Lesson 16 Introduction to GIS

16.1 Definition
A geographic information system (GIS) is basically a
computerized information system like any other database, but
with an important difference: all information in GIS must be
linked to a geographic (spatial) reference (latitude/longitude, or
other spatial coordinates).

There are many different definitions of GIS, as different users

stress different aspects of its use. For example:
(i) ESRI defined GIS as an organized collection of computer
hardware, software, geographic data and personnel designed to
efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze and
display geographically referenced information.
(ii) ESRI also provided a simpler definition of GIS as a
computer system capable of holding and using data describing
places on the earth’s surface. (Shown in Fig. 16.1).

Fig. 16.1. Real world data layers

(Source- IAI Summer Institute 19 July 2000).
(iii) Duecker defined GIS as a special case of information
systems where the database consists of observations on
spatially distributed features, activities or events, which are
definable in space as points, lines or areas. A GIS manipulates
data about these points, lines or areas to retrieve data for ad hoc
queries and analyses.
(http://www.naarm.ernet.in/virtual/downloads/GIS%20concep
ts.pdf)
16.1.1Toolbox-based definitions.
A powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will,
transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world.
(Burrough, 1986)
A system used for capturing, storing, checking, manipulating,
analysing and displaying data which are spatially reference to
the Earth. (Department of Environment, 1987)
An information technology stores, analyses, and displays both
spatial and non-spatial data. (Parker, 1988)
16.1.2 Database definitions.
A database system in which most of the data spatially indexed,
and upon which a set of procedures operated in order to answer
queries about spatial entities in the database. (Smith, 1987)
Any manual or computer based set of procedures used to store
and manipulate geographically referenced data. (Aronoff,
1989)
16.1.3 Organization-based definitions
An automated set of functions that provides professionals with
advanced capabilities for the storage, retrieval, manipulation
and display of geographically locate data. (Ozemoy, Smith, and
Sicherman, 1981)
An institutional entity, reflecting an organizational structure
that integrates technology with a database, expertise and
continuing financial support over time. (Crater, 1989)
A decision support system involving the integration of spatially
referenced data in a problem solving environment. (Cowen,
1988)
(http://www.tiger.esa.int/TrainingCds/cd_01/content_2/sez_2
_3/Unit-III-GIS.pdf)
16.1.4 System flow approach
From the very start, GIS practice emphasized the S word:
systems perhaps the most pervasive metaphor for the twentieth
century (Harvey, 1997b). Operations research, developed as a
distinct practice during World War II, provided a technique of
`systems analysis' that helped bring the computer into nearly
every part of modern life. GIS was not alone in being conceived
as a series of procedures that lead from input to output; from
data sources through processing to displays.
Marble (1990) elaborated the definition in more expansive
form by detailing four `subsystems':
1. A data input subsystem which collects and/or
processes spatial data derived from existing
maps, remote sensors, etc.
2. A data storage and retrieval subsystem which
organizes the spatial data in a form which
permits it to be quickly retrieved by the user
for subsequent analysis, as well as permitting
rapid and accurate updates and corrections to
be made to the spatial database.
3. A data manipulation and analysis subsystem
which performs a variety of tasks such as
changing the form of the data through user-
defined aggregation rules or producing
estimates of parameters and constraints for
various space-time optimization or simulation
models.
 4. A data reporting subsystem which is capable of
displaying all or part of the original database as
well as manipulated data and the output from
spatial models in tabular or map form. The
creation of these map displays involves what is
called digital or computer cartography. This is
an area which represents a considerable
conceptual expansion of traditional
cartographic approaches as well as a
substantial change in the tools utilized in
creating the cartographic displays.
This definition offers a sense of the stages of operation, but
little about the internals. The adjectives `quickly', `rapid' and
`accurate' tell us little about the means of organization. The
definition of one system as a set of four `subsystems', arranged
in linear sequence, adopts a recursive strategy in which systems
are explained by more systems.
While the basic system flow definition continues to be used, as
the widespread adoption of GIS began in the 1980s, there was
a sense that the definition was overly technical (Rhind 1996).
One of the most commonly cited alternatives was developed by
