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The design process

A design project will start with a full definition of the Wim Nijhuis and Theo Boersema in
project and its context for the originators of the project. Visual Information for Everyday Use,
That is, it will outline where the project sits in relation to discuss the design process in terms of
a cycle of:
other activities of the originator or client. This is discussed
q Problem identification and
at an initial briefing and is often followed by a period of definition
research and analysis that further defines the project. q Analysis and observation
The next part of the process involves idea generation q Synthesis and reasoning
that will seek to cover all aspects of the project but is really q Simulation and testing
a technique of gathering options. These are referred to as q Evaluation and decision on
viability and usefulness
scribbles and thumbnails. They are often annotated with
q Acceptance of the design or
production notes. From these deliberations and ideas, iteration of the process to
roughs or visuals are developed. improve the design
The roughs are presented to the client for approval
before finalising the design. In the case of publications,
there might be just a cover and two pages to show how the
interior pages might look. Sometimes there will be more
than one rough for consideration at this stage.
On approval of the rough, there may be another stage
where the design is developed further to take into account
all the nuances within the project and create comprehensive
visuals or finished roughs. After presentation, when these
are approved, the production phase begins. Production
entails the finalisation of all artwork and preparation of the
job, proofing processes, and final approval before printing,
embellishing, finishing and distribution (for print) or alpha
and beta testing and uploading (for electronic publishing).
There should always be an evaluation of the final
product and consideration of whether it met its objectives
as outlined in the briefing meetings and any developments
throughout the process. This may identify areas future work
might need to consider.
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Briefing
A brief is like a list of client wishes or requirements. It is
not a solution—rather, it defines a problem. Some clients
supply a written brief and back-up material about their
organisation or product. Other clients give a verbal briefing
when prompted by the questions at a briefing meeting.
A working title that will serve as a recognition title for
both parties is needed, and a thorough description of the
CHECK LIST job. What is the reason for the job? Maybe it’s a public
A brief relations exercise. It could be educational, instructional or
Documents:
advice about a public safety issue. In some cases, such as
q Client details
– contact names, direct phone
annual reports, it is a statutory requirement as well as a
numbers, fax numbers and public document.
e-mail addresses There may be external requirements of it. For example,
– full legal name of the if it is to be tabled in Parliament, it must be in B5 portrait
company format, as all Parliamentary papers. Also it will probably
– postal and street addresses
have a category number that describes the requirements for
– background information
about the organisation, its its production level. See the AusInfo Standards leaflet for an
industry and competitors explanation of the classes.
– Web site URL (for further It may be part of an existing series or the beginning of a
background information) new series. If the series already exists, samples of the series
q Project description
style should be supplied for reference at the briefing. Digital
– name, usage
– sizes, quantity
files or job files on the series should also be tabled or
– price/budget handed over to the designer, in order for the continuation of
– any preferences/limitations: the series to be successful.
colours, images, corporate Discuss the audiences for the project. It helps to list the
standards, existing materials most important reader to the least important. Readers may
– launch date/deadlines
be students, members of the media, children, the aged,
q Marketing objectives and
strategy businesspeople, parents, members of Parliament, industry
– target market description: leaders, unionists, public servants, taxpayers, and so on.
age, sex, social group, Consider ultimate distribution to gain an understanding
occupation, location of how the audience will receive the message. It may be
– benefit to buyer/user
available free or for purchase; on the Internet, hand-
– distribution method
delivered or by mail; available at the newsagent or post
office; by phone telesales; advertised on television or radio;
subscribed to or sold over the counter; or any combination
of these.
Imagine how it is likely to be used. Most people will
scan or skim it, some will read cover-to-cover, some will
only read summaries, and some will use it as reference.
Is there a single, most important message the audience
should receive? There should also be a short description
of the sort of material involved and the viewpoint that is
being expressed.
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Discuss the feel, look or tone of the communication.

