10.

3 Two-Way Tables and Probability

Essential Question How can you construct and interpret
a two-way table?

Completing and Using a Two-Way Table

Work with a partner. A two-way table displays the same information as a Venn
diagram. In a two-way table, one category is represented by the rows and the other
category is represented by the columns.
Survey of 80 Students The Venn diagram shows the results of a survey in which 80 students were asked
whether they play a musical instrument and whether they speak a foreign language.
Use the Venn diagram to complete the two-way table. Then use the two-way table to
Speak a
Play an answer each question.
foreign
instrument
16 language
Play an Instrument Do Not Play an Instrument Total
25 30
Speak a Foreign
9 Language

Do Not Speak a
Foreign Language

Total

a. How many students play an instrument?

b. How many students speak a foreign language?
c. How many students play an instrument and speak a foreign language?
d. How many students do not play an instrument and do not speak a foreign language?
e. How many students play an instrument and do not speak a foreign language?

Two-Way Tables and Probability

Work with a partner. In Exploration 1, one student is selected at random from the
80 students who took the survey. Find the probability that the student
a. plays an instrument.
MODELING WITH b. speaks a foreign language.
MATHEMATICS c. plays an instrument and speaks a foreign language.
To be proficient in math,
d. does not play an instrument and does not speak a foreign language.
you need to identify
important quantities e. plays an instrument and does not speak a foreign language.
in a practical situation and
map their relationships Conducting a Survey
using such tools as
diagrams and Work with your class. Conduct a survey of the students in your class. Choose two
two-way tables. categories that are different from those given in Explorations 1 and 2. Then summarize
the results in both a Venn diagram and a two-way table. Discuss the results.

Communicate Your Answer

4. How can you construct and interpret a two-way table?
5. How can you use a two-way table to determine probabilities?

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 10.3 Lesson What You Will Learn
Make two-way tables.
Find relative and conditional relative frequencies.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry Use conditional relative frequencies to find conditional probabilities.
two-way table, p. 554
joint frequency, p. 554
Making Two-Way Tables
marginal frequency, p. 554
joint relative frequency, A two-way table is a frequency table that displays data collected from one source
that belong to two different categories. One category of data is represented by rows
p. 555
and the other is represented by columns. Suppose you randomly survey freshmen and
marginal relative frequency,
sophomores about whether they are attending a school concert. A two-way table is one
p. 555
way to organize your results.
conditional relative frequency,
p. 555 Each entry in the table Attendance
is called a joint frequency.
Previous Attending Not Attending
The sums of the rows and
conditional probability
columns are called Freshman 25 44

Class
marginal frequencies,
which you will find in Sophomore 80 32
READING Example 1.
A two-way table is also joint frequency
called a contingency table,
or a two-way frequency Making a Two-Way Table
table.
In another survey similar to the one above, 106 juniors and 114 seniors respond. Of
those, 42 juniors and 77 seniors plan on attending. Organize these results in a two-way
table. Then find and interpret the marginal frequencies.

SOLUTION
Step 1 Find the joint frequencies. Because 42 of the 106 juniors are attending,
106 − 42 = 64 juniors are not attending. Because 77 of the 114 seniors
are attending, 114 − 77 = 37 seniors are not attending. Place each joint
frequency in its corresponding cell.
Step 2 Find the marginal frequencies. Create a new column and row for the sums.
Then add the entries and interpret the results.

Attendance

Attending Not Attending Total

Junior 42 64 106 106 juniors responded.

Class

Senior 77 37 114 114 seniors responded.

Total 119 101 220 220 students

were surveyed.

119 students are attending. 101 students are not attending.

Step 3 Find the sums of the marginal frequencies. Notice the sums 106 + 114 = 220
and 119 + 101 = 220 are equal. Place this value at the bottom right.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

1. You randomly survey students about whether they are in favor of planting a
community garden at school. Of 96 boys surveyed, 61 are in favor. Of 88 girls
surveyed, 17 are against. Organize the results in a two-way table. Then find and
interpret the marginal frequencies.

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 Finding Relative and Conditional Relative Frequencies
You can display values in a two-way table as frequency counts (as in Example 1) or as
relative frequencies.

Core Concept
Relative and Conditional Relative Frequencies
STUDY TIP A joint relative frequency is the ratio of a frequency that is not in the total row or
Two-way tables can display the total column to the total number of values or observations.
relative frequencies based A marginal relative frequency is the sum of the joint relative frequencies in a
on the total number of row or a column.
observations, the row
totals, or the column A conditional relative frequency is the ratio of a joint relative frequency to the
totals. marginal relative frequency. You can find a conditional relative frequency using a
row total or a column total of a two-way table.

