 7,
be in a horizontal plane for best drainage. Some units in & |Di I

~ 1.0
.8
E .7
E
" .5i
Entrainment Load
Ibs./(hd(sq.ft.Cross-Section}
Approximate Style
1600 3
i 0
I .2
ffl

i
O0.1
c nr"
~. i.0 a .08
o
h "-~ ! LU
n"
:E) .06
0.7 03.05
Generally Applicable to 4"and 03 Styl
0.5 6" Mesh. LU .04
nr"
Based on Composite of Data 13.
r -,~ / from Several Systems using .03
~ ~ 7 Different Types of Mesh.

.02
0.2

..\ Z .01 I I I I
0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4
o.i K-Factor, V/[(pl - pv)/pv] "2ft/sec (x 0.3048 = m/sec)
I 2 5 7 I0 20 50 70 I00
Superficial Velocity, Feet ! Second
Figure 4-21. Typical wire mesh mist eliminator pressure drop curves
Figure 4-20. Typical pressure drop range for most wire mesh sepa- for one style of mesh at three different liquid Ioadings. Others follow
rators. similar pressure drop patterns. By permission, Otto H. York Co., Inc.
252 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

keep velocities low and not to force or carry the liquid

through to the downstream side of the mesh.

Example 4-5: Wire Mesh Entrainment Separator

Design a flash d r u m to separate liquid ethylene

entrainment for the following conditions:
Volume of vapor = 465 CFM @m110~ and 35 psig
Density of vapor = 0.30 l b / c u ft
Density of liquid ethylene = 33 l b / c u ft
Allowable velocity for wire mesh:

Va = k,I[ 9L Pv
Pv

Figure 4-22. Typical installation of mesh strips in vertical vessel.

Use, k = 0.35 for clean service, moderate liquid loading
Courtesy of Otto H. York Co., Inc.
Va = 0 . 3 5 ~ ( 3 3 - 0.3)/0.3
= 3.66 ft/sec, allowable loading velocity

Use, VD = 0.75 g a

Design velocity:

Vo = 0.75(3.66) = 2.74 ft/sec

Required vessel cross-section area:

A = 465/(60)(2.74) = 2.83 sq ft

Figure 4-23. Typical installation of wound mesh pads in vertical ves- Vessel diameter:
sel. Courtesy of Metal Textile Corp., Bulletin ME 9-58.

operating efficiency u n d e r the system conditions, and D = 12.83~: (4) = 1.898 = 1 ' - 1 1 "
applies particularly when using an existing vessel.

When placing mesh in small diameter vessels it is Try: 2'-0" I.D. vessel
important to discount the area taken up by the support Deduct 4 inches from effective diameter for 2-inch sup-
ring before determining the operating velocity of the port ring inside.
unit. For small 6-, 8-, and 12-inch vessels (such as in-line,
pipe-with-mesh units) it is usual practice to use 6- or 8- 24~ 4 " = 20~
inch thickness of mesh for peak performance.
Net area:
Provide at least 6- to 12-inch minimum (preferably 18-
inch min.) disengaging space ahead of the inlet face of
(20) 2
the mesh, i.e., above any inlet nozzle bringing the liquid- A= = 2.18 sqft
carrying vapors to the vessel, or above any liquid surface 4(144)
held in the vessel. Leave 12-inch m i n i m u m of disengaging
space above the mesh before the vapors enter the vessel Actual velocity at ring: 2.74 \( ~2.83 ) = 3.56ft/sec
vapor exit connection. The mesh may be installed in hor-
izontal, vertical or slanting positions in circular, rectangu- This is 97% of maximum allowable design, too high.
lar or spherical vessels. For locations where the liquid Second Try:
drains vertically through the mesh pad perpendicular or Increase diameter to next standard dimension, 2 ft, 6-
angular to its thickness dimension, care must be taken to in. Although intermediate diameters could have been
 Mechanical Separations 253

EVAPORATORS HORIZONTAL SEPARATORS HORIZONTAL SEPARATORS FRACTIONATING

TOWERS

T
t T T T T

OPEN SEPARATORS IN-LINE GAS SCRUBBERS OIL-GAS SEPARATORS OVER-SIZE VESSEL

Figure 4-24. Typical mesh installations in process equipment. Courtesy of Metal Textile Corp., Bulletin ME-7.

selected, the heads normally available for such vessels run Use stainless 304 mesh due to low temperature opera-
in 6-inch increments (either O.D. or I.D.). tion. Carbon steel is too brittle in wire form at this tem-
Net inside diameter at support ring: perature.
The check or specification form of Figure 4-26 is nec-
30" O . D . - 4 " - 3 / 4 " = 25 1/4" essary and helpful when inquirying wire mesh entrain-
m e n t units, either as the mesh alone, or as a complete
Note that vessel wall assumed N-inch thick. turnkey unit including vessel.
Net area = 3.46 sq ft
For services where solids are present or evaporation of
droplets on the mesh might leave a solid crust, it is usual
2.83 practice to install sprays above or below the mesh to cover
Actual velocity at ring: - ~ (2.74) = 2.24 ft / sec
the unit with water (or suitable solvent) on scheduled (or
necessary) operating times, as the plugging builds up.
Percent design velocity: 2.24(100)/3.66 = 61.3%. This This is checked by a m a n o m e t e r or other differential pres-
is acceptable operating point. sure meter placed with taps on the top and bottom side of
Note that if 28-inch O.D. • g-inch wall pipe is available the mesh installation.
this could be used with weld cap ends, or dished heads.
A few case examples for guidance include"
The percent design velocity would be = 71.8%.
This is also an acceptable design.
9 2-3% caustic solution with 10% sodium carbonate.
Pressure drop is in the order of 0.1 inch to 0.5 inches
water. This condition might plug the wire mesh. Sprays
would be r e c o m m e n d e d .
Notes: Since this vessel will operate as a flash d r u m with
a liquid level at approximately 88 of its height up from 9 Raw river water. This presents no plugging problem
bottom, place the inlet at about center of vessel. See Fig- 9 Light hydrocarbon mist. This presents no plugging
ure 4-25. problem
 254 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

A. s p i t . owe. ~ . Wire Entrainment ~esh S~eclflcatlons

Job No.
,,. ;., / P.~. Application Service
Untt Price
B/M No, JNc. Units /
I. Source of Entrainment:
DRUM OR TANK SPECIFICATIONS I
[,,-.-. o - 2. Operatin~ Conditions: Give (I) Normal (2) l~xlmum

Size ,.~0 "t O . O . ~(/a'-o " ~end L,~e Type

(3) Minimum, where possible
Temperature
l~ssure
Vapor Phase
Flow R~te
.J e---~ e
-; @ "~ *Veloclty
Density at operatinE conditions
, Eolecular Weight

Composition or Nature of Phase

-" @ -

DESIGN DATA Liquid Entrainment Phase

Quantity (if kno~m):
OFemtln@ Temp. --/10 OF.
Dusi@n Pmsswe /~ PSI ~ Dellll~ Te,,,p. --130 oF.
Density :
Codo ~ L ~ / ~ St~ml) Y~JI Leskel C ~ l t . Pge Dml~ty el C,mtmste , ~13 Lbl~. h Viscosity:
Meteriels: Shell Z~w, ~en.tdp~,-~,,,-~ ~ a m / Heeds l o w ' l u g , ~;/~e/
Surface Tension:
Linin@; Metel /~/o Rubbe~ e~rPleetir ~de
Brick ~Ve Cemt s~e Composition or Nature of Entrainment:
In~r.el ~.~,veele,sAlle.mnce Y~,il ~. , Sol| Sql~l~@ W~' I.,~lel=,. ilia'e= r"t I~, G e e = - 1 ~
Droplet Sizes or distribution (if known):
N OZZLES
Service No, Req'd. Size Press (.'less Fecin@ Mwk No.
Solids Content (Composition and Quantity):
Inlet I
Vep~r Out / &* /So ~r ~t 8 Dissolved:
Liquid Out / J" s,ra ~rj ~ __
Dre in Suspended:
Surety Volvo
Level Ceedml ,~
/
~ "
"
s,.4"o
SLTe
R'/'J
RT ~
O
dr. . 3. Performance
P r o e m Tel, I /" 60,,0 ~4,~/, ~,~
V~t Allowable Total Separator Pressure Drop:

Menhele () / Allowable Mesh Pressure Drop:

L.w Aav=/ ~lar-] / ~, " s.r162 ~?r d Z Allowable Entrainment:

RIEIIARKS Mesh Thickness Recommended:

~' . c . ; /o w ~'=,d r bst.
B. Constructionand Installatlon
I. Vessel
By Chk'd Rev. Nev. , Roy. Ibv.
*Dia~eter. I.D: Length
Dote
P.O. To: Construction Material:
*Position (Horizontal, Vertical, Inclined):
Figure 4-25. Specification design sheet for separator using wire
*Shape (Circular, Square, etc.):
mesh.
Type (Evaporator, Still, Drum, etc.):
Existing or Proposed: ,,,

9 Heavy oil with suspended matter. This might plug. A 2. Entrainment Mesh
light oil or solvent spray would be recommended for Construction ~t~terial
flushing the mesh. Separator Mesh
Support Grid
Installation Method (Dimensions)
Fiber Beds/Pads Impingement Eliminators Vessel Open End:
Manhole (slze) :
The use of fiber packing held between wire mesh con-
C. Special Conditions:
taining screens is best applied in the very low micron
*Assumes vessel size fixed prior to mesh Inoulry
range, generally 0.1 to > 3 microns with recoveries of
entrained liquid of up to 99.97% (by weight). Figures 4- Figure 4-26. Wire entrainment mesh specifications.
27A, B, and C illustrate the design concept and its corre-
sponding data table indicates expected performance. The
fibers used mean the bed packing can be fabricated from removed by direct interception, inertial impaction, and
fine glass, polypropylene fibers, or can be selected to be Brownian capture.
the most resistant to the liquid mist entering the unit The design rating for this equipment is best selected by
from corrosive plant operations such as sulfuric acid, the manufacturers for each application.
chlorine, nitric acid, ammonia scrubbing for sulfur oxides The concept of removal of entrained liquid particle is
control, and many others. The entrained particles are essentially the same as for wire mesh designs, except the
 Mechanical Separations 255

clean

Materials of construction
Packing of York-Fiberbed high efficiency mist eliminators consists of
ceramic, glass, polypropylene, fluoropolymer fibers. Cages and
frames are fabricated from all stainless steels and other weldable
alloys as well as FRR

Figure 4-27A. Details of a cylindrical York-Fiberbed | mist eliminator.

Courtesy of Otto H. York Co., Inc., Bullet in 55B.

particle size removed may be much smaller. Just as for

other types of mist eliminators, the performance is affect-
ed by the properties of the liquid particles, entraining gas,
temperature, pressure, liquid viscosity, particle size distri-
bution of entrained material and the quantity of total
entrainment, and the desired process removal require-
ment. Some designs of these units provide excellent per-
formance removal efficiencies at a wide range of rates
(turndown), even at low gas rates.
Pressure drop is usually low depending on many fac-
tors, but can be expected in the range of 2 to 20 inches of
water [33].