Should it be light or heavy? simple or complex? quality,
earthy, lavish, playful or traditional? In addition to these
considerations, what aspect/s of corporate personality—
innovation, tradition, care, progress, high tech,
friendly—need to be projected?
A corporate style manual that specifies logo usage,
typefaces, colours, editorial preferences and design formats
should be available for the designer.
Discuss format/s that are expected to be used and
whether there is room for variation. There may be existing
contracts for supply, for example, that make deviations from
the format difficult.
Sample text should be available, even if only in rough
draft. If not, is there an indicator of the expected amount of
text and how it will be supplied? If it is supplied on disk,
formats and programs should be discussed. Also, note
whether the text has been or will need to be edited.
Existing images and identifiers might also be supplied
or available, so it helps to discuss how they will be supplied
and in what formats.
Preferences for colour, design style and type style should
be discussed, and it is handy to have samples of designs
that are liked and disliked.
Some individuals and organisations have a commitment
to using recycled stocks and environmentally friendly
processes, and these need to be discussed upfront, so that
appropriate decisions can be made.
There may also be special instructions that will enable
the design to work into projects in the future. For example,
film poster artwork is often used for video covers and CD
covers, press advertisements and wide-screen advertise-
ments. These are all different formats—vertical, horizontal
and square—so there is a production complication.
What is the deadline? In discussion, is it realistic?
Maybe the desired timing requires some trimming of the
expectations, or a considerable overtime budget.
Finally, what is the budget? Can the described job be
completed successfully for that amount? Does it include
print costs, programming, replication, distribution, design,
illustration, photography and technical time, or are there
other budgets for some aspects of the job?
This meeting can become quite lengthy. It may be
divided into stages in order to cover all the issues. It will
largely depend on the nature of the task.
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Contracts
Usually a designer will prepare a contract in letter form as
part of an initial proposal which at this point may or may
not include any design work. The contract will cover a job
description, fees, scheduling, copyright, conditions and any
other agreements.
There will often be two copies, one for the client to keep,
and one the client will be asked to sign and return. It is
standard practice to initial each page.
It is also standard practice for a designer not to com-
mence work until the return of that agreement.
There will often be a statement that the estimate is valid
for a limited period of time, usually 90 days to a year.
Payment is usually made on invoice within 7, 14, 21 or
30 days, as agreed at the briefing or in the contract. There
may be staged payments worked into the production
schedule. Depending on how payment is to be made, there
may be payments on completion of each stage or hourly
rates plus expenses to date.
Some designers will request payment of a commission-
ing fee of between 10% and 50% of the total job cost before
commencing the job. This is often the case when there will
be many subcontractors to be paid by the designer.

Rates
A client may request that all production, including printing,
finishing and distribution, be included in design fees, or
may just buy the design and negotiate the production
separately.
A client should expect to pay for:
r briefing and liaison meetings (except the initial contact
meeting)
r design and research
r preparation of an initial proposal including competitive
submissions
r preparation of roughs
r materials used
r corrections at client request
r print brokering and handling of subcontractors (often
there will be a 5–10% handling fee for this)
r job recording
r any changes to the job
r any work completed even if the job is halted
r any further security requested
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r any additional proofs prepared at client request

r all costs of commissioned authors, editors, photogra-
phers, calligraphers, illustrators, filmmakers, sound
recordists and programmers, including art direction and
briefing time
r any photography, illustration, film footage and sound file
usage fees
r rush work or overtime requested
r any price increases for materials or suppliers that occur
during the production period Rates
Rates vary and can be charged as
r additional expenses arising from the assignment follows:
including any travel expenses. q Hourly rate + materials
Production experimentation will often be cost-shared, q A flat fee
but this needs to be agreed at the outset. q Varying hourly rates for different
A client will not usually pay for: types of work:
– creative—normally charged
r initial contact meeting
at a higher rate
r coffee and hospitality – production
r corrections where the designer is at fault – meeting time
r the first proof at each stage q Varying hourly rates for different
r overtime or rush work due to the designer not perform- staff:
– seniors—normally charged
ing as promised
at a higher rate
r work not performed at the halting of a project – juniors
r training sessions – technical—covers upkeep,
r waiting time (unless caused directly by the client) upgrade and maintenance of
r filling in time sheets (except job record) technology
r cleaning up the workplace or a combination of any or all of the
above.
r computer back-ups.

