Off-Grid System Design

Brian Teitelbaum
Applications Engineer

January 27, 2017

San Diego, CA
 Introduction

• Disclaimer
AEE Solar is a distributor of goods and services used in the
deployment of PV and wind distributed power systems. We are not
accountants, attorneys or Code-making experts. The information
presented here represents the equipment, rules and best practices
that we are aware of. However, local and project-specific
requirements can vary widely.
 What is an “Off-Grid” system?

• No access to the electrical grid

• Batteries used to provide for loads when it’s dark or cloudy
Often referred to as Battery-Based systems
• Modules and racking are usually the same as used in grid-tie systems
• Most other components are specialized
 Types of Off-Grid systems

• PV/wind direct
Loads are run directly from renewable energy source
No energy storage (batteries)
Loads typically motors (pumps, fans, etc.) that run directly from the energy source

• DC-Only
All loads run on DC from a battery
Batteries charged by PV, wind turbine, generator, etc.

• AC-only
All loads run on AC power from an inverter or AC generator
Most common type of Off-Grid system used for homes

• AC/DC
Both AC and DC loads are powered by the system

• Hybrid
Derives energy from more than one source
i.e. PV and wind, PV and utility grid, or PV and a generator
 PV, Hydro, or Wind-direct Systems
• Load is run directly from renewable power source, without energy
storage (batteries).

• Generally used only with motors, like pumps and fans, which can run
directly from a DC energy source.

• Loads can only run when energy is available from the production source
since there is no energy storage

• Very simple systems– minimal equipment needed

• Loads run at variable speed depending on energy available from

source: PV-direct systems do not work at night

• Current limited: only the amount of current that is directly produced by

the energy source is present. Often means that overcurrent devices are
not needed as long as the conductors are sized to handle full current

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Example of a PV-Direct system
Grundfos SQFlex water pumping system

1) Grundfos SQFlex pump

2) Submersible pump cable
3) Cable ties
4) Pump support rope or cable
5) Well seal
6) PV array
7) PV array mounting structure
12) IO-50 SQFlex on/off switch box

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 DC-Only systems
• Battery bank size & voltage drives
design
DC load magnitude and run time
determines minimum battery size
No AC loads or inverter

• PV, wind, etc. used to charge the

battery bank
Constant power from intermittent
source

• Common applications include

lighting, communications, telemetry,
signage and data logging

• Example: Weather station

PV array and mounting structure
12 VDC Battery
PWM Charge controller
Weather sensors and data
logger/transmitter
For AEE Internal Use Only.
 AC –Only systems

• AC from an inverter powers all of

the electrical loads
Any type of AC load can be powered
Inverter output limits total load draw
Appliances and wiring are standard
and easy to find

• Inverter draws from battery bank

PV array/wind turbine/etc. charges
batteries as in DC-only system
PV Arrays and other charging
sources are connected to charge
controller(s) rather than inverter
Most inverters can enable battery-
charging from an AC generator

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 AC/DC systems

• Both AC and DC loads are

powered by the off-grid power
system
DC loads powered directly from
battery output
AC loads powered by inverter or
generator

• Requires separate AC & DC

electrical circuits

• Most common in Boats and RV’s

Note that mobile inverters have
special grounding requirements

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Hybrid systems

• Energy is produced by more

than one source, for instance
PV and wind, or PV and hydro,
or PV and a generator.

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 How does Off-Grid system design differ
from Grid-Tie system design?

Grid-Tie (Net-Metered) Off-Grid

• Energy production based on • Energy production based on
yearly consumption daily or weekly consumption

• Some energy used directly as it’s • Some energy used directly as

produced, and some energy is it’s produced, and some energy
sent to the grid (stored as credit) is stored in batteries

• PV array size based on yearly • PV array sized based on energy

energy production production during the darkest
time of year

• Inverter size matches array size • Inverter size based on peak AC

load, not on array size

• Simple – few components • Complex – many components

• If the system fails, the lights stay • If the system fails, the lights go
out
on
 Off-Grid System Components

• Battery-based inverter(s)

• Charge controller(s)

• Energy production source(s):

PV, wind turbine, micro-hydro turbine, engine generator, etc

• PV array combiner box

• Battery bank

• DC switchgear and over-current protection

• AC switchgear and over-current protection

• Battery monitor and other system controllers

For AEE Internal Use Only.

