1.

B-H Curve

Aim: To draw B-H curve between the magnetizing field (H) and Magnetic Induction (B) of the
specimen and to find Coercivity (Hc), Remanence (Br) and Hysteresis loss.
Apparatus: Deflection Magnetometer (DM), A wooden bench with sliding magnetizing coil
(Solenoid) and a compensating coil, DC power supply, a Rheostat, a commutator,
plug key, iron rod specimen and ammeter.
B - Battery
RP
K - Plug Key, P - Commutator
S - Solenoid,DM - Deflection Magnetometer
CC - Compensating Coil, A - Ammeter, RP - Rheostat

Procedure:
1. Remove all magnets / magnetizing materials form the vicinity of the magnetometer.
2. Keep the deflection magnetometer in Tan A position so that the arms are in the East and west
direction. Aluminium pointer is made parallel to the arms of DM. Set the aluminum pointer to
read 0-0 and make the circuit connection as shown.
2(a) Plug in all four keys of the commutator and connect the circuit as shown in the circuit
diagram.
3. Without placing the specimen rod in the solenoid, close the circuit and increase the current
gradually up to 3amp.
3(a) Demagnetize the given sample ferromagnetic rod (iron rod) by gently hitting or dropping
down
4. Place the un-magnetized specimen in the solenoid and switch on the power supply.
5. Remove two opposite keys in the commutator.
6. With minimum current note the readings at the two ends of the aluminum pointer in the DM
without parallax error as θ1 and θ2.
7. Increase the current by using Rheostat in steps of 0.25 amps till the maximum current is
reached. At each step note the readings in DM in the tabular form 1
8. Now decrease the current from the maximum value in steps of 0.25 amps till it reaches the
minimum current, and note the readings in DM. in the table 2
9. Change the positions of the keys in the commutator so that the direction of the current flow gets
reversed.
10. Repeat the whole process of increasing and decreasing of current and the readings are
tabulated in the tabular forms 3 and 4 respectively.
11. Again reverse the direction of current by changing the positions of the keys in the commutator.
12. Now increase the current and note the readings in DM and enter the readings table 5.
13. The relation between the magnetic fled H, magnetization I and magnetic induction B is given by
B= µ0(H+I).
Graph:
Now plot a graph taking current (I) on x-axis and tanθ on y-axis. It looks like loop called
hysteresis loop or BH curve. The area under the curve gives energy loss.
Formulae:
1. H = 4πnI/10(Amps) = K1I Amp/meter.
Where K1 = 4πn/10
n = No. of turns/cm. in the solenoid =10 turns/cm.
2. The magnetic induction is given by:
( )
𝐵= ( )( )
= K2. tan 
𝜇 𝐻 (𝑑 − 𝑙 )
𝐾 =
(2𝑑)(2𝑙𝑎)
l = 5/12 of the geometric length of the specimen = ……………... cm
d = distance between center of solenoid, to center of DM = ……..…… cm
He = Horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field = 3.024x10-5Amp-turn/m
a = Area of cross-section of the specimen = ………………….. cm 2
Observations:
Table: Forward direction: Increasing Current
Deflection
Current (I)
S. No. 1 2 Mean  Tan 
Amperes

Table: 2: Forward direction: Decreasing current

S. No. Current (I) Deflection  Tan 
 Amperes 1 2 Mean 

Table:3: Reverse Direction: Increasing current

Current (I) Deflection 
S. No. Tan 
Amperes 1 2 Mean 

Table:4: Reverse Direction: Decreasing current

Current (I) Deflection 
S. No. Tan 
Amperes 1 2 Mean 

Table:5 Forward Direction: Increasing current

Current (I) Deflection 
S. No. Tan 
Amperes 1 2 Mean 
CALCULATIONS:

From the plot calculate the following parameters using the formulae given above:
1. Coercivity (Hc) = K2. OA (from graph) amp/meter.
2. Remanence (Ir) = K1 x OB (from graph) web/m2
3. Hysteresis loss = K1 x K2 x Area under the BH Curve- Joules

Tan
B

A
O

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Demagnetize the specimen before use. This could be done by heating it or by repeatedly
allowing it to fall on the ground from a height.
2. Once the cycle of magnetization starts increase / decrease the current continuously.
3. The cycle consists of five segments. Complete them before you stop your observations.
4. Keep the points on graph carefully for the 3rd quarter and 5th quarter

Result
1. Coercivity (Hc) =
2. Remanence (Ir) =
3. Hysteresis loss =
Signature of the faculty Member
Viva questions
1. What is TanA position?
2. Distinguish between B and H?
3. What is tangent law in magnetism?
4. What is the function of compensating coil?
5. What is the specimen used in the experiment?
6. What is meant by retentivity?
7. What is coercivity?
8. What is the physical significance of Hysteresis loss?
9. What are eddy currents?
10. What is the difference between soft and hard materials?