Finding Joint and Marginal Relative Frequencies

INTERPRETING Use the survey results in Example 1 to make a two-way table that shows the joint and
marginal relative frequencies.
MATHEMATICAL
RESULTS SOLUTION
Relative frequencies To find the joint relative frequencies, divide each frequency by the total number of
can be interpreted students in the survey. Then find the sum of each row and each column to find the
as probabilities. The marginal relative frequencies.
probability that a
randomly selected student Attendance
is a junior and is not About 29.1% of the
attending the concert Attending Not Attending Total students in the survey
is 29.1%. 42 64 are juniors and are not
Junior — ≈ 0.191 — ≈ 0.291 0.482 attending the concert.
Class

220 220
77 37
Senior — = 0.35 — ≈ 0.168 0.518 About 51.8% of the
220 220
students in the survey
Total 0.541 0.459 1 are seniors.

Finding Conditional Relative Frequencies

Use the survey results in Example 1 to make a two-way table that shows the
conditional relative frequencies based on the row totals.

SOLUTION
Use the marginal relative frequency of each row to calculate the conditional relative
frequencies.

Attendance
Given that a student is
Attending Not Attending
a senior, the conditional
0.191 0.291 relative frequency
Junior — ≈ 0.396 — ≈ 0.604
Class

0.482 0.482 that he or she is not

0.35 0.168 attending the concert is
Senior — ≈ 0.676 — ≈ 0.324
0.518 0.518 about 32.4%.

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 Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

2. Use the survey results in Monitoring Progress Question 1 to make a two-way table
that shows the joint and marginal relative frequencies.
3. Use the survey results in Example 1 to make a two-way table that shows the
conditional relative frequencies based on the column totals. Interpret the
conditional relative frequencies in the context of the problem.
4. Use the survey results in Monitoring Progress Question 1 to make a two-way table
that shows the conditional relative frequencies based on the row totals. Interpret
the conditional relative frequencies in the context of the problem.

Finding Conditional Probabilities

You can use conditional relative frequencies to find conditional probabilities.

Finding Conditional Probabilities

A satellite TV provider surveys customers in three cities. The survey asks whether
they would recommend the TV provider to a friend. The results, given as joint relative
frequencies, are shown in the two-way table.
a. What is the probability that a randomly selected
Location
customer who is located in Glendale will recommend
Glendale Santa Monica Long Beach the provider?
Response

Yes 0.29 0.27 0.32 b. What is the probability that a randomly selected
customer who will not recommend the provider is
No 0.05 0.03 0.04 located in Long Beach?
c. Determine whether recommending the provider to a
friend and living in Long Beach are independent events.

SOLUTION
P(Glendale and yes) 0.29
a. P(yes  Glendale) = —— = — ≈ 0.853
P(Glendale) 0.29 + 0.05
INTERPRETING
MATHEMATICAL So, the probability that a customer who is located in Glendale will recommend
RESULTS the provider is about 85.3%.
The probability 0.853 P(no and Long Beach) 0.04
is a conditional relative b. P(Long Beach  no) =——= —— ≈ 0.333
P(no) 0.05 + 0.03 + 0.04
frequency based on
a column total. The So, the probability that a customer who will not recommend the provider is
condition is that the located in Long Beach is about 33.3%.
customer lives in Glendale.
c. Use the formula P(B) = P(B  A) and compare P(Long Beach) and
P(Long Beach  yes).
P(Long Beach) = 0.32 + 0.04 = 0.36
P(Yes and Long Beach) 0.32
P(Long Beach  yes) = —— = —— ≈ 0.36
P(yes) 0.29 + 0.27 + 0.32

Because P(Long Beach) ≈ P(Long Beach  yes), the two events are
independent.

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 Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

5. In Example 4, what is the probability that a randomly selected customer who is

located in Santa Monica will not recommend the provider to a friend?
6. In Example 4, determine whether recommending the provider to a friend and
living in Santa Monica are independent events. Explain your reasoning.

Comparing Conditional Probabilities

A jogger wants to burn a certain number

Reaches Does Not
of calories during his workout. He maps
Goal Reach Goal

∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣ ∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣

out three possible jogging routes. Before
each workout, he randomly selects a Route A ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇

∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣
̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇
route, and then determines the number of
calories he burns and whether he reaches Route B ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇
∣∣∣∣
̇̇̇̇

∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣ ∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣

̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇ ̇̇̇̇
his goal. The table shows his findings. ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇
Route C ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇
Which route should he use?