Baffle Type Impingement

There are many baffle type impingement separators. Figure 4-27B. Fiber-pack | mist eliminator pack separators. By per-
The efficiency of operation for entrainment is entirely a mission, Koch Engineering Co., Inc. Note that other manufacturers
have basically the same concept; however, the identification of
function of the contacting action inside the particular
types are peculiar to each.
unit. There are no general performance equations which
will predict performance for this type of unit; therefore
manufacturers' performance data and recommendations liquid droplets run down on the plate surfaces counter-
should be used. A few of the many available units are current to the up-flowing gas stream. See Reference [59]
shown in Figures 4-28 to 4-31. Many use the Chevron-style for performance study.
vertical plates as shown in Figures 4-17A and 4-30. Spacing of the plates and their angles is a part of the
design using the manufacturers' data. Multiple pass designs
Baffles (Chevrons~Vanes) can result in higher recovery efficiencies. The units can be
designed/installed for vertical or horizontal flow.
One of the common impingement plate assemblies is Some of the same physical properties of the liquid and
of the Chevron "zig-zag" style of Figures 4-17A and 4-30. gas phases as well as temperature and pressure and the
This style of impact separation device will tolerate higher amount of entrained liquids (or solids if present) and the
gas velocities, high liquid loading, viscous liquids, reason- expected particle size and its distribution control the
able solids, relatively low pressure drops. The collected design and performance of these units also.
256 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Figure 4-27C. Typical fiberbed mist eliminators are available in both

candle and panel configurations. By permission, Otto H. York Co., Inc.

For preliminary selection: Figure 4-28. Wall-wiping centrifugal type separator. Courtesy of
Wright-Austin Co.
VD = k [ ( p l - pv)/Pv] 1/2 (4-5])

Pv = vapor density, lb/cu ft at actual conditions through a surface contact medium such as excelsior, hay,
PL liquid density, lb/cu ft at actual conditions
=
cotton or wool bats, or cartridges of fibers similar in
k = 0.40 for up-flow at 0.65 for horizontal flow, for estimating nature and weave to those of Table 4-12A and -12B. Figure
4-32 illustrates some of these types.
Required flow area estimate only,
Efficiency
A= (ACFS)/VD, sq ft
A= area sq ft The efficiency of this type of unit varies, and is a func-
ACFS = actual flow, cu ft/sec tion of the effectiveness of the impingement baffling
VB = design velocity, ft/sec arrangement. About 70% of separator applications can
use the line-type unit; the other 30% require the vessel
Generally, this style of unit will remove particles of 12 construction. The preference of the designer and prob-
to 15 microns efficiently. The typical droplet separator is lems of the plant operator are important in the final selec-
shown for an air-water system in Figure 4-17A. This will tion of a unit to fit a separation application.
vary for other systems with other physical properties. The The efficiency for removal of liquid a n d solid sus-
variations in capacity (turndown) handled by these units p e n d e d particles is 97-99%+ when h a n d l i n g 15-micron
is in the range of 3 to 6 times the low to maximum flow, particles and larger. For steam service, a typical case
based on k values [33]. would be 90% quality e n t e r i n g steam with 99.9 p e r c e n t
A liquid-liquid separator used for removing small, usu- quality leaving.
ally 2% or less, quantifies of one immiscible liquid from Some units will maintain a reasonable efficiency of sep-
another is termed a coalescer. These units are not gravity aration over a range of 60%-120% of normal perfor-
settlers, but agglomerate the smaller liquid by passing mance rating while other types will not. This flexibility is
 Mechanical Separations 257

Figure 4-29. Multiphase gas cleaner. Courtesy of

Blaw-Knox Co.

Figure 4-30. Impingement separator. Courtesy of Peerless Manufac-

turing Co. Figure 4-31. Combination separator. Courtesy of National Tank Co.
258 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

EMULSION OF PRODUCT INLET OUTLET

WATER & SOLIDS _ COALESCING /, 3. Note that some units use pipe line size for the sepa-
\ I MEDIA "~
\ HE/O I , "f : rator size designation, others do not.
GASl ET _~_ / VENT , ~ [J
4. From the system operating pressure, establish the pres-
sure rating designation for the separator selection.
5. Note that most separators for pressure system opera-
,~,ov,.~l~. -~o;E-~~<..- , ,
tions are fabricated according to the ASME code.
6. Specify special features and materials of construc-
,oe Ill , , ~,,I ,,, CL..--DRY tion, such as alloy or nonferrous impingement parts,
R
ETA
w 4 :L' LEVE
G
ULIG or entire vessel if affected by process vapor and liq-
uid. Specify special liquid reservoir at base of unit if
necessary for system operations. Line units normally
have dump traps or liquid outlet of separator, while
.~. ORA,N J~i ' ~
\.. vessel type often use some type of liquid level control.
FLOW LEGEND
7. Specification sheet: see Figure 4-33.
CONTAMINATED PRODUCT
~-,o..-~ WATER

CLEAN DRY PRODUCT

Figure 4-32. Typical coalescer unit. By permission, Facet Enterpris-

es, Inc., Industrial Div.
Baffle Type Separator Specifications
Separator A~lieation= (Give Service)

very peculiar to the internal design of the unit. Some Design Operattn~ Conditions:

units are guaranteed to reduce mechanical entrainment Xain Stream Flow Rate . Sp. Gr. or Mol. wt.

loss to less than 0.1 gallon per million standard cubic feet Entrained Material r a t e ( i f known)Source of' entr~iaaent

of entraining gas. lets. l~essuaw _____ psi (5) or (a), Max. Temp. O F .

Max. l ~ e s s u ~ .,, p s i (S) or (a)

Entrained Particle elze . . . . . . (mesh)(Microns)

PressureDrop
Vessel SDee~Elcation~ :.
Design Pressure _ _ _ _ _ P S I , D e s i g n Temp. oF.
Pressure drop in most units of this general design is
Code: API-AM , A~r16219.49 Y d . , ..AM 1950 ~ 1 .
very low, being in the order of 0.1 to 3 psi.
State Code ; Non-code , Custouer~ Spee. _..--

X-Ray Stress Relief

How to Specify Corr#slon allowande
Dimensions: . =O.D. x _ s Ion6 bend line to bend l i n e
Manufacturers' catalogs are usually available and com-
Base S u p p o r t , 1
plete with capacity tables for the selection of a unit size.
Mist E x t r a 0 t o r : , Mat'l. of C o n s t r u o t i o n
However, it is good practice to have this selection checked
Connections
by the manufacturer whenever conditions will allow. This
1. gas i n l e t and o u t l e t : ( S t z e , ASA p p e s s u r ~ ~ti.n~. type
avoids misunderstandings and misinterpretations of the
flanKe )
catalog, thereby assuring a better selection for the separa-
2. Liquid Outlet
tion operation, and at the same time the experience of
3. LiqUid Level Gsse
the manufacturer can be used to advantage.
4. Llqui~ Level Control
With a manufacturer's catalog available:
5. l~essure Gause
6. Relief Valve
1. Establish the normal, maximum, and minimum gas
7. Bursting Disc ......
flow for the system where the unit will operate. This
8. Hi~l~ L e v e l Alarm
is usually in standard cubic feet per minute, per
9. Low Level Alarm
hour or per day. Note the catalog units carefully, and
10. Thermometer
also that the reference standard temperature is usu-
11. Equalizer
ally 60~ for gas or vapor flow.
12. Drain
2. Use the rating selection charts or tables as per cata-
13. Others: (s~peetfy)
log instructions. For specific gravity or molecular
Special Featur~:
weight different than the charts or tables, a correc-
tion factor is usually designated and should be used. Figure 4-33. Baffle-type separator specifications.
 Mechanical Separations 259

Note that these units should not be connected in lines Efficiency

larger than their pipe inlet, since inlet velocity conditions
are very important, the swaging down or reduction tends The efficiency of centrifugal units is:
to produce a jet effect by the gas upon the mist elimina-
tor unit. This may erode the unit and cause other erratic
performance. Type Efficiency Range
High Velocity 99% or higher, of entering liquid.
Stationary Vanes Residual entrainment 1 ppm or less
Dry-Packed Impingement Beds Cyclone 70-85% for 10 micron, 99% for
40 micron and larger. For high
entrainment, efficiency increases
Although this type of unit is not used as frequently as with concentration.
most of the others discussed, it does have some specific Rotary 98% for agglomerating particles
applications in sulfuric acid mist removal and similar very
difficult applications. The unit consists of a bed of granu-
lar particles or ceramic packing, sometimes graduated in Cyclone Separators
size, operating dry as far as external liquid application to
aid in the separation. The superficial velocities of 0.5 to 8 The cyclone type unit is well recognized and accept-
feet per second through the unit are rather low for most ed in a wide variety of applications from steam con-
separators therefore the vessels become large. Due to the densate to dusts from kilns. In this unit the carrier gas
packed heights of 2 feet (min.) and higher, the pressure and s u s p e n d e d particles enter tangentially or volutely
drop can be appreciable. Particle removal may be 0.5 to 5 into a cylindrical or conical body section of the unit,
microns at 99% efficiency for a good design. These units then spiral downward forcing the heavier suspended
will plug on dust service and must be back washed to matter against the walls. Solids tend to slide down the
regain operability at reasonable pressure drops. wall while liquid particles wet the wall, form a r u n n i n g
film and are removed at the bottom. Figure 4-41 gives a
good typical cyclone a r r a n g e m e n t , but this is by no
Centrifugal Separators means the highest efficiency or best design. References
[43,45,51] provide g o o d design and p e r f o r m a n c e
analysis.
Centrifugal separators utilize centrifugal action for the Some commercial units are shown in Figures 4-42 to 4-45.
separation of materials of different densities and phases. The zone of most efficient separation is in the conical
They are built in (a) stationary and (b) rotary types. Vari-
region designated by dimension Zc in Figure 4-41. The
ous modifications of stationary units are used more than larger particles have already been thrown against the wall
any other kind for separation problems. The cost is mod-
before the outlet was reached. The finer particles are
erate; it is simple in construction, and is reasonably flexi-
thrown out in the inner vortex as the direction of motion
ble in service, being useful for gas-liquid or gas-solid sys-
is reversed. Here, the relative velocity difference between
tems. In addition to serving as finishing separators
the particle and the carrier is the greatest for any point in
centrifugal units are also used to take a "rough cut" into a
the separator. Although the tangential velocity compo-
separation problem. They may be followed by some addi-
nent predominates t h r o u g h o u t the cyclone, the axial
tional unit of special cyclone action or filtration through velocity prevails in the turbulent center. Van Dongen and
woven cloth pads, etc., to completely remove last traces of
ter Linden [20] measured pressure patterns in a typical
entrained particles.
cyclone and found the lowest total pressure at the
extreme bottom point of the cone, even lower than at the
gas exhaust. Their pressure profiles indicate considerable
Stationary Vane eddy or secondary gas movement in the unit near the ver-
tical axis.
The stationary vane type is quite popular and adapts to
many applications. It is used in vessels or pipe lines as Particle Size Separation
illustrated in Figures 4-34 to 4-40. They are usually of high
efficiency for both liquid and solid particles such as rust, The theoretical minimum diameter particle to be sep-
scale, dirt, etc. When the system is dry with dust a special arated in a cyclone of the basic type given by Figure 4-41
design is used. is given by the relation of Rosin [13].
260 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

DP= i 9 lt'tWi (4-52)

(Min.) n N tV~ (p~ - p)

N t has been found to be about 5 turns of the gas stream

in the unit, and is considered somewhat conservative.
When re-entrainment takes place, N t may drop to 1.0 or
2.0. The API study presents an excellent survey of cyclone
dust collectors [7].

Solid Particle CycloneDesign

Following the general dimensional relations of the typ-

ical cyclone as shown in Figure 4-41, the following gener-
al guides apply. This cyclone is better suited to solid par-
ticles removal than liquid droplets. To avoid
re-entrainment it is important to keep the separated
material from entering the center vortex of the unit. Solid
particles generally slide down the walls with sufficient ver-
tical velocity to avoid re-entrainment.

a. Select outlet diameter to give gas velocity out not

exceeding 600 ft per min. Bear in mind that higher
velocities can be used in special designs.
Figure 4-36. Line-type centrifugal separator. Courtesy of V. D.
b. Due to the usual conditions of limiting pressure Anderson Co.
drop, entrance velocities range from 1000 to 4000 ft
per min. 3000 fpm is good average, although veloci-
ties to 6000 fpm are used in some applications.