2. P-N JUNCTION DIODE: VOLT - AMPERE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To study volt-ampere characteristics and to determine forward and reverse resistances of p-n
junction diode.
APPARATUS: PN junction diode board, voltmeter, milli-ammeter, micro-ammeter, power supply
and connecting wires.
DESCRIPTION: The built-in PN junction diode kit consist a junction diode, a power supply, a
milliand micro ammeter and a voltmeter.
PRINCIPLE:
FORWARD BIAS: When the PN junction is forward biased i.e., positive terminal of the battery is
connected to p – type and negative terminal to the n-type material, the holes from p-type and
electrons from n-type are repelled by positive and negative terminals respectively and push them
towards the junction. As a result, current passes across the junction. The resistance offered by the
diode in forward is very less in the order of few ohms.
REVERSE BIAS: When the PN junction is reverse biased i.e., positive terminal of the battery is
connected to n–type and negative terminal to the p-type of junction diode. The holes from p-type
and electrons from n– type are attracted towards negative and positive terminals of the battery
respectively and as a result no current flows across the diode. But a current in the order of few
micro amps known as reverse saturation current flows across the junction and it is due to minority
carriers present in the p – type and n-type materials. The resistance offered is very high and it is in
the order of few kilo ohms.
PROCEDURE:
FORWARD BIAS: Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 1. Keep the ammeter in to the milli ampere
range and voltmeter (0-2 V). Switch on the power supply and vary the voltage in steps of 0.1V by
using potentiometer. The corresponding current values in the ammeter are noted. The readings are
tabulated in the tabular form.
REVERSE BIAS: Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2. Keep the ammeter in to the micro ampere
range and voltmeter (0-20V). Again the power supply is switched on and the voltage is varied in
steps of 0.5V. The corresponding current values in the ammeter are noted and readings are
tabulated in the tabular form.
Reverse Bias

GRAPH:
I(mA)

A graph is drawn between voltage (V) I R  1 V


and current (I) taking along x - axis and Slope I
y-axis respectively. The resistance is V
determined in both forward and
reverse biasing conditions by finding V
reciprocal of slope of the curve in the
linear region.
A
TABULAR FORM:

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Voltage Current Voltage Current
S. No. S. No.
(Volt) (mA) (Volt) (A)

RESULT:

Forward Resistance of diode ________________ Ω.

Reverse Resistance of diode ________________ Ω.

Signature of the faculty Member

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The readings are noted without parallax error.
2. Connections are to be made properly and gently.
3. All connections should be tight.
4. Apply voltage as per the specifications of the diode.
VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish between conductors, insulators and semiconductors?

2. What is the difference between p-type and n-type of materials?
3. Explain how a barrier is formed at the junction?
4. What is forbidden energy gap?
5. What is the action of a p-n junction diode?
6. What is the difference between forward and reverse bias?
7. What are the important applications of p-n junction diode?
8. In the forward bias why is the graph not a straight line in the initial stages?
9. What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?
10. Give examples for p-type and n-type extrinsic semiconductor?
11. Si doped with phosphorous gives which type of semiconductor?
12. Si doped with gallium gives which type of semiconductor?
13. Sketch the variation of Fermi level with temperature in case of p and n type
semiconductors?
14. Draw the band scheme of a p-n junction in equilibrium?
15. Briefly explain the experimental arrangement?
16. Draw the symbol of P-N junction diode.
17. Give any one use of P-N junction diode?
18. What is the difference between p-n junction diode and LED?
19. What is rectification? Name the device used to achieve it?
20. How to identify the n and p regions of practical diode?

o o A
+ - + -
+

V
-

o
0 -

Forward bias
 2. RIGIDITY MODULUS –TORSIONAL PENDULUM

Aim: Determination of the rigidity modulus of the given material of wire by dynamical method
using a Torsional Pendulum.

Apparatus: Torsional pendulum, stop clock and screw gauge.

Description : It consists of a metal disc suspended by a wire attached to the center of the disc.
One end of the wire is fixed to rigid support by means of chuck nut and the other end is to the disc.

Principle: When the disc is rotated in horizontal plane to the radial position the wire will be
twisted. It will exert a torque on the disc, which results into torsional oscillations.

