Waves, the Wave Equation, and Phase

Velocity
f(x) f(x-2)
What is a wave?
f(x-1) f(x-3)
Forward [f(x-vt)] and
backward [f(x+vt)]
propagating waves

The one-dimensional wave equation

Wavelength, frequency, period, etc.

0 1 2 3 x
Phase velocity Complex numbers

Plane waves and laser beams Boundary conditions

Div, grad, curl, etc., and the 3D Wave equation

Source: Trebino, Georgia Tech
What is a wave?
A wave is anything that moves.
To displace any function f(x) to the
right, just change its argument from
x to x-a, where a is a positive
number.
f(x) f(x-2)
If we let a = v t, where v is positive
f(x-1) f(x-3)
and t is time, then the displacement
will increase with time.
So f(x - v t) represents a rightward,
or forward, propagating wave.
Similarly, f(x + v t) represents a
leftward, or backward, propagating
wave.
0 1 2 3 x
v will be the velocity of the wave.
The one-dimensional wave equation

The one-dimensional wave equation for scalar (i.e., non-vector)

functions, f:

∂2 f 1 ∂2 f
− =
0
∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2

where v will be the velocity of the wave.

The wave equation has the simple solution:

f ( x=
, t ) f ( x ± vt )

where f (u) can be any twice-differentiable function.

Proof that f (x ± vt) solves the wave equation

Write f (x ± vt) as f (u), where u = x ± vt. So ∂u = 1 and

∂u
= ±v
∂x ∂t

∂f ∂f ∂ u ∂f ∂f ∂u
Now, use the chain rule: = =
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂t ∂u ∂t

∂f ∂f ∂2 f ∂2 f ∂f ∂f ∂2 f 2 ∂ f
2

So = ⇒ = 2 and = ±v ⇒ =v
∂x ∂u ∂x 2
∂u ∂t ∂u ∂t 2
∂u 2

Substituting into the wave equation:

∂2 f 1 ∂2 f ∂2 f 1  2 ∂2 f 
− 2 2 = 2 − 2 v 2 
=0
∂x 2
v ∂t ∂u v  ∂u 
The 1D wave equation for light waves

∂2 E ∂2 E where E is the
− µε 2 = 0 light electric field
∂x 2
∂t

We’ll use cosine- and sine-wave solutions:

E (=
x, t ) B cos[k ( x ± vt )] + C sin[k ( x ± vt )]

or kx ± (kv)t

, t ) B cos(kx ± ω t ) + C sin(kx ± ω t )
E ( x=

where: ω 1 The speed of light in

= =
v vacuum, usually called
k µε “c”, is 3 x 1010 cm/s.
A simpler equation for a harmonic wave:
E(x,t) = A cos[(kx – ωt) – θ]
Use the trigonometric identity:

cos(z–y) = cos(z) cos(y) + sin(z) sin(y)

where z = k x – ω t and y = θ to obtain:

E(x,t) = A cos(kx – ωt) cos(θ) + A sin(kx – ωt) sin(θ)

which is the same result as before,

For simplicity, we’ll
, t ) B cos(kx − ω t ) + C sin(kx − ω t )
E ( x= just use the forward-
propagating wave.

as long as:
A cos(θ) = B and A sin(θ) = C
Definitions: Amplitude and Absolute phase

E(x,t) = A cos[(k x – ω t ) – θ ]

A = Amplitude
θ = Absolute phase (or initial phase)

kx
Definitions

Spatial quantities:

Temporal quantities:
The Phase Velocity

How fast is the wave traveling?

Velocity is a reference distance

divided by a reference time.

The phase velocity is the wavelength / period: v = λ / τ

Since ν = 1/τ :
v=λv

In terms of the k-vector, k = 2π / λ, and

the angular frequency, ω = 2π / τ, this is: v =ω/k
The Phase of a Wave
The phase is everything inside the cosine.

E(x,t) = A cos(ϕ), where ϕ = k x – ω t – θ

ϕ = ϕ(x,y,z,t) and is not a constant, like θ !

In terms of the phase,

ω = – ∂ϕ /∂t

k = ∂ϕ /∂x
And
– ∂ϕ /∂t This formula is useful
v = ––––––– when the wave is
∂ϕ /∂x really complicated.
 Tacoma Narrows Bridge
Animation: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3mclp9QmCGs

1. The animation shows the Tacoma Narrows Bridge shortly before its collapse.
What is its frequency?
A .1 Hz
B .25 Hz
C .50 Hz
D 1 Hz
2. The distance between the bridge towers (nodes) was about 860 meters
and there was also a midway node. What was the wavelength of the standing
torsional wave?
A 1720 m
B 860 m
C 430 m
D There is no way to tell.

3. What is the amplitude?

A 0.4 m
B 4m
C 8m
D 16 m
Complex numbers
Consider a point,
P = (x,y), on a 2D
Cartesian grid.

Let the x-coordinate be the real part

and the y-coordinate the imaginary part
of a complex number.