Figure 4-37. Centrifugal separa-

tor applications. By permission,
Centrifix Corp.

Figure 4-38. Centrifugal separa-

tor applications. By permission,
Centrifix Corp.

Figure 4-39. Centrifugal separa-

Figure 4-34. Scrubber with internal liquid feed. Courtesy of Centrifix tor applications. By permission,
Corp. Centrifix Corp.
 Mechanical Separations 261

c. Select cylindrical shell diameter, Dc, with two consid- Efficiency

erations in mind:
Typical estimating efficiencies are given in Figures 4-46
9 Large diameter reduces pressure drop and 4-47. Note the curves indicate how much dust of each
9 Small diameter has higher collection efficiency for particle size will be collected. The efficiency increases as
the same entrance conditions and pressure drop. the pressure drop increases; that is, a smaller separator
might have a higher efficiency due to the higher gas
d. The length of the inverted cone section, Zc, is critical, velocities and increased resistance than a larger unit for
although there is no uniformity in actual practice. The the same gas flow. For example, there are several curves
dimensions suggested in Figure 4-41 are average. of the typical shape of Figure 4-46, with each curve for a
definite resistance to flow through the unit.

nlet Inlet The pressure drop in a typical cyclone is usually

Vent
Ve Inlet~ ~ > O u t l e t between 0.5 and 8 inches of water. It can be larger, but
n ~ ]~Droin rarely exceeds 10 inches water for single units. The API
study [7] summarizes the various factors. Lapple [13,16]
I" Through2" SizesOnlyITr0p] gives calculation equations, but in general the most reli-
able pressure drop information is obtained from the man-
ufacturer.
Figure 4-40. Centrifugal separator applications. By permission, Cen-
trifix Corp. Here is how the pressure drop may be estimated.

For the typical cyclone of Figure 4-41 [13]

(a) Inlet velocity head based on inlet area:

hui = 0.0039 gc 2 (4- 53)

Gas t Out

I
I
I
- . J
Wi: Dc/4
Lc
De= Dc/2 I
He=Dc 12 I
I
Lc = 2 D9 .,t----- D C - - -,,. I
Sr D9 i
I
Zc=2 Dc
J9 Arbitrory, 4
I
Usuolly De/4 I
I
I
I
I
I
z~
I
I
I
!
I
I
Section A-A i
!

Dust ~ Out

Figure 4-41. Cyclone separator proportions--dust systems. By per-

mission, Perry, J. H., Chemical Engineers Handbook, 3rd Ed., Figure 4-42. Van Tongeran dust shave-off design. Courtesy of Buell
McGraw-Hill Company, 1950. Engineering Co.
262 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants
 Mechanical Separations 263

If i n l e t v a n e is f o r m e d with i n l e t c o n n e c t i o n " Areas: Gas Velocity Velocity Head*

Inlet duct: 1.398 sq ft 47.7 ft/sec 0.50 in. water
K= 7.5 Cyclone inlet: 2.0 sq ft 33.33 ft/sec 0.25 in. water
Cyclone exit duct: 3.14 sq ft 21.2 ft/sec 0.10 in. water
Example 4-6: Cyclone System Pressure Drop *Velocity head, inches water = VD2/(16)(106), V D -- ft/min

A c y c l o n e system is to b e i n s t a l l e d as a p a r t o f a b a g g i n g Friction Loss (~) to @ :

o p e r a t i o n . T h e u n i t is s h o w n in F i g u r e 4-48. D e t e r m i n e
t h e h e a d r e q u i r e d f o r p u r c h a s e o f t h e fan. T h e c o n d i t i o n s NRe = 398,000 f = 0.0038
are:
Air v o l u m e : 4000 cu ft p e r m i n o f air at 70~ 4fL 4 (.0038) (18)
No. Vel. Hd. - m

= 0.204ve1. head
Air density: 0.075 l b / c u ft D (16/12)

, 9

100

i
i
70

ILl
u.
I'--
50 I
Z
w 40
U
1.1.1
30
...........
!
i . . . . . .
i ............... ti
i
PARTICLE SIZE BASED O N TERMINAL VELOCITY.

9 " I I I
PARTICLE SIZE-MICRONS
I ] [
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Figure 4-46. General efficiency curves, applies specifically to helical entry cyclone dust separators. Courtesy of The Ducon Co.

f
1 1 _ j "~ '

jJ
Z I f/
U
a: J
o. J
!
J
U 50
Z
_w
_.o /
l, 40

z /
_o
I- / t
J COLLECTION EFFICIENCY
VS
u2s / / ., l TERMINAL VELOCITY
....

.3 .4 .5 .t~ .7 .8 1.0 1.5 20 3.0 4.0 5 0 6 0 7 . 0 8 . 0 I0 15 20 30 40 50 6 0 7 0 8 0 I00 150 ~ 300 400

TERMINAL VELOCITY - I N C H E S PER MINUTE

Figure 4-47. General efficiency curve applies specifically to involute entry cyclone dust separators. Courtesy of American Blower Div., Amer-
ican Radiator and Standard Sanitary Corp.
264 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

18'
AiqOut Liquid Cyclone-Type Separator
,|
@
Inlet ,--[
16" Duct | | 2I 1"1"24" The unit shown in Figure 4-49 has been used in many
' II I 1
process applications with a variety of modifications
"-;'-i
Fan Discharge " ' I I TI
10'
[18,19,20]. It is effective in liquid e n t r a i n m e n t separation,
66.67 cu. ft./sec. ,2x2r
" "
/ i I I ~
but is not r e c o m m e n d e d for solid particles due to the
Rectangulorf l__ De =5
Tangential a r r a n g e m e n t of the b o t t o m and outlet. The flat b o t t o m
plate serves as a protection to the developing liquid sur-
face below. This prevents re-entrainment. In place of the
I0' plate a vortex breaker type using vertical cross plates of 4-
inch to 12-inch d e p t h also is used, (Also see Reference
! I_ [58].) The inlet gas connection is placed above the outlet
Note" This is Not Drawn
to Scale. dip pipe by maintaining dimension of only a few inches at
Dust ~ Out point 4. In this type unit some liquid will creep up the
Figure 4-48. Pressure drop for cyclone separator system. Adapted walls as the inlet velocity increases.
by permission, Lapple, C. E., Fluid and Particle Dynamics, 1st Ed., In order to handle higher loads, the liquid baffle is
University of Delaware, 1954. placed at the top to collect liquid and cause it to d r o p
back down t h r o u g h the gas body. If the baffle is omitted,
the liquid will r u n down the outlet pipe and be swept into
Loss = (0.204)(.5) = 0.102 in. water
the outlet nozzle by the outgoing gas as shown in Figure
4-50B. Figure 4-50 a n d 4-51 show several a l t e r n a t e
Friction Loss (~) to Q 9
entrance and exit details. The unit with a tangential entry
Assume as 1 vel. head (conservative)
is 30%-60% m o r e efficient than one with only a turned-
down 90 ~ elbow in the center.
Friction loss = (1)(.50) = 0.50 in. water
If the design of Figure 4-41 is used for liquid-vapor sep-
aration at moderately high liquid loads, the liquid sliding
Friction Loss (~ to (~) (thru cyclone)"
down the walls in sheets and ripples has somewhat of a
tendency to be torn off from the rotating liquid and
KW iHc (16) (1) (2) b e c o m e re-entrained in the upward gas movement.
Fv= = = 8.0 vel. heads
D 2 (2)2
e
Liquid CycloneDesign (Based on air-water at atmospheric
Friction loss = 8.0(0.25) = 2.0 in. water
pressure) Figure 4-49

For m a x i m u m liquid in outlet vapor of 4 weight per-

Friction Loss (~) to Q 9
cent based on incoming liquid to separator: Figure 4-49.

NRe -- 280,000, f = 0.004

a. Select inlet pipe size to give vapor velocity at inlet of
100 to 400 ft per second for tangential pipe inlet.
4fL (4) (.004)(4.5) b. Select separator diameter to give velocity of 0.02 to
No. vel. heads -
D 2 0.2 (max.) times the inlet velocity. At 400 feet/sec-
= .036 vel. head
o n d pipe velocity the separator velocity should be
0.018 to 0.03 times the pipe velocity. At 130 feet/sec-
Loss = 0.036(.10) = 0.0036 in. water
o n d pipe velocity the separator velocity should be
0.15 to 0.2 times the pipe velocity.
Since the unit exhausts to a t m o s p h e r e with no addi-
c. Establish dimensions from typical unit of Figure 4-
tional restrictions, the total pressure drop is:
49. Always evaluate the expected p e r f o r m a n c e in
terms of the final design, adjusting vertical dimen-
AP (total) =
sions to avoid gas whipping on liquid films or
Friction loss + downstream vel. head at @ - upstream vel. head
droplets. Do not direct inlet gas toward an outlet.
= (0.102 + 0.50 + 2.0 + 0.0036) + 0* - 0.50
Place manway on same side of vessel as tangential
AP (total) = 2.6056 + 0 - 0.50 = 2.10 in. water
inlet.
*Note that point (5) is at atmospheric pressure and the velocity head is d. Pressure drop is essentially negligible for the average
zero; however, if there had been a back pressure or resistance at this conditions of use. Some estimate of entrance and
point before discharging it would have to be added in. exit losses can be made by fluid flow techniques, and
 Mechanical Separations 265

Vapor~Out

.=~ -1 '
E
l~] ! 1 1 Outlet Dip Pipe
o; f
o
pr)
-t | to
od
shell wall
1 I j I , Inlet
! q , . . . . ,'-'~, (Also Designed to Wrap
..... q ~ l _ ~ .tg.. I "~-'90~tolBO. Around V,nel
E D [ to give Tangential Inlet).
"c~
o
0
iv)~ / Figure 4-51. Separator inlets for liquid-vapor service.
-, L _ clearance about 11/2=
I I
_~_~:~L__T. . . . ~ J~ Depending on Liquid Lend

9I . i J The Webre design as tested by Pollock and Work [ 14]

[]] About 6 Above Liquid Level showed (Figure 4-50C) that internal action in the separa-
[ [ Maintain Liquid Level 4" to 12"
tor was responsible for some of the entrainment, particu-
Liquid~Out Minimum Above Liquid Out Nozzle
larly liquid creep up the vessel walls.
~] 2" Wide Ring Around inside of The p e r f o r m a n c e of this unit correlated for several dif-
Vessel,Alternate Design to Baffle
0 ferent types of particle distribution by [ 14]:

(~ (~ (~) Vapor Outlet has Proven L o g [Lv(V'/L1) a] -- b + cV' (4-58)