a Delphi panel of thirty specialists, Nicholas R Chrisman that
Geographic Information System is a system of hardware,
software, data, people, organizations and institutional
arrangements for collecting, storing, analyzing and
disseminating information about areas of the earth (Dueker and
Kjerne, 1989).
While definitions pop up everywhere, there is remarkably little
attention given to comparing definitions and to evaluating
them. Cowen (1988) provided four approaches to a definition:
process-oriented, application, toolbox, and database. Maguire
(1991) described the approach to GIS from three viewpoints:
the map view, the database view, and the spatial analysis view.
DeMers (1997) told that tools that allow for the processing of
spatial data into information, generally information tied
explicitly to, and used to make decisions about, some portion
of the Earth.
Star and Estes (1990) described that an information system that
is designed to work with data referenced by spatial or
geographic coordinates; both a database system with specific
capabilities for spatially-referenced data, as well as a set of
operations for working with the data.
Clarke (1997), referring to Burroughs (1986): A powerful set
of tools for storing and retrieving at will, transforming and
displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set
of purposes. He also told that it is an automated system for the
capture, storage, retrieval, analysis and display of spatial data.
Ron Abler (1988): GIS are simultaneously the telescope, the
microscope, the computer, and the Xerox machine of regional
analysis and synthesis of spatial data.
Although divisions of definitions occur in the literature, in
practice it is rather arbitrary to assign a particular definition to
just one approach. Some of the definitions reported come from
the traditional literature sources, but some are drawn from the
World-Wide Web, a forum of increasing importance for the
description of the field and its promotion to newcomers.
(http://www.naarm.ernet.in/virtual/downloads/GIS%20concep
ts.pdf)
16.1.5 Changing the subject
There has been a substantial effort to shift the emphasis by
declaring that GIS should stand for `Geographic Information
Science' (Goodchild 1992).
Goodchild's original intent was neatly summarized in his
unapologetic chapter in
Ground Truth:
GIS . . . has done much to remove the traditional isolation
between photo- grammetry, remote sensing, geodesy,
cartography, surveying, and geography (one could add to this
list computer science, operations research, spatial statistics,
cognitive science, behavioral psychology, and any other
discipline with interests in the generic issues of spatial data). In
an earlier paper, I argued that these were the disciplines of
geographic information science, and that it made more sense
for the research community to decode the GIS acronym in this
way, focusing on the generic issues of spatial data, rather than
on the limited solutions offered by today geographic
information system products (Goodchild 1995, p 42 emphasis
in original). (Nicholas, 1999)
A geographic information system (GIS), in a narrow definition,
is a computer system for the input, manipulation, storage and
output of digital spatial data. In a more broad definition it is a
digital system for the acquisition, management, analysis and
visualization of spatial data for the purposes of planning,
administering and monitoring the natural and socioeconomic
environment. It represents a digital model of geography in its
widest sense (shown in Fig. 16.2). (Gottfried Konecny.
Geoinformation-Remote Sensing Photogrammetry &
Geographical Information Systems).
 Fig. 16.2. Concept of a geographic information system
(Source-Geo-information, by Gotfried Conecny)
16.2. Component
There are four main components of a true GIS system (Marble
1990). These are:
1. Data input system: collects and/or processes
spatial data from existing sources such as maps,
remote sensing data, images, etc. Data can be
"collected" through digitizing, scanning,
interactive entry, etc.
2. Data storage and retrieval: organizes spatial data
and allows for quick retrieval and updates (i.e.,
editing).
 3. Data analysis and manipulation: allows for
changing form of data, simulation modeling,
spatial-temporal comparison, etc.
4. Output: displays spatial database and analysis in
graphic (i.e., map) or tabular form.
(Biology 483: Application of GIS (2002). Applications of
geographic Information
Systems (GIS): Introductory Lecture)
GIS component can also be divided by in this manner:
1. Computer hardware.
2. Sets of application software modules.
3. Skilled people to manage it.
1. Computer hardware
 Fig. 16.3. Major hardware components of a geographical
information system.
(Source-
http://www.tiger.esa.int/TrainingCds/cd_01/content_2/sez
_2_3/Unit-III-GIS.pdf)
Table: 16.1.The basic computer hardware components.

Item Usage

Hard disk drive Storing data and programs

Digital tape cassettes,

Storage of data
optical CD-ROM’s etc.