So, instead of using an ordered pair, (x,y), we write:

P = x+iy
= A cos(ϕ) + i A sin(ϕ)

where i = (-1)1/2
Euler's Formula

exp(iϕ) = cos(ϕ) + i sin(ϕ)

so the point, P = A cos(ϕ) + i A sin(ϕ), can be written:

P = A exp(iϕ)

where
A = Amplitude

ϕ = Phase
Proof of Euler's Formula exp(iϕ) = cos(ϕ) + i sin(ϕ)
x x2 x3
Use Taylor Series: f ( x) =f (0) + f '(0) + f ''(0) + f '''(0) + ...
1! 2! 3!

x x 2 x3 x 4
exp( x) =+
1 + + + + ...
1! 2! 3! 4!
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8
cos( x) =−
1 + − + + ...
2! 4! 6! 8!
x x3 x5 x 7 x9
sin( x) = − + − + + ...
1! 3! 5! 7! 9!

If we substitute x = iϕ iϕ ϕ 2 iϕ 3 ϕ 4
exp(iϕ ) =+
1 − − + + ...
into exp(x), then: 1! 2! 3! 4!
 ϕ2 ϕ4  ϕ ϕ 3 
=1 − + + ... + i  − + ...
 2! 4!   1! 3! 
= cos(ϕ ) + i sin(ϕ )
Complex number theorems
=
If exp(iϕ ) cos(ϕ ) + i sin(ϕ )

exp(iπ ) = −1
exp(iπ / 2) = i
=
exp(- iϕ ) cos(ϕ ) − i sin(ϕ )
1
=
cos( ϕ) [exp(iϕ ) + exp(−iϕ )]
2
1
=
sin(ϕ) [exp(iϕ ) − exp(−iϕ )]
2i
A1exp(iϕ1 ) × A2 exp(iϕ 2 )= A1 A2 exp [i (ϕ1 + ϕ 2 ) ]
A1exp(iϕ=
1 ) / A2 exp(iϕ 2 ) A1 / A2 exp [i (ϕ1 − ϕ 2 ) ]
More complex number theorems
Any complex number, z, can be written:

z = Re{ z } + i Im{ z }
So
Re{ z } = 1/2 ( z + z* )
and
Im{ z } = 1/2i ( z – z* )

where z* is the complex conjugate of z ( i → –i )

The "magnitude," | z |, of a complex number is:

| z |2 = z z* = Re{ z }2 + Im{ z }2

To convert z into polar form, A exp(iϕ):

A2 = Re{ z }2 + Im{ z }2

tan(ϕ) = Im{ z } / Re{ z }

We can also differentiate exp(ikx) as if
the argument were real.

d
exp(ikx) = ik exp(ikx)
dx

Proof :
d
[cos(kx) + i sin(kx)] =
−k sin(kx) + ik cos(kx )
dx
 1 
=
ik  − sin(kx) + cos(kx) 
 i 

− 1/ i i, so := ik [i sin(kx) + cos(kx) ]
But =
Waves using complex numbers
The electric field of a light wave can be written:

E(x,t) = A cos(kx – ωt – θ)

Since exp(iϕ) = cos(ϕ) + i sin(ϕ), E(x,t) can also be written:

E(x,t) = Re { A exp[i(kx – ωt – θ)] } We often

write these
expressions
or without the
E(x,t) = 1/2 A exp[i(kx – ωt – θ)] + c.c. ½, Re, or
+c.c.

where "+ c.c." means "plus the complex conjugate of everything

before the plus sign."
Waves using complex amplitudes
We can let the amplitude be complex:

=
E ( x, t ) A exp i ( kx − ω t − θ )
{ }
E ( x, t ) = { A exp(−iθ )} exp i ( kx − ω t ) 

where we've separated the constant stuff from the rapidly changing stuff.

The resulting "complex amplitude" is:

E0 = A exp(−iθ ) ← (note the " ~ ")


E ( x, t ) E0 exp i ( kx − ω t )
So: As written, this entire
=
  field is complex!

How do you know if E0 is real or complex?

Sometimes people use the "~", but not always.

So always assume it's complex.
Complex numbers simplify waves!
Adding waves of the same frequency, but different initial phase,
yields a wave of the same frequency.

This isn't so obvious using trigonometric functions, but it's easy

with complex exponentials:

( x, t ) E1 exp i (kx − ω t ) + E2 exp i (kx − ω t ) + E3 exp i (kx − ω t )

Etot=
   
= ( E1 + E2 + E3 ) exp i (kx − ω t )
  
where all initial phases are lumped into E1, E2, and E3.
E0 exp[i (kx − ω t )] is called a plane wave.

A plane wave’s contours of maximum field, called wave-fronts or
phase-fronts, are planes. They extend over all space.

Wave-fronts A wave's wave-

are helpful fronts sweep
for drawing along at the
pictures of speed of light.
interfering
waves.