Acceptable when Stopped at
These Approximate Positions
a= 2 for Webre unit
(~) Liquid Surface Protection Plate, I_~ = entrainment, lb liquid/min/ft 2 of inlet
May be Perforated.If Cross-Plate V' = vapor vel. entering, lb/min/ft 2 of inlet
Vortex Breaker Used in Piece of L1 = liquid entering, lb/min/ft 2 of inlet
Flat Plate (~), Piece so Portion
is Both in and out of Liquid Level.
a, b, c, constants associated with the type and physical con-
Figure 4-49. Centrifugal liquid separator. ditions of the system. For the unit of Reference [14]"

b = 1.85 and c = 0.00643

Nozzle Flush .~__Nozzle Projecls in
with Inside S h e ~
Inlet
"~-(Tangentiall Liquid-Solids Cyclone (Hydrocyclones)Separators
LiquidJ, ~Vap0rOut
Out" This type of solids removal device, Figures 4-52A, and
(A) (B) (C)
Poor Not Much Better than (A) Webre Type B, is a relatively low cost a p p r o a c h to r e m o v e / s e p a r a t e
Unless Ring Baffle Added, Effective, Particularly
Fig.-27. in Vacuum Service solids from solid/liquid suspensions. The incoming feed
to such a unit is injected along the inner wall where the
Figure 4-50. Separator outlets for liquid-vapor service. centrifugal force causes rotation at high angular velocity.
The kinetic energy of this feed is converted to centrifugal
force. The coarse/heavier particles will be c o n c e n t r a t e d
at the b o t t o m as underflow. Most of the feed liquid and
an internal loss of 0.25 to 2.0 psi assumed, d e p e n d i n g part of the fine solids will discharge t h r o u g h the vortex
u p o n system pressure and general unit dimensions. and overflow.
This unit is good to pre-thicken feed to centrifugal fil-
e. For liquids and vapors other than air-water:
ters and similar applications. One cyclone may satisfy a
requirement, or the units can be a r r a n g e d in parallel for
/0.25
large capacities or in series for removal of extreme fines.
V (separator) = 0.1885 V PL -- 9 v (4-57)
sa Pv See Figure 4-53 for a counter-current wash system. Solids
as small as 10 microns can be separated.
where Vsa is the selected separator velocity when using an These units are made of abrasion resistant metals, solid
air-water system, feet/sec. plastics, or with c o r r o s i o n / w e a r resistant plastic liners,
266 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Figure 4-52A. Liquid-solids removal cyclones. Feed enters tangen-

tially along sidewall. By permission, Krebs Engineers.

such as molded rubber and elastomers; for example butyl,

Hycar | Hypalon | urethane, and metal alloys, silicon car-
bide, alumina ceramics. These units require little or no
maintenance. 1. Feed inlet and overflow connections are elastomer lined spool-
piece adapters.
The manufacturer requires complete solids a n d / o r liq- 2. The top cover plate has all wetted surfaces lined, including the
uids data, feed size analysis, and requirements for separa- area mating with the overflow adapter.
tion. In some instances, it may be best to have a sample 3. The vortex finder is completely elastomer covered.
tested by the manufacturer in their laboratory. 4. The molded liners for the inlet head, cylinder section, and coni-
cal sections have integral molded gaskets for sealing at the
References [44,62] give good performance analysis of flanged joints. Molded liners and vulcanized linings are offered
these designs. in gum rubber, polyurethane, nitrile rubber, butyl, Neoprene |
Viton | Hypalon | and other liner materials can be supplied.
Many of the molded elastomer liners are interchangeable with
Solid Particles in Gas~Vapor or Liquid Streams ceramic liners of silicon carbide or high purity alumina.
5. All metal housings are of cast or fabricated mild steel. Standard
The removal of solid particles from gas/vapor or liq- housings are for system pressures up to 25 psi, and special
uid streams can be accompl!shed by several techniques, designs are available for higher system pressures.
some handling the flow "dry," others wetting the
stream to settle/agglomerate the solids (or even dis- Figure 4-52B. Liquid-solids cyclone fabricated to resist corrosion
and abrasion. By permission, Krebs Engineers.
solve) and remove the liquid phase from the system
with the solid particles. Some techniques are more
adaptable to certain industries than others. Figure 4-54
illustrates typical ranges of particle size removal of var- Inertial Centrifugal Separators
ious types of common equipment or technique. All of
these will not be covered in this chapter. Attention will Specification Sheet, Figure 4-55, can be used as a guide
be directed to the usual equipment associated with the in summarizing and specifying conditions for this type of
chemical/petrochemical industries. equipment.
 Mechanical Separations 267

Figure 4-53. Cyclones used for countercurrent washing system. By permission, Krebs Engineers.

Figure 4-54. Size ranges where particular solid-solid/solid-liquid separation techniques can be applied. By permission, Roberts, E. J. et. al.,
Chemical Engineering, June 29, 1970 [35].
268 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

S p e c i f i c a t i o n Sheet T h e r e are a few m e c h a n i c a l a r r a n g e m e n t s that use

Qas Phase CentrtfuF~al Entrainment S e p a r a t o r external power to exert centrifugal force on the gas par-
~Liquid or Solid Particles) ticle stream. The fan type blades direct the separating
1. Application: (Describe service application of unlt when particles to the collection outlet. Figures 4-56 a n d 4-57
possible) . . . . . . show such a unit. These units are c o m p a c t and have
2e F l u i d Stream: Composition: (Vol. %)
b e e n used in various dust applications. However, cau-
tion should be used to avoid installations involving
3. ~trained Particles: (Liquid o r s o l i d ) ..........
sticky or tacky materials which m i g h t a d h e r e to the walls
Composition
and blades of the unit. The efficiency of these is a b o u t
a. Size ranEe microns ( o r M e s h ) , 9 0 % - 9 9 % , similar to a small, high pressure d r o p
b. Size percentage distribution- cyclone. The air h a n d l i n g p e r f o r m a n c e can be predict-
O. True Specific Gravity (of particle), re- ed using the fan laws.
ferred to w a t e r = 1.0
de Bulk d e n s i t y of p a r t i c l e
e, Source o f e n t r a i n m e n t : ( B o i l t n 5 l i q u i d , k i l n d u s t ,
etc.) . . . . .
4, Operatin5 Conditions: YAxlmum Minimum Normal
Gas Flow r a t e
~ h t r a i n e d Flow Rate ,,,

Temperature, ~
Pressure, PSI
Moisture Content
Dew P o i n t , ~
5. Installation Altitude:
a~ Normal b a r o m e t e r . ,mm Hg.
6. Nature o f e n t r a i n e d m a t e r i a l =
Solids: (a) D e s c r i b e ( d r y , m o i s t , s t i c k y , a t operating. Figure 4-56. Inertial centrifugal dust separator. Courtesy of Ameri-
conditions) _ can Air Filter Co.
(h) Hygroscopic:
(o) Angle of repose
IAquld: (a) Describe: (Corrosive, o l l y )
(b) S u r f a c t tension a t o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s : .----..

(c) V i s c o s i t y a t operating, c o n d i t i o n s :
7. Insulation required: Reason
8. Construction Features:
(a) Describe s e p a r a t o r l o c a t i o n in system
(b) Irtdoors, o u t d o o r s , i n s i d e a n o t h e r v e s s e l (Provide
sketch if possible) . ,
(o) Storase required fop collected dust or llquld
(hours)
(d) P r e l i m i n a r y s i z e i n l e t connection: inches,
(diam., r e c t . , sq. )
(e) Type of d u s t removal r e q u i r e d
( f ) Suggested M a t e r i a l s o f Constrdc.tlon
shell: internals
9. Special condltlons: J , ,,

Figure 4-55. Specification Sheet, gas phase centrifugal entrainment Figure 4-57. Inertial centrifugal dust separator. Courtesy of Univer-
separator (liquid or solid particles). sal Road Machinery Co.
 Mechanical Separations 269

Scrubbers
G0s
Scrubber separators use a liquid to form some type of
liquid surface (spray droplets, film, etc.) to assist the inter-
nal arrangements of the separator in the separating Cyclonic
Seporotor
action. Essentially the incoming dust or liquid particles Liquidin
are wet by the action of the liquid (usually water or oil)
and are made larger a n d / o r heavier and thus can be sep- D i ~
arated from the moving stream. There are many types and
styles of units falling in this classification (see Figures 4-58 Liquid out

to 4-64. Reference [36] provides a good summary of man- Figure 4-59. Venturi scrubber. Courtesy of Chemical Construction
ufacturers and their products for wet scrubbing. Corp.
One or more of the following mechanisms are
employed in the separating action of the wet scrubbers.

1. I m p i n g e m e n t m o n internal parts.
2. Wettingmof particle to help agglomerate and pre-
vent re-entrainment.
3. D i f f u s i o n ~ d u s t particles deposited on the liquid
droplets. Predominant for the submicron and parti-
cles up to about 5bt.

Figure 4-58. Cyclonic scrubber. Courtesy of Chemical Construction Figure 4-60. Impingement scrubber. Courtesy of Peabody Engineer-
Corp. ing Corp.
270 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Figure 4-62. Spray scrubbermfume scrubber arranged for vertical

downflow. Courtesy of Schutte & Koerting Co.
Figure 4-61. Spray scrubber. Courtesy of The Ducon Co., Inc.

4. Humidification--aids in flocculation and agglomer- the various types of equipment illustrated in Figures 4-58
ation of particles. to 4-64.
Figures 4-64 and -64A use a floating valve variable ori-
5. Condensation--will cause particle size to grow if gas fice opening as used in distillation contacting on the one
cooled below its dew-point. or more trays included in the manufacturer's design. This
6. Dust Disposal--running film action of liquid washes provides for good contact to wet down the solid particles
dust and collected liquid out of scrubber. as well as scrub many water soluble gas/vapors in the
7. Gas Partition--segregates gas into small streams and incoming stream (such as chloride, sulfur, and nitrogen
segments when flowing through a liquid or foam. compounds). Heat and mass transfer can take place
u n d e r these conditions. The pressure drop through this
8. Electrostatic Precipitation--the electrical charging type unit typically ranges from 1 inch water to 2 inches of
of the liquid droplets may come about by the inter- water for a five-fold increase in gas flow rates. Particle
action of the gas and liquid streams. Not much removal can go as low as 0.5 micron to greater than 30
known of this action. microns. Usually a wire mesh entrainment pad is mount-
ed in the outgoing "clean" vapors to knock out liquid
The separating ability of most units is limited to 5- entrained particles, not solids.
micron particles. However, some will take out 1 to 5g par-
ticles at a sacrifice in collection efficiency. Due to the Cloth or Fabric Bag Separators or Filters
peculiarities of each system as well as the equipment avail-
able to perform the separation, it is well to consult manu- Reference [55] provides additional details beyond the
facturers regarding expected performance. Quite often bag filter applications, and Reference [60] provides a
they will want to run test units, particularly on difficult technical and analytical review of flowing gas-solids sus-
separations. References [12,13] give good descriptions of pensions.
 Mechanical Separations 271

Figure 4-63. Tray-type scrubber

with continuous sludge removal.
Courtesy of National Dust Collec-
tor Corp.

Filters of this type or class may be of the large bag filter Specifications
type for large volumes of low pressure dust laden gases or
vapor, or of the generally smaller cartridge or pack types The details of specifications for bag filter dust collec-
for gas/vapors or liquids containing suspended solid tors are important to a proper and operable design selec-
materials. tion. There are many variables which must be furnished
by the manufacturer so that the user can understand how
Figures 4-65, 4-66, and 4-67 show several units of the
the unit operates mechanically and the unit's dust load-
bag. The bags may be of cotton, wool, synthetic fiber, and
ing capabilities. The larger the air/cloth ratio for the
glass or asbestos with temperature limits on such use as
unit, the smaller will be its physical dimensions and gen-
180~ 200~ 275~ 650~ respectively, except for unusu-
erally, cost; however, the higher will be the frequency of
al materials. (See Table 4-12A and B.) These units are
cleaning. This can be quite troublesome, therefore low
used exclusively on dry solid particles in a gas stream, not
values of this ratio are preferable, consistent with the
being suitable for wet or moist applications. The gases
analysis of overall performance.
pass through the woven filter cloth, depositing the dust
on the surface. At intervals the unit is subject to a de-dust- The removal or filtration of the entrained dust from
the gas stream is accomplished by passing the mixture
ing action such as mechanical scraping, shaking or back-
flow of clean air or gas to remove the dust from the cloth. through a sufficiently porous fabric filter bag(s) (Table 4-
The dust settles to the lower section of the unit and is 14). These bags allow some air to flow through and are
either cylindrical tubes or oblong tubes/bags. The dust is
removed. The separation efficiency may be 99%+, but is
retained on the outside or inside (depending on unit
d e p e n d e n t upon the system and nature of the particles.
design) of the bag surface and the small spaces between
For extremely fine particles a precoat of dry dust similar
the fibers of the cloth (or felt). This dry cake builds up
to that used in some wet filtrations may be required
and acts as a pre-coat and then as the actual filtering
before re-establishing the process gas-dust flow.
medium as the dust particles build up. After a period of
For heavy dust loads these units are often preceded by time, unique to the filter system of dust laden air plus bag
a dry cyclone or other separator to reduce the total load type, the pressure drop will build up. (These are low pres-
on the bags. sure and low pressure drop systems.) Therefore, the dust
Suggested air-to-cloth ratios are given in Table 4-13. or "cake" is removed (cleaned) from the outside of the
272 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

LIQUID LIr.V F.,I.