Copyright
Discuss ownership, since copyright rests with the creator
unless specifically assigned. Usually copyright is considered
to have been paid for the particular use negotiated with the
job, and any use beyond that—including reprinting—needs
to be renegotiated.
Illustrators and photographers own the originals of their
images and need only supply them in transparency or
digital form for use in the job, unless the original is
specifically purchased and reproduction rights negotiated.
In effect, a client is buying the right to reproduce an
image, not the image itself.
It is usual for designers, illustrators and photographers
to reserve the right to reproduce material produced for a
client as samples or advertising material or to enter into
competitions. They will normally credit the client as the
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296 Production

source of the commission and, in the case of award entries,

if selected, the client will often be recognised with a
certificate of achievement as well.
Any ideas, designs or illustrative material rejected by a
client are considered to be the designer’s property (unless
rights are negotiated and purchased) and may be used by
the designer freely.

Conditions
DOING IT SMARTER
The designer has a duty of care to protect and return to the
Job record
Designers and clients should each
client in original condition any property or materials
create a job record in a file or job bag required in the production of the job. The designer, though,
with details of the following: is not usually responsible for the loss, damage, destruction
q Briefing or unauthorised use of such materials by others.
q Proposal, contract and schedule Designers are not usually liable for the failure of other
q Various approval stages
q Any correspondence: e-mail
suppliers such as printers, manufacturers, reproduction
printouts, faxes, letters houses, photographers, illustrators, authors, editors or
q Any contact: briefly noting indexers, but this will depend on the arrangements made
telephone calls and the dates initially and contractual agreements.
and attendance at any meetings, Usually, if the designer has outsourced directly to
recording decisions and any
designer-chosen suppliers and is charging a brokerage/
changes to the task
q Research material and drafts
handling fee, the designer will be liable for the failure of
q Style book: style sheets, those suppliers.
templates, roughs, samples, Where the client has chosen the suppliers and is dealing
colours directly with and being billed directly by those suppliers,
q Suppliers’ names and contact the client is more likely to be liable for the failure of
information
q Any quotes/estimates
those suppliers.
q Time sheets
This will enable easy documentation Scheduling
if required, but will also make it Normally, the timing of the various phases of the job, the
easier for someone else to be briefed production schedule and the payment schedule are agreed
quickly if the job is passed to another
at acceptance of a proposal.
person at any stage.
At any stage, if the schedule is broken, for whatever
reason, the original timings will often need to be renegoti-
ated and rescheduled.
When circumstances change and the client wants the
work finished sooner, any additional costs (for overtime or
queue-jumping in production) are passed on directly to
the client.
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READ MORE ABOUT IT

Ed Gold, The business of graphic design: A sensible approach to marketing and
managing a graphic design firm, rev. edn, Watson-Guptill, New York, 1995,
ISBN 0 8230 0546 1.
Barbara Ganim, The designer’s commonsense business book, North Light Books,
Cincinnati, 1995, ISBN 0 89134 618 X.
Jill Yelland, The art of minding your own business, Press for Success, Perth,
1994, ISBN 0 646 19850 5.
Cameron S. Foote, The business side of creativity: The complete guide for
running a graphic design or communications business, WW Norton, New
York, 1996, ISBN 0 393 73031 X.
Ellen Shapiro, Clients and designers: Dialogues with CEOs and managers who
have been responsible for some of the decade’s most successful design and
marketing communications, Watson-Guptill, New York, 1989,
ISBN 0 8230 0639 5.