SOLUTION
Step 1 Use the findings to make a two-way Result
table that shows the joint and marginal
relative frequencies. There are a total Reaches Does Not
Total
of 50 observations in the table. Goal Reach Goal

Step 2 Find the conditional A 0.22 0.12 0.34

Route
probabilities by
B 0.22 0.08 0.30
dividing each joint
relative frequency in
C 0.24 0.12 0.36
the “Reaches Goal”
column by the marginal Total 0.68 0.32 1
relative frequency in its
corresponding row.
P(Route A and reaches goal) 0.22
P(reaches goal  Route A) = ——— = — ≈ 0.647
P(Route A) 0.34

P(Route B and reaches goal) 0.22

P(reaches goal  Route B) = ——— = — ≈ 0.733
P(Route B) 0.30

P(Route C and reaches goal) 0.24

P(reaches goal  Route C) = ——— = — ≈ 0.667
P(Route C) 0.36

Based on the sample, the probability that he reaches his goal is greatest when he
uses Route B. So, he should use Route B.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

7. A manager is assessing three employees

Exceed Meet
in order to offer one of them a promotion.
Expectations Expectations

∣ ∣
Over a period of time, the manager
records whether the employees meet or Joy ∣̇̇∣̇∣̇∣̇ ̇∣̇̇∣̇̇∣̇̇∣̇
̇̇̇̇ ̇
∣̇̇∣̇∣̇∣̇ ̇∣̇
̇̇̇̇ ̇

exceed expectations on their assigned

tasks. The table shows the manager’s Elena ̇∣ ∣ ∣
̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇̇ ̇
∣∣∣ ∣∣∣∣ ̇∣̇∣
̇̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
∣
∣̇̇∣̇∣̇∣̇ ̇∣̇̇∣̇̇∣̇
̇̇̇̇ ̇

results. Which employee should be

offered the promotion? Explain.
Sam ̇∣ ∣ ∣
̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
∣∣∣ ∣∣∣∣ ∣
̇̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇̇ ̇
̇̇̇̇ ̇ ∣
∣̇̇∣̇∣̇∣̇ ̇∣̇̇∣̇

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 10.3 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. COMPLETE THE SENTENCE A(n) _____________ displays data collected from the same source
that belongs to two different categories.

2. WRITING Compare the definitions of joint relative frequency, marginal relative frequency, and
conditional relative frequency.

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 3 and 4, complete the two-way table. USING STRUCTURE In Exercises 7 and 8, use the
two-way table to create a two-way table that shows
3. Preparation the joint and marginal relative frequencies.
Did Not 7.
Studied Total Dominant Hand
Study
Pass Left Right Total
Grade

Gender
Fail 10 Female 11 104 115

Total 38 50 Male 24 92 116

Total 35 196 231
4. Response
8. Gender
Yes No Total
Student 56 Male Female Total
Role

Experience

Teacher 7 10 Expert 62 6 68
Total 49 Average 275 24 299
Novice 40 3 43
5. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS You survey Total 377 33 410
171 males and 180 females at Grand Central Station
in New York City. Of those, 132 males and 151 9. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS Use the survey
females wash their hands after using the public rest results from Exercise 5 to make a two-way table that
rooms. Organize these results in a two-way table. shows the joint and marginal relative frequencies.
Then find and interpret the marginal frequencies. (See Example 2.)
(See Example 1.)
10. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS In a survey,
49 people received a flu vaccine before the flu season
and 63 people did not receive the vaccine. Of those
who receive the flu vaccine, 16 people got the flu.
Of those who did not receive the vaccine, 17 got the
flu. Make a two-way table that shows the joint and
marginal relative frequencies.

6. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS A survey asks

60 teachers and 48 parents whether school uniforms
reduce distractions in school. Of those, 49 teachers
and 18 parents say uniforms reduce distractions in
school. Organize these results in a two-way table.
Then find and interpret the marginal frequencies.

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 11. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS A survey finds ERROR ANALYSIS In Exercises 15 and 16, describe
that 110 people ate breakfast and 30 people skipped and correct the error in finding the given conditional
breakfast. Of those who ate breakfast, 10 people felt probability.
tired. Of those who skipped breakfast, 10 people
felt tired. Make a two-way table that shows the City
conditional relative frequencies based on the Washington,
breakfast totals. (See Example 3.) Tokyo London Total
D.C.

Response
12. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS Use the survey Yes 0.049 0.136 0.171 0.356
results from Exercise 10 to make a two-way table that No 0.341 0.112 0.191 0.644
shows the conditional relative frequencies based on Total 0.39 0.248 0.362 1
the flu vaccine totals.