HOLt>OWN -X FLEXICAP

DROP VF..NI"URI = /

Figure 4-64A. Adjustable "floating" caps for vapor flow. By permis-

sion, Koch Engineering Co., Inc.

The scrubber is comprised of one or more trays. Each tray contains

numerous venturi openings. Each of the MultiVenturi openings is Figure 4-65. Bag filtration with mechanical shaking for bag cleaning.
surmounted by a spider cage holding a floating Flexicap (see insert). Courtesy of Dracco Div. Fuller Co.
In addition, each tray is equipped with one or more "downcomers"
and weir flow baffles that control the scrubbing liquid as it flows
across the tray and then to the tray below.
dust loading [47]. The air-to-cloth ratio so often used is
Figure 4-64. Variable orifice MultiVenturi Flexitray| scrubber at only useful when comparing a particular manufacturer's
essentially constant pressure drop maintains good efficiency over equipment for handling different materials, and not for
wide flow rates. By permission, Koch Engineering Co., Inc. comparing manufacturers. Reference [49] is an excellent
summary of many details associated with specifying and
selecting bag filters.
bag by internal arrangements in the "bag house" or hous- The following are suggested filter specifications:
ing by such techniques as (1) shaking or vibrating the bag
or bag assembly to drop the dust into an integral hopper 1. Performance: define air/gas and dust rates, particle
while there is no-flow of air-dust feed into the unit or com- size distribution, and percent of particle sizes.
partment, or (2) back pulse with jets of air into each bag
(Figure 4-67). The criterion should be a constant pressure a. Temperature at inlet to baghouse
drop across the fabric for a fixed air flow and a specified b. Moisture concentration, dewpoint
 Mechanical Separations 273

c. Chemical composition of vapor and of dust,

including any abrasive, hydroscopic or other char-
acteristics.

2. Define dust recovery, as percentage below a certain

particle size.

3. Indicate, if known, p r e f e r r e d bag m a t e r i a l that

will w i t h s t a n d e n v i r o n m e n t , e.g., fibers of glass,
polyester, Teflon | N o m e x | p o l y p r o p y l e n e , poly-
ethylene, cotton, wool, nylon, O r l o n | , D a c r o n | ,
a n d Dynel | T h e type of weave of fiber s h o u l d be
r e c o m m e n d e d by the m a n u f a c t u r e r . T h e fabrics
may be felted or woven [47,48] in weaves of
plain, satin, or twill, a n d s h o u l d be resistant to
any corrosive m a t e r i a l in the solid particles or
the gas stream.

Figure 4-66. Bag filtration with continuous reverse air cleaning. 4. Manufacturer should r e c o m m e n d
Courtesy of W. W. Sly Mfg. Co.
a. Bag size, (diameter, length).
b. Bag holding hardware: anti-collapse spreader
rings, snap rings, etc.
c. N u m b e r of baghouse compartments, n u m b e r of
bags per compartment.
d. Air/gas flow cycle to compartments.
e. Complete description with mechanical details of
bag cleaning system (shaking, air-jet, etc.)
f. Dust removal arrangement.

The cleaning system set up for a particular bag

house will d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r the filtering system oper-
ates continuously or b a t c h / i n t e r m i t t e n t l y . Some sys-
tems o p e r a t e as a c o n t i n u o u s batch, with sections of the
e n t e r i n g c h a m b e r s being isolated by valving to auto-
matically switch from one section of one bag house to
another. Thereby, one or m o r e bag g r o u p s / s e c t i o n s fil-
ter while a n o t h e r one or m o r e are not operating, but
are in the dust removal cycle. The permeability of the
fabric is generally stated as the clean airflow in (cu
f t / m i n ) / s q u a r e foot of fabric at a pressure differential
of 0.5 inches water as d e t e r m i n e d by the ASTM stan-
dard D-737 (Frazier Test) [47]. Whereas this test is use-
ful, several fabrics may have the same p e r m e a b i l i t y yet
have different fiber surfaces, and thereby do not per-
f o r m the same for a specific application.

The felted fabrics are generally used for m a x i m u m

recovery of product and are used at high face velocity for
airflow-to-cloth-area ratio. The felt promotes the greatest
dust collection surface.

Figure 4-67. Pulse-jet air cleaning of fabric bags. By permission, M o n o f i l a m e n t fibers require special a t t e n t i o n to
Power, November 1975, McGraw-Hill Co., Inc., New York, p. 41. ensure a uniform open space between the filaments.
274 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Table 4-12A
Partial List of Commercial Crossflow Microfilter
Media-materials and Geometries

Oeomebleo !
T,,. i I i

pohawm~
po~vlnl~l~e

po~tamatmcoe~~

1. Om'am/~

Zirconk~lumlnn

SlUc~ ~

Type 316 stidnlmm steel

Other alloys
~ ~

By permission, Michaels, S. L. [38].

The woven fabrics have various yarn patterns for dif- varies, but one promise seems to be that higher tem-
ferent spacings between the yarn fabrics (Table 4-14). peratures will be handled.
T h e r e is a wide variety of choices for not only the
materials of construction but the tightness of weave New cartridge designs for bag houses will allow
and the size of the yarn. All of these factors along with improved servicing and cleaning techniques.
the others n o t e d earlier, make the selection of bag fab-
ric an art that requires m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s and plant's It is i m p o r t a n t to keep bolts, nuts and o t h e r poten-
actual field tests. Woven fabrics have a low ratio of tially loose items to a m i n i m u m inside the unit, as
weave openings for yarn area and generally have a lim- vibration from a i r / g a s flow and bag cleaning can
ited face velocity for air flow of about 1.5 to 3.0 cu loosen nuts, break small welds, and ultimately tear
f t / m i n / s q ft [47]. holes or rip bags. The bag construction is likewise
extremely important, since loose edges a n d
Newer fabrics, not in c o m m o n use but in develop- "unlocked" seams will fray and tear, allowing fibers
ment, test, and field trials, are described for higher into the p r o d u c t dust. The bag construction must have
t e m p e r a t u r e applications by Reference [50]. Applica- straight seams in o r d e r for t h e m to b e n d and flex
tion to 400~176 are potentially available using properly on cleaning a n d / o r loading.
ceramic fibers Nextel 312 | laminated m e m b r a n e of
e x p a n d e d PTFE on a substrate, polyimid fiber P-84, Cartridge filters may be single units or clusters in a sin-
Ryton | polyphenylene sulfide, and woven fiberglass. gle container or canister. Figures 4-68 to 4-74 illustrate
The heat and acid resistance of these new materials typical units. These may be designed to filter suspended
 Mechanical Separations 275

Table 4-12B
Partial List of Crossflow Microfilter Media in Chemical Service Applications

TABLEI* ii I i li ]iI I
Ctmmic~lm COmlpmlb~m

j!t =
J J t
,,~.~--,,.~,,'~- mmmmmm
100~ i D B D D | ~ B D
bqllOW 100'C l n o
~ bJlow 100'C
Orwmk~ at I00- 200"C
~ at =00-e00'C
m eoo.9oo'c

Inert, or low ma,.gUvUy

Oxylwn

mactlve gaem,
Aqueoul l o l u t l o n l :
pH = 3- L no ohlorldes
pH = 7-10, no (d~lorldu
9 1 = 0 - 3 (exr HF')
pH = 3-10,chkxM~ prim
HF, with pH < 3
pH =10 - 13
pHi > 13
Concentrated
SINm (> I00"C)
Oxk:hmtz(e.g., b4et~h)
By permission, Michaels, S.L. [38].

T a b l e 4-13 !
Suggested Air-to-Cloth Ratios for Dust Removal from Air*
I ! SERVICE
,, AO:O. ..___

H
v
SPACE
Type of Dust Ratio I REQUIRED
Abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2.5
Asbestos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5-3
Blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3.5
Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2.5
Cement (mills) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5-2 0
Cement (conveying and packing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2.5 O.
Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2.5
Ck
Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2.5
Feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5-3
Graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5-2
Grinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3.5 G
Gypsum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2.5
Lampblack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5-2
Limestone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2.5
Rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2.5
Salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5-3
Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3.5 o Ip eilID J
Silica Flour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 5
Soap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2.5
Soapstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2.5
Talc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wood Flour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-2.5
2-2.5
H
Ratio is the volume in cubic feet per minute of dust-laden air
to each square foot of active cloth area. If grain loadin~ is
above normal, ratios must be reduced.
Figure 4-68. Typical blower intake filter-silencer. Air to blower leaves
*By oermission, Bulletin 104 The W. W. Sly Mfg. Co., Clev,'- through pipe connection, which may be screwed or flanged. Cour-
land, Ohio tesy of Dollinger Corp.
276 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Figure 4-69. Pleated radial-fan filter cartridge. Filtration is from out-

side to inside. Courtesy of Dollinger Corp.

Figure 4-71. Cluster of filter cartridges in a single chamber. Courtesy

of Filterite Corp.

Figure 4-70. Wound filter tube on stainless steel core. Courtesy ot

FUterite Corp.

solids from gases or liquids. Table 4-14 presents represen-

tative physical property and application data for the more
commonly used filter media. These media may be in fila-
ment, fiber, or "felt" form and arranged by weaving tech-
niques to control the pore or free spaces to specific size
for removal of various sizes of particles. The particle size
retention listed in the table ranges from 0.006 micron to
over 100 micron. A micron is often termed "micrometer"
or a millionth of a meter, using symbol ~m.

Filter cartridges as illustrated are considered "throw-

away" and are r e m o v e d from service when the pressure
drop builds up to a p r e d e t e r m i n e d value, or when the Figure 4-72. Cartridge-type filter-pleated membrane. Courtesy of
effluent changes color or becomes opaque with suspend- Gelman Instrument Co.
 Mechanical Separations 277

