Quantum Mechanics

By Gokaran Shukla

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 Introduction to Quantum
Mechanic
A) Radiation
B) Light is made of particles. The need for a quantification
1) Black-body radiation (1860-1901)
2) Atomic Spectroscopy (1888-)
3) Photoelectric Effect (1887-1905)
C) Wave–particle duality
1) Compton Effect (1923).
2) Electron Diffraction Davisson and Germer (1925).
3) Young's Double Slit Experiment
D) Louis de Broglie relation for a photon from relativity
E) A new mathematical tool: Wavefunctions and operators
F) Measurable physical quantities and associated operators -
Correspondence principle
G) The Schrödinger Equation (1926)
H) The Uncertainty principle
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 The idea of duality is
rooted in a debate over
the nature of light and
matter dating back to the
1600s, when competing
theories of light were
proposed by Huygens
and Newton.

Sir Isaac Newton

Christiaan Huygens
1643 1727
Dutch 1629-1695
light consists of particles
light consists of waves

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 Soon after the
electron discovery in 1887
- J. J. Thomson (1887) Some negative part could
be extracted from the atoms

- Robert Millikan (1910) showed that it was quantified

-Rutherford (1911) showed that the negative part was diffuse

while the positive part was concentrated.

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 black-body radiation

Gustav Kirchhoff (1860). The light emitted by a black body is called black-body radiation

At room temperature, black bodies

emit IR light, but as the
temperature increases past a few
hundred degrees Celsius, black
bodies start to emit at visible Shift of 
wavelengths, from red, through
orange, yellow, and white before
ending up at blue, beyond which
the emission includes increasing
amounts of UV
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 black-body radiation

Kirchhoff
Shift of 

Radiation is emitted when a solid after receiving energy goes back to the
most stable state (ground state). The energy associated with the radiation
is the difference in energy between these 2 states. When T increases, the
average E*Mean is higher and intensity increases.
E*Mean- E = kT.
k is Boltzmann constant (k= 1.38 10-23 Joules K-1).
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 black-body radiation

Max Planck (1901)

Göttingen

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 Atomic Spectroscopy
Absorption or Emission

Johannes Rydberg 1888

Swedish

n1 → n 2 name Converges to (nm)

1 → ∞ Lyman 91

2 → ∞ Balmer 365

3→ ∞ Pashen 821

4 → ∞ Brackett 1459 8
 Atomic Spectroscopy
Absorption or Emission
-R/72
-R/62
-R/52
-R/42
Johannes Rydberg 1888
Swedish
-R/32
IR

-R/22
VISIBLE

-R/12
UV
Emission
Quantum numbers n, levels are not equally spaced R = 13.6 eV 9
 Photoelectric Effect (1887-1905)
discovered by Hertz in 1887 and explained in 1905 by Einstein.

I Albert EINSTEIN
Heinrich HERTZ
(1879-1955)
(1857-1894)

Vacuum
Vide e
e i
e

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I T (énergie cinétique)
Kinetic energy

 

0 0

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 Compton effect 1923
playing billiards assuming =h/p

h '
h/ '
h 
h/  

2
p /2m
p
Arthur Holly Compton
American
1892-1962

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 Davisson and Germer 1925

Clinton Davisson 2d sin  = k

Lester Germer
In 1927
Diffraction is similarly observed using a mono-
energetic electron beam
Bragg law is verified assuming =h/p
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 Wave-particle Equivalence.
•Compton Effect (1923).
•Electron Diffraction Davisson and Germer (1925)
•Young's Double Slit Experiment

Wave–particle duality

In physics and chemistry, wave–particle duality is the concept that all matter and
energy exhibits both wave-like and particle-like properties. A central concept of
quantum mechanics, duality, addresses the inadequacy of classical concepts like
"particle" and "wave" in fully describing the behavior of small-scale objects. Various
interpretations of quantum mechanics attempt to explain this apparent paradox.

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 Young's Double Slit Experiment

This is a typical experiment showing the wave nature of light and interferences.

What happens when we decrease the light intensity ?