Off-Grid System Diagram
 Off-Grid System Sizing

The purpose of the off-grid power system is to provide

power to run loads

System design begins with an analysis of the loads that need to be powered
 User Information That You Will
Need to Collect
Daily consumption (Watt-hours)
How much energy will the application consume each day? Is it seasonal?
For each load, multiply the power draw by the hours it is used per day
For appliances, divide the Energy Star annual consumption kWh by 365
http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=products.pr_find_es_products

Peak load (Watts) and characteristics (VDC/VAC/Hz)

Sum of all loads that may be run simultaneously
Separate AC and DC Loads
Voltage and frequency the loads require

Days of Autonomy (Energy storage)

How many days in a row will the loads need to run with little or no sun
 Don’t neglect to account for heavy snows

Sun-Hours per day during darkest month (kWh/day)

This is the available solar resource
Use Winter Solstice time frame rather than annual average if loads will be run
during winter
 Load Analysis

Load Worksheet –
2016 AEE Solar Catalog and Design Guide – Page 9
 Load Analysis
Excel version of Loads Worksheet

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Load Analysis
for Refrigerators and Freezers

Use kWh
per year Enter in
figure for running
Watt-hour Watts for
calculation peak load
figure

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Load Analysis
Add the inverter tare loss as a load
(inverter self consumption)

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Load Analysis
Peak Load

• The Peak Load figure is used to size the minimum full power output
of the inverter required.

• Choose an inverter with a power rating above the peak wattage that
the loads can draw

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Load Analysis
Average Daily Consumption

Divide weekly watt-hour consumption by 7 to get the average daily consumption:

• 57767 ÷ 7 = 8252 Wh/day average

• This figure is used as the basis for both battery sizing and PV array sizing

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Don’t Forget “Phantom” Loads

123.5W x 24 hrs = 2964 Wh/day

Load Analysis Example

Daily consumption
(Watt-hours )
7432 Wh – energy
consumed by loads
8543 Wh – energy drawn
from battery

Peak load (Watts) and

characteristics
(VDC/VAC/Hz)
4934 W @ 120VAC
- use a 5000W inverter
 Site Analysis

• What is the solar energy potential at the site?

• Peak sun-hours, seasonally?
• Shade or orientation issues?
• How much mounting space?
 PV arrays for Off-Grid systems are based on the peak sun-hours during
the darkest month of the year, not the yearly average

• Are there any other possible energy sources other than PV?
• Wind potential?
• Hydro potential?
 Wind or Hydro turbines can produce power when sunlight is not available
and can add greatly to the energy production reliability of off-grid systems

• How many cloudy days in a row should the design be based on?
• How much generator run time?
 Most Off-Grid systems require some sort of back-up power, usually a
generator, for extended cloudy weather.
 PV Array Sizing
Peak Sun-Hours

NREL Red Book

 PV Array Sizing
Peak Sun-Hours

AEE Solar Catalog Maps

• In Reference Section in
the back of the Catalog

• These maps show the

Peak Sun-Hours for the
darkest month of the
year

 NOT the yearly average

• They are useful for

sizing off-grid systems,
not grid-tie systems
PV Array Sizing
Peak Sun-Hours

Yearly Average – 4.66

December average – 3.22

 PV Array Sizing
for MPPT Controllers
• String operating voltage must be between battery charging voltage and
controller limit (usually 150 VDC)
Power will drop off dramatically if the charge point of the array falls below the
battery voltage

• A 48 VDC battery charges at 56 VDC or more

2 modules x 26.1 VDC = 52.2 VDC
2 60-cell modules in series will typically not charge a 48 VDC battery

• Most 60 cell modules will exceed 150 VDC in strings of 4

• A 48 VDC battery requires 3 modules in series only

• A 24 VDC battery can use either 2 or 3 modules in series

• A 12 VDC battery can use 1, 2, or 3 modules in series

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 PV array combiner boxes

• Each parallel string of modules must have circuit protection

Most modules have a 15 A circuit rating
Under fault conditions, the array can be exposed to full short
circuit current of the battery bank

• The breakers in these circuits must be rated for the

maximum voltage
Maximum voltage for many of these systems will be 150 VDC

• High-voltage charge controllers require higher voltage

breakers or fuses

• All array circuits going to each charge controller must have

a separate and isolated feeder to that charge controller

• Some combiner boxes have the capacity for two separate

circuits
Multiple combiners may be more convenient for wire
management

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Balance of System:
Charge Controller Circuit Protection
• Disconnects and circuit protection are required between the PV array and
the charge controller, and between the charge controller and the battery

• A circuit breaker is normally used for 150 VDC PV input circuits to controller
This breaker must be sized for 156% (125% x 125%) of Isc of array (STC)

Breaker not to exceed the maximum input amperage rating for the charge controller

Wire between breaker and the combiner box must meet or exceed the current
rating of the breaker used

• The charge controller breaker and disconnect serves as the battery breaker
If it matches the charge controller output rating it must be rated for continuous
duty
If not rated for continuous duty at full amperage, size to 125% of max current

If the charge controller will be operated near its limit, oversize the battery breaker
slightly to avoid nuisance tripping

• Charge controllers must have DC Ground Fault Protection

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Choosing System DC Voltage
Selecting the best DC system voltage depends on a variety of factors

• Peak load - 12VDC is fine for peak loads up to about 1000W.