some applications, actual testing in the plant using plant

fluid streams can be the most conclusive. This plant test-
ing is not necessary for every situation because the manu-
facturer has large data files to often aid in a good selec-
tion. Generally the ability to collect solids at low flow rates
is greater for the wound filter.
Because the suspended particles are "captured" by dif-
ferent physical mechanisms depending on the particle
size, shape, density, and concentration, all cartridges do
not perform the same. The "capture" may be by (1) direct
interception, (2) sieving, and/or (3) bridging [39]. (See
Figure 4-75.) The cartridges from one manufacturer are
generally consistent in performance; however, all car-
tridges from just any manufacturer may not be inter-
changeable in performance.
The micron ratings of a cartridge are intended to indi-
cate the smallest particle that will be retained by the pores
of the filter element. Often a "rough-cut" pre-filter is
installed ahead of a final or "polishing" filter in order to
increase the life of the final unit. Unfortunately, the
m e t h o d for determining the micron rating is not a uni-
versal standard between manufacturers. Thus, one manu-
facturer's "50 micron" filter may not perform the same as
This three-dimensional cutaway drawing Illustrates the another manufacturer's with the same rating number.
filtering operation of the GAF| filter-bag pressure filter The only reliable approach is to send the manufacturer
system, showing the flow patterns of unfiltered liquid
through a preselected micronrated felt filter bag which an actual sample of the fluid and let him test it to select
renders the desired quality of filtered product. the filter to do your job, or actually test the unit in your
plant's field application [37].
Figure 4-73. Flow scheme for GAF filter-bag pressure filter system
for liquids. Courtesy of GAF Corporation, Chemical Group, Green- An important feature of these cartridge units is the
wich, Conn. mechanism for assembling one or more in the housing.
The t o p / b o t t o m sealing mechanisms determine what
style of cartridge is required (open both ends, open one
ed material breaking through. The flow in most applica-
end) and the m e t h o d of pressure loading/sealing each
tions is from outside cartridge to inside and into the hol-
cartridge into its bracket in the housing. The housing may
low metal or plastic collection tubes. It then flows into the
hold one or 40 cartridges, and the assembly inside to pre-
outlet pipe to the process. Materials for these cartridges
vent leakage and cross-contamination is essential to good
are most commonly selected from cellulose, glass fibers,
performance as a filtering device. The housings can be
polypropylene (woven and non-woven) fibers, or
made of various metals (carbon steel, stainless, alloy) or
monofilaments, molded resins, ceramics, or resin-impreg-
plastic-lined steel using corrosion resistant polymers, or
nated fiberglass. The last three are termed "depth" filters,
elastomers, or solid plastic.
as they can hold a large a m o u n t of solids before the pres-
sure drop builds up excessively. "Surface" filters are usu- The cartridges can be selected to be useful over the
ally made of paper, non-woven fabrics, or cast membranes range of low to high viscosities, that is, 100,000 cp with
and are usually pleated to provide more working surface temperature ranges to 750~ at higher pressure of up to
area. This type is fabricated from sheets of porous non- 3,000 psi [38]. Usually for the average application, the
woven fabric often used for the absolute capture of sub- concentration of the suspended solids is not over 100
micron particles and has a sharp cutoff in particle size ppm, but can be higher. These units do not perforr well
retention [37]. Yarn wound filters often have a graded- with pressure pulsations or surges in the system. Note the
density or decreasing pore size structure. differences in expected performance of Figure 4-76
between a pleated cartridge. This does not necessarily
To aid in selection of the most probable successful fil- mean that all cartridges perform in this manner, but these
ter media for the service, the summaries of Table 4-12A are typical of expected performance curves. When exam-
and Table 4-12B can be a useful guide [38]; however, for ining particle retention ratings, examine Reference [39].
 Mechanical Separations 279

9 "~I~
IT L ,

A. Direct Interception B. Sieving c. Bedging

Figure 4-75. "Capture" mechanism for cartridge filters. Adapted by permission after Shucosky, A. C., Chemical Engineering, V. 95, No. 1,1988,
p. 72.

100
pressure drop or lower the holding capacity. In normal
90 operation, the pressure drop initially is quite low, perhaps
8O
1 to 3 psig depending on flow rate, but as the solids build
Wound c~.............~ ......... / up, the pressure drop will rise to 10 to 35 psig, in which
70 range most companies recommend replacement.
rc 60 ,/ ../ ,,, =: These replaceable cartridges or packs are the most
..,,.
O
~E 50
commonly used; however, there are cartridges of wire
O

40
/ =;. mesh, sintered or porous metal which can be removed,
cleaned, and replaced. Usually, the fine pores of the metal
E
~: 30
become progressively plugged and the cartridges lose
capacity. They are often used for filtering hot fluids, or
20 - - ~ 7 .............................
polymers with suspended particles, pharmaceuticals, and
foods (liquids). In the case of polymers and other appli-
10
/- . . . . . .
cations a special solvent and blow-back cleaning system
0 5 10 15 20 25 may be employed.
Particle size, micrometers The small cartridge units can be conveniently placed
ahead of instruments, close-clearanced pumps, or a
Figure 4-76. Pleated and wound cartridges differ in removal-effi-
ciency profile. By permission, Shucosky, A. C., Chemical Engineer-
process to remove last indications of impurities in sus-
ing, V. 95, No. 1, 1988, p. 72. pension.
Other useful cartridges are:

Note: (a) Designations for both nominal and absolute

1. woven stainless steel (or other wire) wire screen
ratings are based on the measure of a particle
mesh, Figure 4-77A and Figure 4-78
size, n o t a pore size. (b) Ratings are based on
2. wire wound, Figure 4-77A
arbitrary laboratory tests by the filter manufac-
turer and can vary in actual plant conditions as 3. sintered metal, Figure 4-77B
previously discussed.
The woven wire mesh type are formed to control the
For some critical applications (such as polymer melt, open space between the wires, thereby limiting the maxi-
beverage, or pharmaceutical filtration), it may be impor- mum size particle that can pass through. The cartridge is
tant to avoid cartridges that have a "nap" or "fuzz" on the installed in cases or small vessels to facilitate quick
fiber used, because these extremely fine fibers tend to replacement, or they can be arranged for backwash by use
break off and drift through the cartridge and go out with of proper piping connections. The wire wound units have
the finished product, thereby creating a visual acceptance consistent spaces for uniform particle size filtering.
problem, if not outright contamination. The sintered metal units have uniform permeability
with void spaces approximately 50% by volume for some
In actual practice some companies have cartridges that metals and manufacturing techniques. The pore sizes can
will remove to 0.25 micrometer. Of course, the smaller the be graded to remove particles from 1 micron to 20
particle size that is specified to be removed from the microns for liquids and smaller sizes when used in
vapor or liquid, the higher will normally be the ultimate gaseous systems. (See Figure 4-77B.)
280 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

Figure 4-77B. Porous sintered metal filter elements. By permission,

Figure 4-77A. Woven wire mesh filter cartridges. By permission,
Pall Process Filtration Co.
AMF Corp., Cuno Div., Catalog MP-20.1.

lic unit; therefore, the economics involving the life

Metals usually used are stainless steel, nickel, monel,
inconel, high nickel alloys, and special designs for unique span of each unit should be examined.
services.
Electrical Precipitators
The pressure drops for these units are typically low,
ranging from 0.2 to 10-15 psi. T h e woven wire mesh The electrical precipitator is a dry dust or liquid mist
runs even lower in pressure drops for the same or larg- removal unit which utilizes the ionization of the process
er flow rates. Consult the m a n u f a c t u r e r s for specific gas (usually air) to impart electrical charges on the sus-
application data. p e n d e d entrained particles and effect particle collection
by attraction to an oppositely charged plate or pipe. This
With some types of particles the porous metal tends type of unit is in use in services which are difficult for
to plug, but they can usually be backwashed or washed other types of entrainment removal equipment. Figures 4-
with a solvent or acid/alkali to remove the particles 70, 4-80, and 4-81 illustrate the usual fundamental action
from within the metal pores. This is one reason why of these units.
m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s testing or plant testing can be impor- For these units the usual particle size for removal is
tant to the p r o p e r selection. O n c e the internal plug- greater than 2 microns with a loading rate of greater
gage has r e a c h e d a point of r e d u c t i o n in flow-through than 0.1 g r a i n s / c u ft, with a collection efficiency of
capacity, it must be discarded. T h e actual cost of this 00%_+. The pressure d r o p is very low for a range of gas
type of cartridge is several times that of the non-metal- velocity t h r o u g h the unit of 100-600 f t / m i n [40].
 Mechanical Separations 281

Figure 4-81. Electrical precipitator principle of operation. Courtesy

of Sturtevant Div. Westinghouse Electric Corp.
Figure 4-78. Tubular in-line pressure filter with reusable elements.
The flow: unfiltered liquid enters the inlet port, flows upward,
around, and through the media, which is a stainless steel or fabric Operating temperatures can be as high as 1000~ and
screen reinforced by a perforated stainless steel backing. Filtered above [41 ].
liquid discharges through the outlet (top) port. Because of outside-
to-inside flow path, solids collect on the outside of the element so
To improve the efficiency of collection, several units
screens are easy to clean. By permission, Ronningen-Petter ~ Engi- can be installed in series. The plate type unit is the
neered Filter Systems, Bulletin RP-2. most common design for dry dust removal, while pipe
design is mainly for removal of liquid or sludge parti-
Collector Plate,
v/ //////#/
,../Charged (-), Grounded
# 9 .. 9 9 i
cles and volatilized fumes. The plates/pipes are the col-
".../," 1-1__..I / lecting electrodes, with the discharge electrodes sus-
pended between the plates or suspended in the pipes
9 -= / (.t-) PositivePlate X ~ C o l l e c t e d
9 /" (+) Velocity(V) ~Porticles [41,53,57].
9 /
In operation, the voltage difference between the dis-
"/ . P>t,tttztt/t#!s., charge and collecting electrodes sets up a strong electri-
(+) C h a r g e d / ~",,,Collector Plate,
Particles (-) cal field between them [63]. The "dirty" gas with particles
passes through this field, and the gas ions from the dis-
Figure 4-79. Charging particles in electrostatic precipitator. By per-
mission, adapted after A. Nutting, American Air Filter Co. charge electrode attach to the suspended "dirty" particles,
giving them a negative charge. The charged particles are
Electrode (-) then attracted to the positively charged collecting elec-
(+) Ion Path - ~ ~
/I ~
,•Grounded •
A~----(+) Charged Particles
I "~ --e.
,.---~
trode, discharging their charge on contact, becoming
I; Ul 9 electrically inert.
I I I , 9
, _ ~ f f . - _ . . . . . . . . . .
,3 /_7 . | Gas riow tnrougn Collected liquids flow down the pipes and drain to a
,I~/~ " " . ~ Charged Field
Positive Electrode i . |~ ) . . . . . . . collection sump. Collected solids are washed off the
i I ,I 9 9 ~ :)uspenaeo vorTicles
I Ii . " ) Charged(+). plates with water or other liquid. Sometimes the
~'x~/s~i ." 9 .
" --.-- dust/solids can be removed by mechanically vibrating
[~Gr0unded Electr0de(-) or knocking on the plates while the particles are dry.
Figure 4-80. Particle collection. By permission, Nutting, A., Ameri- The electrical power of the precipitator is applied only
can Air Filter Co. (text continued on page 284)
 Mechanical Separations 283

~ g

9 gog
t"-

%qo. -

6",1

%%. . . . .