13. PROBLEM SOLVING Three different local hospitals 15. P(yes  Tokyo)
in New York surveyed their patients. The survey
asked whether the patient’s physician communicated
efficiently. The results, given as joint relative
frequencies, are shown in the two-way table.
✗ P(Tokyo and yes)
P(yes | Tokyo) = ——
P(Tokyo)
0.049
(See Example 4.) = — ≈ 0.138
0.356
Location
Glens Falls Saratoga Albany 16. P(London  no)

✗
Response

Yes 0.123 0.288 0.338

P(no and London)
No 0.042 0.077 0.131 P(London | no) = ——
P(London)
a. What is the probability that a randomly selected 0.112
= — ≈ 0.452
patient located in Saratoga was satisfied with the 0.248
communication of the physician?
b. What is the probability that a randomly selected 17. PROBLEM SOLVING You want to find the quickest
patient who was not satisfied with the physician’s route to school. You map out three routes. Before
communication is located in Glens Falls? school, you randomly select a route and record
c. Determine whether being satisfied with the whether you are late or on time. The table shows your
communication of the physician and living in findings. Assuming you leave at the same time each
Saratoga are independent events. morning, which route should you use? Explain.
(See Example 5.)
14. PROBLEM SOLVING A researcher surveys a random
On Time Late
∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣
sample of high school students in seven states. The
survey asks whether students plan to stay in their Route A ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
∣∣∣∣
̇̇̇̇

∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣
̇̇̇̇ ̇̇ ̇̇̇̇
home state after graduation. The results, given as joint
Route B ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇
∣∣∣
̇̇̇

∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣

relative frequencies, are shown in the two-way table. ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇ ̇̇̇

Location
Route C ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
∣∣∣∣
̇̇̇̇
̇̇̇̇

North Other
Nebraska 18. PROBLEM SOLVING A teacher is assessing three
Carolina States
groups of students in order to offer one group a prize.
Response

Yes 0.044 0.051 0.056 Over a period of time, the teacher records whether the
No 0.400 0.193 0.256 groups meet or exceed expectations on their assigned
tasks. The table shows the teacher’s results. Which
a. What is the probability that a randomly selected group should be awarded the prize? Explain.
student who lives in Nebraska plans to stay in his
or her home state after graduation? Exceed Meet
Expectations Expectations
b. What is the probability that a randomly selected
Group 1 ∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣
̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
∣∣∣∣
̇̇̇̇

∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣∣ ∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇

student who does not plan to stay in his or her home ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇ ̇̇̇̇
state after graduation lives in North Carolina? ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇
Group 2
∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣∣∣ ∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣
̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇
c. Determine whether planning to stay in their home Group 3 ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇
̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇
state and living in Nebraska are independent events.
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 19. OPEN-ENDED Create and conduct a survey in your 23. MULTIPLE REPRESENTATIONS Use the Venn diagram
class. Organize the results in a two-way table. Then to construct a two-way table. Then use your table to
create a two-way table that shows the joint and answer the questions.
marginal frequencies.
Dog Owner Cat Owner
20. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? A research group surveys
parents and coaches of high school students about 57 25
whether competitive sports are important in school. 36
The two-way table shows the results of the survey.
92
Role
Parent Coach Total a. What is the probability that a randomly selected
person does not own either pet?
Important

Yes 880 456 1336

No 120 45 165 b. What is the probability that a randomly selected
person who owns a dog also owns a cat?
Total 1000 501 1501
24. WRITING Compare two-way tables and Venn
a. What does 120 represent?
diagrams. Then describe the advantages and
b. What does 1336 represent? disadvantages of each.
c. What does 1501 represent?
25. PROBLEM SOLVING A company creates a new snack,
N, and tests it against its current leader, L. The table
21. MAKING AN ARGUMENT Your friend uses the table shows the results.
below to determine which workout routine is the best.
Your friend decides that Routine B is the best option Prefer L Prefer N
because it has the fewest tally marks in the “Does Not
Current L Consumer 72 46
Reach Goal” column. Is your friend correct? Explain
your reasoning. Not Current L Consumer 52 114

Reached Does Not The company is deciding whether it should try to

Goal Reach Goal improve the snack before marketing it, and to whom
Routine A ∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇
̇̇̇̇
̇̇̇̇
∣∣∣
̇̇̇
̇̇̇
the snack should be marketed. Use probability to
explain the decisions the company should make when
Routine B ∣∣∣∣
̇̇̇̇
∣∣
̇̇
the total size of the snack’s market is expected to
∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣
̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
(a) change very little, and (b) expand very rapidly.
Routine C ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
∣∣∣∣
̇̇̇̇
̇̇̇̇

26. THOUGHT PROVOKING Bayes’ Theorem is given by

22. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS A survey asks
students whether they prefer math class or science
class. Of the 150 male students surveyed, 62% prefer
P(A  B) = ——.
P(B)
⋅
P(B  A) P(A)

math class over science class. Of the female students

Use a two-way table to write an example of Bayes’
surveyed, 74% prefer math. Construct a two-way table
Theorem.
to show the number of students in each category if
350 students were surveyed.

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Draw a Venn diagram of the sets described. (Skills Review Handbook)

27. Of the positive integers less than 15, set A consists of the factors of 15 and set B consists of
all odd numbers.
28. Of the positive integers less than 14, set A consists of all prime numbers and set B consists of
all even numbers.
29. Of the positive integers less than 24, set A consists of the multiples of 2 and set B consists of
all the multiples of 3.

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