- 24VDC is fine for peak loads up to 2000W
- 48VDC is best for peak loads over 2000W

• Size of PV array - A single MPPT 80A charge controller will handle up to 1000W of
PV in a 12V system, but will handle up to 2000W in a 24V system
and up to 4000W in a 48V system

• Battery bank - Higher system voltage means more 2V cells in series

so fewer parallel strings will be needed to gain the same amount of
energy storage

• Voltage of any DC loads - If there are DC loads, that may define what the system
voltage should be.

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Energy Production Sources for
Charging Batteries
• PV modules
● Very reliable and predictable energy source
● Usable almost everywhere

• Wind Turbines
● Excellent source of supplemental energy in windy areas
● Generally intermittent and unpredictable
● Site specific

• Micro-Hydroelectric Turbines
● Excellent primary or secondary energy source
● May be seasonal or year-round
● Site specific

• Engine Generators
● Diesel, Gasoline, Propane
● Noisy, dirty, but predictable (if maintained properly)
● Use non-renewable energy (unless bio-diesel)
For AEE Internal Use Only.
 PV Charge Controller Types
• Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) controllers

Examples: Morningstar SunSaver, ProStar, TriStar PWM

Schneider C-Series

Pros: Inexpensive ($150-$300) and compact

Cons: Input voltage limitations (12/24/48VDC)

• Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) controllers

Examples: OutBack FM-60 and FM-80

MidNite Solar Classic
Morningstar TriStar MPPT
Schneider XW MPPT-150 or XW MPPT-600

Pros: Maximized energy harvest

Wider input voltage range (up to 150VDC, 200VDC, 250VDC, or even
600VDC)

Cons: More Expensive; Physically larger

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Off-Grid PV Array Sizing Worksheets – pages 12-13 (2013 edition)

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 PV Array Sizing
for PWM controllers
• Find the current the array must produce
𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐴ℎ) × 1.2
= 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠
𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚2 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦

• Select a PV module
Find the peak current rating (Imp) on the module data sheet

• Determine the number of parallel strings required

𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠
= 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝐼𝑚𝑝

• Determine the number of modules per string

12V modules (36-cell) : 12V system = 1 per string
24V system = 2 per sting

24V modules (72-cell) : 12V system = NA

24V system = 1 per string
• Determine the total number of modules
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 × 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
For AEE Internal Use Only.
 MPPT Charge Controllers
• Charge controllers for modern 60 cell modules must be
MPPT type
MPPT = Maximum Power Point Tracking

• An MPPT controller will convert the input voltage to the

correct voltage for charging the battery

• Array voltage must be higher than the battery voltage

• MPPT Charge controllers are current limited

A 4kW array will need one 80 A change control for a 48 VDC
battery, but will require two controllers for a 24 VDC
battery
80 A x 48 VDC = 3,840 W, 80 A x 24 VDC = 1,920 W

• The PV array will rarely put out full rated power except
at high altitude sites
Reasonable oversizing of array vs. charge controller can
minimize cost
Always have overcurrent protection between array and
controller
For AEE Internal Use Only.
 PV Array Sizing

8533 Wh/day x 1.25 = 10667 Wh - needs to be produced by

the PV array per day, on
average

 The 1.25 factor accounts for the battery charge/discharge

efficiency losses over the life of the battery

10667 ÷ 3.22 sun-hours (Dec) = 3313W minimum PV array watts

3313W ÷ 280W module rating = 11.83 modules

Round up to 12 modules minimum

 15 modules would make the system more reliable and further
reduce generator time
 Battery Sizing
Design Considerations

• Number of expected cloudy days in a row

● The battery needs to store enough energy to power the loads

during periods of low energy production

● This is called “days of autonomy”

● Use 3 days to 50% DOD in most of the US

● Use of a back-up generator can reduce the days of autonomy

● A larger PV array can reduce the days of autonomy

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Battery Sizing
Depth of Discharge

• Desired Daily Depth of Discharge (DOD) in percentage

● Batteries last longest with shallow daily DOD, and are worn out
faster with deeper daily discharges.