If radiation = particles, individual photons reach one spot and there will be no interferences
If radiation  particles there will be no spots on the screen

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Young's Double Slit Experiment

Assuming a single electron each time

What means interference with itself ?
What is its trajectory?
If it goes through F1, it should ignore the presence of F2

Mask Screen
with 2
slits

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 Young's Double Slit Experiment
There is no possibility of knowing through which split the photon went!
If we measure the crossing through F1, we have to place a screen behind.
Then it does not go to the final screen.
We know that it goes through F1 but we do not know where it would go after.
These two questions are not compatible

Two important differences with classical physics:

• measurement is not independent from observer
• trajectories are not defined; h goes through F1
and F2 both! or through them with equal Mask Screen
probabilities! with 2
slits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2mIk3wBJDgE
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A New mathematical tool:
Wave functions and Operators
Each particle may be described by a wave function (x,y,z,t), real or complex,
having a single value when position (x,y,z) and time (t) are defined.
If it is not time-dependent, it is called stationary.
The expression =Aei(pr-Et) does not represent one molecule but a flow of particles:
a plane wave

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Wave functions describing one particle

To represent a single particle (x,y,z) that does not evolve in time, (x,y,z) must
be finite (0 at ∞).

In QM, a particle is not localized but has a probability to be in a given volume:

dP= *  dV is the probability of finding the particle in the volume dV.
Around one point in space, the density of probability is dP/dV= * 

Integration in the whole space should give one

is said to be normalized.

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 Linearity
The operators are linear:
O (a1+ b1) = O (a1 ) + O( b1)

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 Normalization
An eigenfunction remains an eigenfunction
when multiplied by a constant
O()= o() thus it is always possible to
normalize a finite function

Dirac notations < I >

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 Mean value
• If 1 and 2 are associated with the same
eigenvalue o: O(a1 +b2)=o(a1 +b2)
• If not O(a1 +b2)=o1(a1 )+o2(b2)
we define ō = (a2o1+b2o2)/(a2+b2)

Dirac notations

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 Sum, product and commutation of
operators
(A+B)=A+B
eigenvalues

(AB)=AB wavefunctions

y1=e4x y2=x2 y3=1/x

operators

d/dx 4 -- --

x 3
3 3 3 23
 Sum, product and commutation of operators
[A,C]=AC-CA0

[A,B]=AB-BA=0
[B,C]=BC-CB=0

y1=e4x y2=x2 y3=1/x

not compatible
operators
A = d/dx 4 -- --

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 Compatibility, incompatibility of operators
[A,C]=AC-CA0
When operators commute, the physical quantities
[A,B]=AB-BA=0 may be simultaneously defined (compatibility)
[B,C]=BC-CB=0
When operators do not commute, the physical
quantities can not be simultaneously defined
(incompatibility)

compatible
operators
y1=e4x y2=x2 y3=1/x

not compatible
operators
A = d/dx 4 -- --

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x and d/dx do not commute, are incompatible

Translation and inversion do not commute, are incompatible

Translation
vecteur vector
de translation

Centrecenter
Inversion d'inversion
A T(A)
I(T(A)) O

I(A) T(I(A)) O A

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 Plane waves

This represents a (monochromatic) beam, a

continuous flow of particles with the same
velocity (monokinetic).
k, , , p and E are perfectly defined
R (position) and t (time) are not defined.
*=A2=constant everywhere; there is no
localization.
If E=constant, this is a stationary state,
independent of t which is not defined.
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 Correspondence principle 1913/1920

For every physical quantity

one can define an operator.
The definition uses
formulae from classical
physics replacing
quantities involved by the
corresponding operators
Niels Henrik David Bohr
Danish
1885-1962 QM is then built from classical physics in spite
of demonstrating its limits

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 Operators p and H
We use the expression of the plane wave
which allows defining exactly p and E.

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Momentum and Energy Operators

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 Kinetic energy

Classical quantum operator

In 3D :

Calling the laplacian

Pierre Simon, Marquis de Laplace

(1749 -1827)
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 Correspondence principle
angular momentum

Classical expression Quantum expression

lZ= xpy-ypx

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Correspondence principle
angular momentum

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Correspondence principle
angular momentum

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 Time-dependent Schrödinger Equation

Without potential E = T
With potential E = T + V

Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger

Austrian
1887 –1961

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 Schrödinger Equation for stationary states

Potential energy
Total energy
Kinetic energy 40
 Schrödinger Equation for stationary states

Remember

H is the hamiltonian

Sir William Rowan Hamilton 41

Irish 1805-1865
 Uncertainty principle

the Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that

locating a particle in a small region of space
makes the momentum of the particle uncertain;
and conversely, that measuring the momentum of
a particle precisely makes the position uncertain

We already have seen incompatible operators

Werner Heisenberg
German
1901-1976

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 Uncertainty principle
A more accurate calculation localizes more
(1/2 the width of a gaussian) therefore one gets

Werner Heisenberg
German x and p or E and t play symmetric roles
1901-1976 in the plane wave expression;
Therefore, there are two main uncertainty principles

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Certain concept

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Normalization

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Normalization

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Normalization

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Uncertainity principle

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Uncertainity Principle

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Seperation of variable

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