Formula: The rigidity modulus of given material is given by

8MR 2 L
 dynes / cm2
2a 4 T 2

where M is the Mass of the disc ( gm )

R is the Radius of the disc ( cm )
'a' is the Radius of the given wire ( cm )
'L' is the Length of the torsional pendulum ( cm )
'T' is the Time period (sec)

PROCEDURE:

1. A meter brass wire whose  is to be determined is taken without any kinks.

2. One end the wire is fixed at the center of disc and the other end is passed through chuck nut
fixed to the wall bracket.
3. The length L of the wire between the chucks adjusted to a convenient value (say 40cms)
4. A radial line is drawn on the disc, which represents the equilibrium position.
5. The disc is turned in the horizontal plane through a small angle by applying torque such
that it produces a twist and then released. There should not be any up and down and lateral
movement of the disc (i.e. no wobbling) while studying oscillations.
6. When it is executing Torsional oscillations, the time taken for twenty oscillations is noted
with two trials and mean is taken.
7. The time period of oscillation (T) and T2 are calculated and entered in the table.
8. The experiment is repeated for different values of L and in each case the time period is
noted and T2 is calculated.
9. A Graph is plotted between L (on X-axis) and T2 on Y axis .It is a straight line passing
through origin. The slope of the line L/T2 is calculated
10. The mass of the disc is measured using rough balance. The Radius of the disc is measured
by measuring the circumference of the disc (2R) and the radius of the given wire (r) is
measured by screw gauge and the values are tabulated.
 11. Substituting the above values, the value of  is calculated by using the formula.
8MR 2
 x slope
2a 4
12. The value of rigidity modulus of the given material is compared with the standard value.

Length (L) Time taken for 10 oscillations (sec) Time Period T 2

S.No. (cm) (T) (sec)

Trail 1 Trail 2 Mean

Radius of Disc by verneir caliper's

S.No MSR VC VC*LC Total reading

MSR+ VC*LC

Radius of the wire by using screw gauge

LC = Error = Correction =

S.no. Pitch scale reading Total Reading

(mm) ‘a’ Head Scale reading HSRx L.C (a+b) (mm)
(HSR)
(mm)
Observed Corrected ‘b’

1
2
3

Average radius =_________ __mm

= ___________ cm

Result: The rigidity modulus of the material of given wire is dynes/cm2

Precautions
 1. The wire should not contain any kinks.
2. The readings are noted without parallax error.
3. The disc is rotated only by small angle.
4. There should not be any up and down and lateral movement of the disc

Viva Questions

1. Define rigidity modulus?

2. What are Torsional oscillations?
3. What is a couple? Where it is produced here?
4. For what are you finding rigidity modulus?
5. What is the twist of the wire produced?
6. What is the unit of rigidity modulus?
7. What is stress and Strain?
8. Define modulus of elasticity
9. Define Hooke’s law

What is Young’s Modulus?

 4. THERMISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To Study of characteristics of a thermistor and evaluate the temperature coefficient of

resistance.
APPARATUS:Thermistor, dc voltage source, micro and milli ammeters, oven, and a thermometer.

DESCRIPTION: It consists of a built in thermistor circuit with a facility to heat to various

temperatures. It also consists micro and milliammeters for measurement of currents for given
voltages.

PRINCIPLE: It is a semiconductor device having holes and electrons as charge carriers. When the
temperature increases due to thermal energy new hole-electron pairs are generated by breaking
the covalent bonds. As a result the conductivity of thermistor increases and thereby resistivity
decreases. Hence, its temperature coefficient of resistance is negative.
FORMULA:
R = A exp[ B / T ]
Where A and B are constants which depend upon size, mode of mounting and material of themistor.
The temperature coefficient of resistance  is given as
 = 1/ R [ dR/ dT]
It can be written as
 = - B / T2
The above formula can be rewritten as
Loge R = loge A + B / T
PROCEDURE:
1. The oven is disconnected from the circuit and the thermistor circuit is made ON.
2. Set a constant dc voltage by adjusting the knob of the source, the current in the circuit is
measured with dc milli ammeter.
3. This gives the resistance of the thermistor at room temperature.
4. Now the oven supply is connected and the thermistor is heated.
5. Note the current readings in an interval of temperatures at every 5 0 c up to 800c.
6. Now again the oven supply is disconnected and the current readings are noted while the
temperature is decreasing in the same steps.
7. The procedure is repeated for different values of voltages
CIRCUIT DAIGRAM:

GRAPH:

1. A plot is drawn by taking the temperature along x-axis and resistance along y-axis. The graph
shows an exponential decrease of resistance with increase of temperature.

2. A Graph is drawn by taking 1/T on the x-axis and loge R on the y-axis. The graph obtained is a
straight line with negative intercept on y axis. The slope gives the value of constant B and the
negative intercept on y axis is noted. The inverse logarithm of this intercept gives the constant A

Loge R

I/T

CALCULATIONS:

Constant A obtained from the graph =

Constant B obtained from the graph =
The value of  =-B/T2
TABULAR FORMS

S. No Temperature Current (I) Resistance ( R) ohm 1/T (K-1) Loge R

oC (K)
80

Table 2.
S.No Temp I at 2V I at 4V I at 6V

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The current readings are measured while the temperature is kept constant.
2. The values are observed without parallax error.

RESULT: Thermistor characteristics are studied & constants A ____________and B ______________.

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is thermistor? How is different to a semi-conductor?

2. How does the resistance vary for a thermistor? Write the formula.
3. What are thermistor coefficients? Explain their physical significance.