● Aim for 15-20% daily DOD, with only rare discharges of more
than 50% DOD for best battery life

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Depth of Discharge

• Deep Discharging will shorten

battery life

• Deep-Cycle Batteries are designed

for up to 80% DoD
Shallower cycles will enable longer life

• Never leave batteries discharged for

more than a few days!
Sulfation of the battery plates will
permanently decrease capacity

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Battery Sizing
Design Considerations

● Peak load

● Peak Watts ÷ Battery Voltage = Peak Amps

● Batteries need to be large enough to deliver

the amperage drawn by the peak load without
excessive voltage drop.

● Multiply peak DC amps by 10 for ideal battery sizing

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Battery Sizing
Design Considerations
• Peak Charging Amperage

● Batteries can only absorb a charge at a certain rate

● Excessive charging current can cause violent gassing,

overheating, plate warping, and plate sloughing

● Sealed batteries should not be charged faster than a rate

equal to about 1/10th of their Ah capacity rating (C/10 rate)

● Flooded batteries should not be charged faster than a rate

equal to about 1/5th of their Ah capacity rating (C/5 rate)

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Battery Sizing
Temperature Correction
• Correction for Battery Temperature -

● Batteries lose some of their apparent capacity at low

temperatures

● At 32°F a lead-acid battery will only deliver about 72%

of its rated capacity

● See temperature correction chart in the

Battery Sizing Worksheet on page 167
of the 2012 AEE Catalog or use
manufacturer’s recommendations

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Battery Bank Wiring

• Series: Voltage is additive; rated Ah capacity remains

same
Positive of Battery 1 is connected to negative of Battery 2 and
so on
Example: Two 12V, 220Ah batteries in series will yield a 24V,
220Ah battery

• Parallel: Capacity is additive; DC voltage remains same

The positives are connected to each other, same for negatives
Output leads must be from first and last battery for electrical
balance
Manufacturers typically limit maximum number of parallel
strings to three
Example: Two 12V, 220Ah batteries in parallel will yield a 12V,
440Ah battery

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Battery Charging

• Lead Acid Batteries should be charged after every use to ensure they are
never stored in a discharged condition
If batteries are stored for extended periods of time they should be charged
approximately every 6 weeks
Between 105-120% of previously discharged capacity must be returned for full
charge
No need to fully discharge lead-acid batteries prior to charging
Charging should be temperature corrected
Always use charge controller’s temperature sensor when available

• Flooded Batteries need to be overcharged occasionally to ensure proper

mixing of the electrolyte and avoid stratification
“Equalization” - deliberate, periodic overcharge to prevent electrolyte stratification
Most charge controllers have an equalize charge setting

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Maintaining Flooded Batteries

• Add distilled water to cells AFTER charging

Never add acid/electrolyte to cells
Fill to 1/8” below the bottom of the fill well or to
maximum level indicator

• Do not overfill the batteries

• If the plates are exposed, add water to

discharged batteries to just above the plates
Do not fill all the way!

• Never add water to discharged batteries if the

electrolyte is visible above the plates!
This will cause the batteries to spill over when they
are charged

• Single-point watering systems can make it much

easier and safer
Be sure system is compatible with batteries used

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Maintaining Flooded Batteries

• Keep batteries clean and dry

• Check that all vent caps are tight

• Check that all connections are tight

• Terminal protector should be applied to terminals to reduce corrosion

• Use a solution of baking soda and water to clean any acid residue on
batteries or corrosion on the terminals

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Battery Safety

• Always wear personal protective

equipment when handling batteries
Chemical-resistant gloves, goggles or
face shield, acid-resistant apron and
boots

• Keep flames, sparks or metal objects

away from batteries
Use insulated tools
Do not smoke near batteries

• Neutralize acid spills with baking

soda immediately

• Ensure that vent caps are securely in

place before charging

• Provide proper ventilation to prevent

gas build up

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Battery Bank Sizing

Loads consume 8533 Wh/day

8533 Wh ÷ 48 VDC = 178 Amp-Hours/day (178 Ah)

Sunny winter areas should have about 2 days of energy storage

to a 50% Depth of Discharge (50% DoD)

 Multiply daily Ah by 4 - 178 Ah x 4 = 712 Ah battery bank

Dark winter areas should have about 3 days of energy storage to

a 50% DoD

 Multiply daily Ah by 6 - 178 Ah x 6 = 1068 Ah battery bank

 Sizing Results

The Load Analysis told us that the inverter needed to be rated for 5000W of
output power.

