The Industrial Revolution, which took place from the 18th to 19th centuries,

was a period during which predominantly agrarian, rural societies in Europe

and America became industrial and urban. Prior to the Industrial Revolution,
which began in Britain in the late 1700s, manufacturing was often done in
people’s homes, using hand tools or basic machines. Industrialization marked
a shift to powered, special-purpose machinery, factories and mass production.
The iron and textile industries, along with the development of the steam
engine, played central roles in the Industrial Revolution, which also saw
improved systems of transportation, communication and banking. While
industrialization brought about an increased volume and variety of
manufactured goods and an improved standard of living for some, it also
resulted in often grim employment and living conditions for the poor and
working classes.

A number of factors contributed to Britain’s role as the birthplace of the

Industrial Revolution. For one, it had great deposits of coal and iron ore, which
proved essential for industrialization. Additionally, Britain was a politically
stable society, as well as the world’s leading colonial power, which meant its
colonies could serve as a source for raw materials, as well as a marketplace
for manufactured goods.

As demand for British goods increased, merchants needed more

cost-effective methods of production, which led to the rise of mechanization
and the factory system.

INNOVATION AND INDUSTRIALIZATION

The textile industry, in particular, was transformed by industrialization. Before

mechanization and factories, textiles were made mainly in people’s homes
(giving rise to the term cottage industry), with merchants often providing the
raw materials and basic equipment, and then picking up the finished product.
Workers set their own schedules under this system, which proved difficult for
merchants to regulate and resulted in numerous inefficiencies. In the 1700s, a
series of innovations led to ever-increasing productivity, while requiring less
human energy. For example, around 1764, Englishman James Hargreaves
(1722-1778) invented the spinning jenny (“jenny” was an early abbreviation of
the word “engine”), a machine that enabled an individual to produce multiple
spools of threads simultaneously. By the time of Hargreaves’ death, there
were over 20,000 spinning jennys in use across Britain. The spinning jenny
was improved upon by British inventor Samuel Compton’s (1753-1827)
spinning mule, as well as later machines. Another key innovation in textiles,
the power loom, which mechanized the process of weaving cloth, was
developed in the 1780s by English inventor Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823).

Developments in the iron industry also played a central role in the Industrial
Revolution. In the early 18th century, Englishman Abraham Darby
(1678-1717) discovered a cheaper, easier method to produce cast iron, using
a coke-fueled (as opposed to charcoal-fired) furnace. In the 1850s, British
engineer Henry Bessemer (1813-1898) developed the first inexpensive
process for mass-producing steel. Both iron and steel became essential
materials, used to make everything from appliances, tools and machines, to
ships, buildings and infrastructure.
The steam engine was also integral to industrialization. In 1712, Englishman
Thomas Newcomen (1664-1729) developed the first practical steam engine
(which was used primarily to pump water out of mines). By the 1770s, Scottish
inventor James Watt (1736-1819) had improved on Newcomen’s work, and
the steam engine went on to power machinery, locomotives and ships during
the Industrial Revolution.

TRANSPORTATION AND THE INDUSTRIAL

REVOLUTION

The transportation industry also underwent significant transformation during

the Industrial Revolution. Before the advent of the steam engine, raw
materials and finished goods were hauled and distributed via horse-drawn
wagons, and by boats along canals and rivers. In the early 1800s, American
Robert Fulton (1765-1815) built the first commercially successful steamboat,
and by the mid-19th century, steamships were carrying freight across the
Atlantic. As steam-powered ships were making their debut, the steam
locomotive was also coming into use. In the early 1800s, British engineer
Richard Trevithick (1771-1833) constructed the first railway steam locomotive.
In 1830, England’s Liverpool and Manchester Railway became the first to offer
regular, timetabled passenger services. By 1850, Britain had more than 6,000
miles of railroad track. Additionally, around 1820, Scottish engineer John
McAdam (1756-1836) developed a new process for road construction. His
technique, which became known as macadam, resulted in roads that were
smoother, more durable and less muddy.