A plane wave's wave-fronts are equally

spaced, a wavelength apart.
Usually, we just
They're perpendicular to the propagation draw lines; it’s
direction. easier.
Localized waves in space:
beams
A plane wave has flat wave-fronts throughout
all space. It also has infinite energy.
It doesn’t exist in reality.

Real waves are more localized. We can approximate a realistic wave

as a plane wave vs. z times a Gaussian in x and y:

 x2 + y 2 
E ( x, y, z , t ) = E0 exp  −  exp[i (kz − ω t )]
  
2
w 

exp(-x2) z
w
y

x Localized wave-fronts Laser beam

x spot on wall
 exp(-t2)
Localized waves in time:
pulses
t
If we can localize the E
beam in space by
multiplying by a
Gaussian in x and y, we
can also localize it in
time by multiplying by a t
Gaussian in time.

 t2   x2 + y 2 
E ( x, y, z , t ) = E0 exp  − 2  exp  −  exp[i (kz − ω t )]
   τ 
2
 w 

This is the equation for a laser pulse.

Longitudinal vs. Transverse waves

Motion is along the

Longitudinal: direction of propagation—
longitudinal polarization

Motion is transverse to the

Transverse: direction of propagation—
transverse polarization

Space has 3 dimensions, of which 2 are transverse to the

propagation direction, so there are 2 transverse waves in addition
to the potential longitudinal one.
The direction of the wave’s variations is called its polarization.
Vector fields
Light is a 3D vector field.
 
A 3D vector field f (r )
assigns a 3D vector (i.e., an
arrow having both direction
and length) to each point in
3D space. Wind patterns: 2D vector field

A light wave has both electric and magnetic 3D vector fields:

And it can propagate in any direction.

Div, Grad, Curl, and all that

Types of 3D vector derivatives:

  ∂ ∂ ∂
The Del operator: ∇ ≡  , , 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

The Gradient of a scalar function f :

Div, Grad, Curl, and All That:
An Informal Text on Vector

  ∂f ∂f ∂f 
Calculus , by Schey

∇f ≡  , , 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  If you want to
know more about
vector calculus,
The gradient points in the direction of steepest ascent. read this book!
Div, Grad, Curl, and all that

The Divergence of a vector function:

  ∂f x ∂f y ∂f z
∇⋅ f ≡ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

The Divergence is nonzero

if there are sources or sinks.

A 2D source with a y
large divergence:
x

Note that the x-component of this function changes rapidly in the x

direction, etc., the essence of a large divergence.
Div, Grad, Curl, and more all that
The Laplacian of a scalar function :

    ∂f ∂f ∂f 
∇ f
2
≡ ∇ ⋅∇f = ∇⋅ , , 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
= + +
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z 2

The Laplacian of a vector function is the same,

but for each component of f:

  ∂2 fx ∂2 fx ∂2 fx ∂2 f y ∂2 f y ∂2 f y ∂2 fz ∂2 fz ∂2 fz 
∇=
2
f  2 + + 2 , + + , 2 + + 2 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
2 2 2 2 2


The Laplacian tells us the curvature of a vector function.

The 3D wave equation for the electric
field and its solution
A light wave can propagate in any 2 ∂2 E
direction in space. So we must allow ∇ E − µε 2 = 0
the space derivative to be 3D: ∂t

∂2 E ∂2 E ∂2 E ∂2 E
or + 2 + 2 − µε 2 = 0
∂x 2
∂y ∂z ∂t
 
whose solution is: = {

}
E ( x, y, z , t ) Re E0 exp[i (k ⋅ r − ω t )]
 
where k ≡ ( k x , k y , k z ) r ≡ ( x, y , z )
 
and k ⋅ r ≡ kx x + k y y + kz z

k 2 ≡ k x2 + k y2 + k z2
The 3D wave equation for a light-wave
electric field is actually a vector equation.
And a light-wave electric field can point in any direction in space:


2  ∂ E 2
∇ E − µε 2 = 0 Note the arrow over the E.
∂t

   
whose solution is: = {
E ( x, y, z , t ) Re E0 exp[i (k ⋅ r − ω t )]

}
where: 
E0 = ( E0 x , E0 y , E0 z )
   
Vector Waves
We must now allow the field E and its complex field amplitude E0 to
be vectors: 

{ )}
    
  (
E ( r , t ) Re E0 exp i k ⋅ r − ωt 
=


The complex vector amplitude has six numbers that must be

specified to completely determine it!

x-component y-component z-component


E0 =+
(Re{Ex } i Im{Ex }, Re{E y } + i Im{E y }, Re{Ez } + i Im{Ez })

Boundary Conditions
Often, a wave is constrained
by external factors, which we
call Boundary Conditions.

For example, a guitar string is

attached at both ends.
In this case, only certain
wavelengths/frequencies are
possible.
Here the wavelengths can be:
λ1, λ1/2, λ1/3, λ1/4, etc.

Node Anti-node