The Load Analysis told us that the loads, including inverter losses, consumed
8533 Wh/day

The Site Analysis told us that we needed to size the PV array for 3.22 peak
sun-hours

The Load and Site Analyses results of 8533 Wh and 3.22 peak sun-hours ,
times 1.25, told us the minimum array PV Watts needed – 3313W

The array PV Watts divided by the module wattage rating told us the number
of modules needed – 12 280W modules

The daily consumption of 8533 Wh ÷ battery voltage told us the daily AH

consumption – 178 Ah

The daily consumption times the number of days of autonomy told us the
battery bank rating in Ah – 178 Ah x 4 = 712 Ah for sunny-winter areas
- 178 AH x 6 = 1068 Ah for dark-winter areas
 System Options You Will
Need to Choose
Battery Type: Flooded, AGM, Gel or Advanced
Consider: Maintenance, shipping, handling, and storage requirements

Battery bank DC voltage : 12, 24, 48 VDC (or high-voltage)

Consider: Voltage of DC loads, size of system, available inverters
48VDC is generally most efficient and cost-effective for AC systems over 2kW

Charge controller type: PWM or MPPT

 Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) charge controllers
Inexpensive, compact
Usable with PV arrays having a “nominal” voltage the same as the battery
12/24/48 VDC nominal PV array
12V nominal modules - 36-cell 24V nominal modules - 72-cell

 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) charge controllers

Maximized energy production – operates array at maximum power point wattage
Array voltages up to 150, 200, 250, or 600 VDC

Module Type: 36-cell, 60-cell or 72-cell

Consider transportation and mounting limitations as well as module cost per watt
 Types of Off-Grid Inverters

• Modified Sine-Wave (Modified Square-Wave) inverters are inexpensive, but have a

non-sinusoidal wave form. These are very efficient, but some loads cannot be run on
them. They typically have a total distortion of up to 30%

• Sine-Wave inverters are the most commonly used in residential and commercial
systems. They have very clean power output that will run almost any AC load. They
typically have a total distortion of less than 5%

• Residential inverters are designed for stationary installations, such as homes and
businesses. They should be Listed to UL 1741

• Mobile inverters are designed for RV and marine use. They have “ground switching”
which allows for the system’s neutral/ground bond to either be inside the inverter, or
outside in the “shore power” connection. They should be Listed to UL 458

• Inverters may or may not have built-in battery chargers for charging batteries from
an AC source, such as a a generator.

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Off-Grid Inverter Sizing

• Find maximum AC load

Identify and sum all loads that may run
simultaneously
Sum up total Watts – this is the minimum
inverter continuous power rating required

• Identify any loads with high start-up or surge

current draws
Motors in pumps, compressors, and other
appliances with large inductive loads
Largest surge load determines minimum inverter
surge rating

• Identify any loads that may require 240VAC

To get 240VAC from a 120VAC inverter will
require a transformer or dual inverters

• Be sure to consider inverter’s no-load-draw

when sizing battery system and array

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Integration Hardware

• Over-current devices – breakers and fuses

• DC Ground-Fault Protection (GFP)

• Bus Bars

• Combiner boxes

• Grounding

• Generator Start Controls

• Amp-Hour Meters

• System Monitoring

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 System Monitors & Controllers

• Automate battery management

Allows you to adjust the bulk, absorption, float and equalization charge timing and
voltage set-points

• Turn on/shut off generators according to time of day or battery state of

charge

• May allow for remote monitoring/control via Internet

• May track battery state-of-charge through amp-hour metering

Every Off-Grid system

should have an amp-
hour meter installed

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Pre-Assembled Power Systems

• Factory pre-wired power systems simplify

design and installation
Several common sizes & configurations

• Most Power Systems include:

Inverter(s)
Controller and networking devices
Battery monitor
Integration hardware and BOS
Enclosures, Breakers, GFDI, Bypass, etc.
Charge controllers

• AEE can provide custom configurations that

are ETL marked to streamline inspections
Note that multi-inverter systems are shipped in
crates

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Inverter Systems
Points to Consider

• A central location is desired to connect wiring and install breakers

There needs to be a DC load center and an AC load center, or one load center for
both AC and DC. Most of these systems are for indoor mounting only

• A battery-based inverter can have a very large current draw

Especially when battery voltage is lower

• The main DC breaker for these inverters is 125A to 250A

The inverter manufacturer or supplier will generally specify breaker sizes
Breaker size is generally maximum power output in watts divided by battery voltage
x 1.5, but sometimes larger

• Wire size for battery and

inverter circuits will
commonly be AWG 2/0 or
AWG 4/0 cable
Keep connection as short as
possible to minimize
voltage drop
Under 10ft is best

For AEE Internal Use Only.

 Off-Grid System Design

Questions?

Contact: Brian Teitelbaum at [email protected]

800-777-6609 ext 7856