"

~o.ooO
~ oop
' ;> ~
t
~ "
~
'
"v~
'
9

~4r
~o qCl.oqe ' [ ' '

I ' '

9 ~'~
i
i

~a ~ m

, , , , ,

, , o !

o~ ~ o~ o ~ o N g o~ . o. ,~ o N g o~ .
9.,o~.olt.o
" 7 9 ~

"
~

~ d
i , , , ,,

~og g~. T~7 gog <o

r N go~ ~oo N o~

~a < oo~ E om m o E g om
284 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

(text continuedfrom page 281)

F t = Total flow rate of both phases, GPM
to t h e p a r t i c l e s c o l l e c t e d , t h e r e b y a l l o w i n g f o r l a r g e vol- g = gc = gL = Acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/(sec)(sec)
u m e s o f gas to b e h a n d l e d with v e r y low p r e s s u r e d r o p . h = Distance from center to given chord of a ves-
For corrosive g a s e s / l i q u i d particles, c o r r o s i o n resistant sel, ft
h b = Height of continuous aqueous phase in the
metals can be used for construction.
bottom of the vessel, in.
T h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e u n i t involves t h e gas c h a r a c - hc = Height of a segment of a circle, in.
teristics, analysis, velocity, flow rate, d u s t o r l i q u i d p a r t i c l e h t - Height of continuous hydrocarbon phase in
size a n d analysis, resistivity a n d r e q u i r e d final p a r t i c l e effi- the top of the vessel, in.
c i e n c y o f r e m o v a l . S o m e p a r t i c l e m a t e r i a l s o f h i g h electri- hvi = Cyclone inlet velocity head, in. water
H = Height of a segment of a circle, ft
cal resistivity p r e v e n t p r o p e r e l e c t r i c a l o p e r a t i o n .
H~ = Height of rectangular cyclone inlet duct, ft
T a b l e 4-15 i l l u s t r a t e s s o m e i n d u s t r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f HB = Height of dispersion band, ft
e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r s ; h o w e v e r , it is n o t i n t e n d e d to I = Width of interface, ft
b e all inclusive. k = K = Empirical proportionally constant for cyclone
pressure drop or friction loss, dimensionless
Nomenclature K' = Constant for stationary vane separators, based
on design
Krn = Stokes-Cunningham correction factor, dimen-
a = Specific surface area, sq f t / c u ft
sionless
ae = Acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 f t / / s 2 o r 9.8 m / s 2
Kme = Proportionality factor in Stokes-Cunningham
A = Area of segment of a circle, sq ft
correction factor, dimensionless
or, A = Cross-sectional flow area, sq ft
k = Constant for wire mesh separators
Ab = Cross-sectional area at bottom of vessel occu-
1 = Wire mesh thickness, ft
pied by continuous aqueous phase, sq ft
A~ = Cyclone inlet area = WiH~ for cyclone with L = Length of vessel from hydrocarbon inlet to
rectangular inlet, sq ft hydrocarbon outlet, or length of decanter, ft
AI = Area of interface, assumes flat horizontal, sq ft L1 = Liquid entering Webre separator, lbs per minute
AH = Cross-sectional area allocated to heavy phase, per square foot of inlet pipe cross-section
sq ft Lv = E n t r a i n m e n t from Webre unit, lb liquid per
AL = Cross-sectional area allocated to light phase, sq ft minute per square foot of inlet pipe cross
Ap = Area of particle projected on plane n o r m a l to section
direction of flow or motion, sq ft m -- E x p o n e n t given by equations
At = Cross-sectional area at top of vessel occupied mp -- Mass of particle, lb mass
by continuous hydrocarbon phase, sq ft n = Constant given in table
ACFS = Actual flow at conditions, cu ft/sec Nge = Reynolds number, dimensionless (use
ba = Constant given in table or (Re) consistent units)
c = Volume fraction solids N t = N u m b e r of turns made by gas stream in a
C = Overall drag coefficient, dimensionless cyclone separator
D = Diameter of vessel, ft AP = Pressure drop, lbs/sq in.
D b = See Dp, min Ap = Pressure drop, in. water
Dc = Cyclone diameter, ft ApD = Pressure drop, no entrainment, in. water
D e -- Cyclone gas exit duct diameter, ft ApE = Pressure drop due to liquid load, in. water
DH = Hydraulic diameter, ft = 4 (flow area for phase ApT = Pressure drop, total across wet pad, in. water
in q u e s t i o n / w e t t e d perimeter); also, DH in O__
m = Dispensed phase volumetric flow rate, cu
decanter design represents diameter for heavy ft/sec
phase, ft QH = Volumetric flow rate, heavy phase, cu ft/sec
DE = Diameter for light phase, ft O__.L= Volumetric flow rate, light phase, cu ft/sec
Dp = Diameter of particle, ft or equivalent diameter r = Vessel radius, ft
of spherical particle, ft SpGr = Specific gravity of continuous phase at flow
Dp_min -- Minimum diameter of particle that is com- conditions
pletely collected, ft SpGrp = Specific gravity of settling particle at flow con-
D'p = Diameter of particle, in. or m m ditions
d = Droplet diameter, ft ASpGr = Difference in specific gravity of the particle
f = Factor relating average velocity to m a x i m u m and the s u r r o u n d i n g fluid
velocity tavg = Average residence time based on liquid flow
f~ = Friction factor, dimensionless rate and vessel volume, min
F = Flow rate of one phase, GPM t m i n ---- Minimum residence time to allow particles to
Faq -- Aqueous phase flow rate, GPM settle based on Stokes Law, min
Fev = Cyclone friction loss, expressed as n u m b e r of u = Relative velocity between particle and main
cyclone inlet velocity heads, based on Ac body of fluid, ft/sec
Fd = Drag or resistance to motion of body in fluid, ut = Terminal settling velocity d e t e r m i n e d by
poundals Stokes Law, of particle u n d e r action of gravity,
Fhc = Hydrocarbon phase flow rate, GPM ft/sec
 Mechanical Separations 285

Uts "- Terminal settling velocity as calculated from Greek Symbols

Stokes Law, ft/sec
v = Vt = Terminal settling velocity, i n . / m i n 8 = Void fraction of wire mesh, dimensionless
Va = Average velocity of gas, ft/sec I"1 = Fraction of dispersoid in swept volume collect-
Vag - - Terminal settling velocity of hydrocarbon
ed on target
droplets in aqueous phase in bottom of vessel, 0 = Factor for establishing type of flow for
in./min decanters, Reference [32]
t.t = Viscosity of surrounding fluid, cp, except
Vc = Velocity down flow channel for continuous
where it is lb/(ft-sec)
phase, ft/sec
btc = Viscosity of continuous phase, lb/(ft)(sec)
Vd = Terminal settling velocity of a droplet, ft/sec ~H - - Viscosity of heavy phase, lb/(ft) (sec)
Vhc = Terminal settling velocity of aqueous droplets /.tv = Viscosity of fluid, cp
in hydrocarbon phase in top of vessel, i n . / m i n ~L = Viscosity o f light phase, lb/fl sec
vt = Terminal settling velocity of particle u n d e r /.t = Fluid viscosity, (lb mass) / (ft) (sec) - cen-
action of gravity, ft/sec tipoise/1488
Vts = Terminal settling velocity of particle as calcu- /.tin - Milli-micron - 0.001 millimeter
lated from Stokes Law, ft/sec rt = 3.1416
V = Velocity of gas or vapor entering, f t / m i n 9 = Pd = Fluid density, or density of fluid in droplet, lb
V (separator) = Separator vapor velocity evaluated for the gas mass/cu ft
or vapor at flowing conditions, ft/sec 9c = Density of fluid continuous phase, lb/cu ft
Pf = Density of fluid, lb/ft ~ or k g / m ~
V' = Vapor velocity entering unit, lbs, per minute
9L = Liquid density, l b / c u ft
per square foot of inlet pipe cross section
9d = Density of fluid continuous phase, l b / c u ft
Va = Maximum allowable vapor velocity across inlet 9L = Density of light phase fluid, l b / c u ft
face of mesh calculated by relation, ft/sec
9p - Density of particle, l b / c u ft
g a c t =--- Actual operating superficial gas velocity, ft/sec 9s = Ps = True density of particle, lb mass/cu ft
or ft/min, for wire mesh pad 9v = Vapor density, l b / c u ft
VD = Design vapor velocity (or selected design
value), ft/sec
References
V~ = Cyclone inlet velocity, average, based on area
A~' ft/sec
1. Alden, J. L., Design of Industrial Exhaust Systems, 2nd Ed.
Vmax = Calculated maximum allowable superficial gas Industrial Press, 1940, New York, N. Y.
velocity, ft/sec, or f t / m i n wire mesh pad 2. Bulletin, Sales Book Sheet, DC-271, American Air Filter Co.,
Vs = Superficial gas velocity, ft/sec 1953, Louisville, Ky.
g s a - " Separator vapor velocity evaluated for air-water 3. Bulletin ME-9-58, Metex Mist Eliminators, Metal Textile
system, ft/sec Corp., 1958, Roselle, N.J.
g s e t =- Active volume of settler occupied by one of the 4. Carpenter, C. L., D. Ch.E. Dissertation, Polytechnic Institute
phases, cu ft of Brooklyn, 1951.
Vt = Settling velocity for single spherical particle, 5. Carpenter, C. L. and D. E Othmer, "Entrainment Removal By
ft/s or m / s a Wire Mesh Separator," A.I. Ch.E. Journal, Vol. 1, 1955, p. 549.
6. Chilton, T. H. and A. E Colburn, "Heat Transfer and Pres-
Vts = Settling velocity for hindered uniform spheri-
sure Drop in Empty Baffled and Packed Tubes," Part II,
cal particle, ft/s or m / s
"Pressure Drop in Packed Tubes," Trans. Am. Inst. Chem.
W i - Width of rectangular cone inlet duct, ft Engrs. 26, 178, 1931.
Zh = Heavy phase outlet dimensions of decanter 7. "Cyclone Dust Collectors," Engineering Report, American
measured from horizontal bottom, shown on Petroleum Institute, Division of Refining, 50 West 50th St.,
Figure 4-12 New York, N.Y.
zi = Interface of decanter liquids measured from 8. Engineering Manual, Centrifix Corporation, Cleveland, Ohio.
bottom, Figure 4-12 9. Friedlander, S. K., L. Silverman, E Drinker, and M. W. First,
Zl - Light phase outlet measured from bottom of Handbook on Air Cleaning Particulate Removal, United States
decanter, Figure 4-12 Atomic Energy Commission, 1952, Washington, D. C.
10. Kane, J o h n M., Operation, Application and Effectiveness of Dust
Collection Equipment, Heating and Ventilating, August 1952.
Subscripts 11. Kane, J o h n M., "Guideposts Tell How To Select Dust Col-
lecting Equipment," Plant Engineering, November 1954.
L, or 1 = Light phase 12. Montrose, C. E, "Entrainment Separation," Chem. Eng., Oct.
H, or h = Heavy phase 1953.
C, or c = Continuous phase 13. Perry, J o h n H., Ed. Chemical Engineer's Handbook, 3rd Ed.,
"Dust and Mist Collection"by C. E. Lapple, 1950, McGraw-
D, or d = Dispersed phase Hill Book Co., Inc.
1= Liquid 14. Pollak, A. and L. T. Work, "The Separation of Liquid from
v = vapor or gas Vapor, Using Cyclones," Am~ Soc. Mech. Engrs. 64, 1942, p. 31.
286 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants

15. Public Health Bulletin No. 217, The Determination and Control 42. Vandegrift, A. E., L. D. Shannon and E G. Gorman, "Con-
of Industrial Dust, U. S. Public Service, 1935. trolling Fine Particles," Chem. Eng./Deskbook, V. 80, No. 14,
16. Shepherd, C. B. and C. E. Lapple, "Flow Pattern and Pres- 1973, p. 107.
sure Drop in Cyclone Dust Collectors," Ind. Eng. Chem. 31, 43. Koch, W. H. and W. Licht, "New Design Approach Boasts
972, 1939. Cyclone Efficiency," Chem. Eng., Nov. 7, 1977, p. 80.
17. Sylvan, S., Range of Particle Sizes, Concentration and Collector 44. Zanker, A., "Hydrocyclones, Dimensions and Performance,"
Performance, The American Air Filter Co., 1952. Chem. Eng., V. 84, No. 70, 1977, p. 122.
18. ter Linden, A. J., Untersuchungen an Zyklonabscheidern, 45. Constantinescu, S., "Sizing Gas Cyclones," Chem. Eng., Feb.
Tonindustrie-Zeitung und Keramische Rundschau, Sonder- 20, 1984, p. 97.
ruck aus T1Z = Zbl. 77, (1953) Heft 34, Seite 49 bis 55. 46. Carpenter, C. R., "Calculate Settling Velocities for Unre-
19. ter Linden, A.J., Der Zyklon als Tropfenabscheider, Chemie- stricted Particles or Hindered Settling," Chem. Eng., V. 90,
Ing-Techn. January 25 (1953)/Nr. 6. No. 23, 1983, p. 227.
20. Van Dongen, J. R.J. and A. J. ter Linden, "The Application 47. Kraus, M. N., "Baghouses: Separating and Collecting Indus-
of Gas/Liquid Cyclones in Oil Refining," Paper 56-A-61, trial Dusts," Chem. Eng., V. 86, No. 8, 1979, p. 94.
Amer. Soc. Mech. Engrs., Presented at Petroleum Div., Nov. 48. Bergmann, L., "Baghouse Filter Fabrics," Chem. Eng., V. 88,
1956. No. 21, 1981, p. 177.
21. York, Otto H., "Performance of Wire Mesh Demisters," 49. Kraus, M. N., "Baghouses: Selecting, Specifying and Testing
Chem. Eng. Prog., August 1954. Industrial Dust Collectors," Chem. Eng., V. 86, April 23, 1979,
22. Seifert, J. A., "Selecting Thickeners and Clarifiers," Chem. p. 133.
Eng., V. 94, No. 14, 1987, p. 111. 50. Parkinson, G., "A Hot and Dirty Future for Baghouses,"
23. Perry, R. H. and D. Green, Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6th Chem. Eng., V. 96, No. 4, 1989, p. 30.
Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1984, p. 20-82, 5-67, 21-65, 5-66. 51. Doerschlag, C. and G. Miczek, "How to Choose a Cyclone
24. American Petroleum Institute, Manual on Disposal of Refinery Dust Collector," Chem. Eng., V. 84, No. 4, 1977, p. 64.
Wastes, Volume on Liquid Wastes, 1st Ed., API, Div. of Refining, 52. Fleximesh Design Manual, Koch Engineering Co., Inc.
New York, 1969. 53. Bump, R. L., "Electrostatic Precipitators in Industry," Chem.
25. Applegate, R., L. Gurnari and W. Willerdorf, "How to Select Eng., V. 84, No. 12, 1977, p. 129.
a Lamella Clarifier," Pollution Engineering, Jan. 1989, p. 112. 54. Thomson, S. L., "Data Improves Separator Design," Hydro-
26. Abernathy, M. W., "Design of Gravity Settlers," Encyclopedia of carbon Processing, V. 52, No. 10, 1973, p. 81.
Chemical Processing and Design, J. J. McKetta, Exec. Ed., M. 55. Beddow, J. K., "Dry Separation Techniques," Chem. Eng., V.
Dekker, Inc., Vol. 25, 1987, New York, p. 77. Also, Hydrocar- 88, Aug. 10, 1981, p. 69.
bon Processing, Sept. 1977, p. 199. 56. Svaroosky, L., "Sedimentation, Centrifugation and Flota-
27. Fitch, B., "Gravity Sedimentation Operations," Encyclopedia tion," Chem. Eng., V. 86, July 16, 1979, p. 93.
of Chemical Processing and Design, J. J. McKetta, Exec. Ed., M. 57. Jaasund, S. A., "Electrostatic Precipitators: Better Wet Than
Dekker, Inc., Vol. 25, 1987, New York, p. 1 Dry," Chem. Eng., V. 94, No. 17, 1987, p. 158.
28. Hooper, W. B. and L. J. Jacobs, Handbook of Separation Tech- 58. Waliulla, S., "Do-It-Yourself Vortex Breakers," Chem. Eng., V.
niques for Chemical Engineers, E A. Schweitzer, Ed. in Chief, 95, No. 7, p. 108.
McGraw-Hill, 1979, p. 1-345. 59. McNulty, I~ J., J. P. Monat and O. V. Hansen, "Performance
29. Happel, J. and D. Jordan, Chemical ProcessEconomics, 2nd Ed., of Commercial Chevron Mist Eliminators," Chem. Eng. Prog.,
Marcel Dekker, 1975, New York, p. 483. V. 83, No. 5, 1987, p. 48.
30. Happel, J., Chemical Process Economics, Wiley, 1958, p. 251. 60. Boothroyd, R. G., Flowing Gas-Solids Suspension, Chapman
31. Sigales, B., "How to Design Settling Drums," Chem. Eng., and Hall, 1971.
June 23, 1975, p. 141-144. 61. Miranda, J. G., "Designing Parallel-Plates Separators," Chem.
32. Schweitzer, P. A., Handbook of Separation Techniquesfor Chemi- Eng., V. 84, No. 3, 1977, p. 105.
cal Engineers, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1979, p. 1-346. 62. Reid, K.J. and Voller, V. R., "Reconciling Hydrocyclone Par-
33. Otto York Co., Bulletin, 55 B, Parsippany, N.J. ticle-Size Data," Chem. Eng., V. 90, No. 13, 1983, p. 43.
63. Van Wassen, R. H., Electrostatic Precipitators for Air Pollution
34. Sarma, H., "How to Size Gas Scrubbers," Hydrocarbon Process-
Control, Wheelabrator Air Pollution Control, Pittsburgh, Pa.
ing, V. 60, No. 9, p. 251.
64. Fair, J. R., "A Half-Century of Progress in Separations Tech-
35. Roberts, E.J., P. Stavenger, J. E Bowersox, A. K. Walton and
nology," Chemical Processing, Mid-March, 1988.
M. Mehta, "Solids Concentration," Chem. Eng., V. 77, No. 14,
65. Selker and Sleicher, Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering,
June 29, 1970.
V. 43, 1965, p. 298.
36. Toy, D. A. and E M. Bonady, "Guide to Wet Scrubbers,"
Chemical Processing, Oct. 1983, p. 47.
37. Lawton, D.J. and T. Constantino, "What Makes Cartridge Fil- Bibliography
ters Perform Effectively," Chemical Engineering Progress, V. 83,
No. 11, 1987, p. 20. Anonymous, "Hybrid Scrubber Cuts Costs," Chem. Engineering,
38. Michaels, S. L., "Crossflow Microfilters: The Ins and Outs," April 28, 1975, p. 66.
Chem. Eng., V. 96, No. 1, 1989, p. 84. Anonymous, "Particle Charging Aids Wet Scrubber's Sub-
39. Shucosky, A. C., "Select The Right Cartridge Filter," Chem. Micron Efficiency," Chem. Engineering, July 21, 1975, p. 74.
Eng., V. 95, No. 1, 1988, p. 72. Anonymous, "Wet Electrostatic Precipitator Tames Oils, Gases
40. Sargent, G. D., "Gas/Solids Separations," Chem. Eng.~Desk- and Fines," Chem. Engineering, July 23, 1973, p. 74.
book, V. 78, No. 4, 1971, p. 11. Brink, J. A. and J. D. Porthhouse, "Efficient Dust Control Via
41. Sickles, R. W., "Electrostatic Precipitators," Chem. Eng.~Desk- New Sampling Technique," Chem. Engineering, Mar. 10, 1969,
book, V. 75, No. 22, 1968. p. 106.
 Mechanical Separations 287

Brink, J. A. Jr., et al., "Removal of Mists from Compressed Gases," Gleason, T. G., "How to Avoid Scrubber Corrosion," Chem. Eng.
A.I.Ch.E. Sym. 58th Meeting, A.I.Ch.E., Dallas, Texas, Feb. 1966. Prog., V. 17, No. 3, 1975, p. 43.
Buonicore, A.J., "Monte Carlo Simulation to Predict Collection Lammers, G. C., "Venturi Scrubber Scaleup," Chem. Eng., V. 89,
Efficiencies of Centrifugal Separators," 74th A.I.Ch.E. Meet- No. 15, 1982, p. 80.
ing, New Orleans, La., March 1973. Hanf, E. B., "Entrainment Separator Design," Chem. Eng. Prog.,
Coopey, W., "Boosting Separator Efficiency," Chem. Engineering, V. 67, No. 11, 1971, p. 54.
Feb. 5, 1962, p. 118.
Zanker, A., "Shortcut Technique Gives Size Distribution on
Cross, Frank L. Jr., "Baghouse Filtration of Air Pollutants," Pol- Comminuted Solids," Chem. Eng., V. 85, No. 10, 1978, p. 101.
lution Engineering, Feb. 1974, p. 25.
Davis,J. C., "Scrubber-Design Spinoffs from Power-Plant Units?," Chen, N. H., "Liquid-Solid Filtration: Generalized Design and
Chem. Engineering, Dec. 11, 1972, p. 48. Optimization Equations," Chem. Eng., July 31, 1978, p. 97.
Dollinger, Louis L. Jr., "How to Specify Filters," Hydrocarbon Pro- Moir, D. N., "Selecting Batch Pressure Filters," Chem. Eng., V. 89,
cessing, Oct. 1969, p. 88. No. 15, 1982, p. 45.
Gilbert, W., "Selecting Materials For Wet Scrubbing Systems," Rymarz, T. M. and Klipstein, D. H., "Removing Particulates from
Pollution Engineering, Aug. 1973, p. 28. Gases," Chem. Eng., Oct. 6, 1975, p. 113.
Gondo, S. and K. Kusunoki, "A New Look at Gravity Settlers," Beranek, J. and Sokol, D., "The Calculation of Terminal Veloci-
Hydrocarbon Processing, Sept. 1969, p. 209. ties," British Chemical Engineering, July 1959, p. 414.
Peters, J. M., "Predicting Efficiency of Fine-Particle Collectors," Laurence, L. L., "Foaming Crudes Require Special Separation
Chem. Engineering, April 16, 1973, p. 99. Techniques," World Oil, Nov. 1981, p. 103.
Rao, K. N. and T. C. Rao, "Estimating Hydrocyclone Efficiency," Heumann, W. L., "Cyclone Separators: A Family Affair," Chem.
Chem. Engineering, May 26, 1975, p. 121. Eng., V. 98, No. 5, 1991, p. 118.
Rymarz, T. M., "How to Specify Pulse-Jet Filters," Chem. Engineer- Mills, S. S., "Oil Removal from Condensate," Chem. Eng., V. 94,
ing, March 31, 1975, p. 97. No. 2, 1987, p. 179.
Rymarz, T. M. and D. H. Klipstein, "Removing Particulates from Larocca, M., "Reactor Particle Size Calculations," Chem. Eng., V.
Gases," Chem. Engineering, Oct. 6, 1975, p. 113. 94, No. 3, 1987, p. 73.
Sargent, G. D., "Dust Collection Equipment," Chem. Engineering,
Jan. 27, 1969, p. 130. Ernst, M., Talcott, R. M., Romans, H. C., and Smith, G. R. S.,
"Tackle Solid-Liquid Separation Problems," Chem. Eng. Prog.,
Schneider, G. G., et al., "Selecting and Specifying Electrostatic
V. 87, No. 7, 1991.
Precipitators," Chem. Engineering, May 26, 1975, p. 94.
Tallmadge, J. A. and C. Guffinger, "Entrainment of Liquid Films, Ballard, D. and von Phul, S. A. "Cut Filtration Costs by 80%,"
Drainage, Withdrawal and Removal," Ind. and Engineering Chem. Eng. Prog., V. 87, No. 5, 1991.
Chem., 59, 11, 1967, p. 19. Sadler, L. Y. and Sim, K. G. "Minimize Solid-Liquid Mixture Vis-
Vandenhoeck, E, "Cooling Hot Gases Before Baghouse Filtra- cosity by Optimizing Particle Size Distribution," Chem. Eng.
tion," Chem. Engineering, May 1, 1972, p. 67. Prog., V. 87, No. 3, 1991.
Walling, J. C., "Ins and Outs of Gas Filter Bags," Chem. Engineer- Heumann, W. L., "Cyclone Separators: a Family Affair," Chem.
ing, Oct. 19, 1970, p. 162. Eng., V. 98, No. 6, 1991.
Watkins, R. N., "Sizing Separators and Accumulators," Hydrocar- Clark, J. G., "Select the Right Fabric for Liquid-Solid Separa-
bon Processing, V. 46, No. 11, 1967, p. 253. tion," Chem. Eng. Prog., V. 86, No. 11, 1990.
Lieberman, N. E, "Refinery Feedstock Cleanup Woes Fall Into Gregg, W. and Griffin, J. W. "Baghouses Control Particulate Pol-
Six Major Categories," Oil and GasJournal, Jan. 14, 1980, p. 97. lution," Pollution Eng., V. 23, No. 4, 1991.