COMMUNICATION AND BANKING IN THE

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Communication became easier during the Industrial Revolution with such

inventions as the telegraph. In 1837, two Brits, William Cooke (1806-1879)
and Charles Wheatstone (1802-1875), patented the first commercial electrical
telegraph. By 1840, railways were a Cooke-Wheatstone system, and in 1866,
a telegraph cable was successfully laid across the Atlantic.The Industrial
Revolution also saw the rise of banks and industrial financiers, as well as a
factory system dependent on owners and managers. A stock exchange was
established in London in the 1770s; the ​New York​ Stock Exchange was
founded in the early 1790s. In 1776, Scottish social philosopher Adam Smith
(1723-1790), who is regarded as the founder of modern economics, published
“The Wealth of Nations.” In it, Smith promoted an economic system based on
free enterprise, the private ownership of means of production, and lack of
government interference.

QUALITY OF LIFE DURING INDUSTRIALIZATION

The Industrial Revolution brought about a greater volume and variety of

factory-produced goods and raised the standard of living for many people,
particularly for the middle and upper classes. However, life for the poor and
working classes continued to be filled with challenges. Wages for those who
labored in factories were low and working conditions could be dangerous and
monotonous. Unskilled workers had little job security and were easily
replaceable. Children were part of the labor force and often worked long hours
and were used for such highly hazardous tasks as cleaning the machinery. In
the early 1860s, an estimated one-fifth of the workers in Britain’s textile
industry were younger than 15. Industrialization also meant that some
craftspeople were replaced by machines. Additionally, urban, industrialized
areas were unable to keep pace with the flow of arriving workers from the
countryside, resulting in inadequate, overcrowded housing and polluted,
unsanitary living conditions in which disease was rampant. Conditions for
Britain’s working-class began to gradually improve by the later part of the 19th
century, as the government instituted various labor reforms and workers
gained the right to form trade unions.

INDUSTRIALIZATION MOVES BEYOND BRITAIN

The British enacted legislation to prohibit the export of their technology and
skilled workers; however, they had little success in this regard.
Industrialization spread from Britain to other European countries, including
Belgium, France and Germany, and to the United States. By the mid-19th
century, industrialization was well-established throughout the western part of
Europe and America’s northeastern region. By the early 20th century, the U.S.
had become the world’s leading industrial nation.

______________________________________________________________

The main changes were:

● by 1914, England had become a great trading nation with a worldwide

empire, which covered a fifth of the globe
● a 260 per cent growth in population
● a change from agriculture to industry
● a move from domestic industry to factory work
● a move from water and wind power to steam engines
● a revolution in transport and communications, from canals and pack
horses, to railways and the telegraph

The growth of towns:

● In 1750, only about 15 per cent of the population lived in towns. By

1900 it was 85 per cent. This meant that there were far more people
around to work in new industries but also caused problems because
many more people needed foods and homes. This meant that poverty
was increasing.
● By 1900, London had 4.5 million inhabitants. The biggest other towns
were Glasgow with 760,000 inhabitants and Liverpool with 685,000.
Manchester and Birmingham had more than half a million people
 each. Much of the population had movedfrom the South-East to the
industrialised coalfield areas in the North and the Midlands.

Consequences for industry

Recent historians have undermined the idea of an 'Industrial Revolution
1780-1830'. They have claimed that:

The rate of economic growth between 1780 and 1830 was much slower than
previously thought.
There was significant industrialisation in Britain before 1780.
Some sectors of the economy grew, eg textiles, iron and coal, but the rest
stayed stagnant, or grew very slowly.
Most of England in 1851 was little different from England in 1751.
Many historians think that the likelihood is that Britain's economy grew
unevenly but gradually from 1700 to 1900, but there was no revolutionary
'spurt' of growth between 1780 and 1830. They are in opposition to traditional
historians who believe that industrial advancements such as machinery and
railways, revolutionised Britain, boosted the economy and laid the foundations
for long-term change.

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