Converts maps and documents into

Digitizer or Scanner
digital form

Plotter, Printer or any

Gives the output of data processing
other display device

Local & Global electronic Provides Inter-Computer

network with either of the communication
following:
1. Optical fibre data
lines
2. Telephone lines with
‘modem’
 To control the computer and the
Computer screen,
peripherals such as the digitizer, plotter,
Keyboard & mouse or
printer etc. which are linked to the
other pointing device
computer

(Source: http://www.tiger.esa.int/TrainingCds/cd_01/conte
nt_2/sez_2_3/Unit-III-GIS.pdf)
2. GIS Software
The software modules can be grouped as follow-
1. Data input and verification
2. Data storage and database management
3. Data output and presentation
4. Data transformation
5. interaction with the user
(http://www.tiger.esa.int/TrainingCds/cd_01/content_2/sez_2
_3/Unit-III-GIS.pdf)
 Fig. 16.4. The main software components of a
geographical information system.
(Source-
(http://www.tiger.esa.int/TrainingCds/cd_01/content_2/sez_2
_3/Unit-III-GIS.pdf)
16.2.1 GIS Functional Components
Because of the different origins these systems have, it's
important to understand each of the functional components of
a GIS. Each of the various GIS software packages emphasizes
certain aspects of spatial data handling and deemphasizes or
omits others. The degree of emphasis placed on development
of certain features depends on the marketplace a vendor is
targeting. None of the current GIS software packages place
their emphasis on the defense community; therefore, an
understanding of the basic components of a GIS is needed.
Understanding these underlying concepts will help users in
their research of the technology and also in the development of
applications for the defense community (NSA, 2008).
Data capture and input processing
The first GIS component is Data Capture and Input Processing.
In order to successfully implement a GIS, one must have data
available for the study area. This includes the acquisition of the
data, its digitization, and the appropriate tagging of attributes.
Sources may include hard copy maps, existing digital data,
imaginary and tabular data. The format, coordinate system, and
geographic projection of the data must be known before input
into a GIS. One must also be able to generalize the data and
select only the amount of data are necessary for a particular
project. Digital data take up a huge amount of storage space on
computer systems; therefore the thinning and proper selection
of this data is important. Most of the GIS software packages
have algorithms and methods to aid in. this process. One must
also be aware of the amount of error that exists in the data being
used and fully understand its limits and implications in project
accuracy. Inherent data errors have been a traditional
bottleneck in the development of GIS technology. Research is
currently being done to help quantify this error (NSA, 2008).
Digital data formats
"All data that can be mapped have both a locationl (x,y) and
nonlocational (i.e., attribute) characteristics.. These attributes
can be both qualitative (e.g., the land use at a location) and
quantitative (e.g. the elevation at the same location). In addition
the attributes data location can be monitored through time.
These three components location, attribute and time - represent
the content of most GIS. This information has to be somehow
represented inside the GIS. Map data in this particular format
are called digital data, and the process of getting the data into
this format is called digitization. Digital data are represented in
the computer as large sets of numbers, not as analog images.
Two different data structures are commonly used to represent
map data inside the GIS: raster and vector representations. Four
fundamental types of geographic data have to be stored within
a GIS: point lines, polygons, and surfaces. T Raster and vector
data representations use different techniques to store points,
lines, polygons, and surfaces. These techniques will be
discussed because they provide a basis for comparison of the
two different types of digital data representations (NSA, 2008).
Data storage and data management
The second functional component of a GIS is the role of data
storage and the management of these data. Once the data
encoded in their proper digital format, they must be stored in
the GIS. Most of the GISs use a database mode to store these
data. Today's Geographic Information Systems can use either a
hierarchical network or a relational database model to achieve
this component. The geographic information is arranged in files
of related information, each file being called a layer. Each of
these layers can be combined or overlaid upon each other to
form new layers. These newly created layers form the basis for
geographical analysis and can be queried to answer questions
of interest to the user. Each of the attributes associated with this
geographic data is stored in the database alongside its data
structure and is queriable.
Since the amount of data needed is usually large, it's
recommended that someone interested in setting up a GIS
obtain the proper amount of disk storage. With the price of disk
space decreasing and the storage capability on each hard disk
drive increasing, the space requirements needed for these
databases are becoming obtainable. One must always pay
attention to the storage capacity demands of both the GIS
package itself and the digital data being used for the project
(NSA, 2008).
Data manipulation
The third functional component of a GIS is the role of data
manipulation. To extract meaningful information from a GIS
.database, one must be able to query it and ask logical
questions. The leading database model used in GIS technology
is the relational database. Relational databases have the ability
to join different attribute tables to create new relationships
among the data. This concept is important to the GIS in that the
geographic data are stored in the database along with its
attribute tables, which enhance the geographic data. This
relationship helps make all features within a GIS queriable.
When layers of data are combined, the attribute information for
this material is carried along and also becomes queriable. As
new information is added to the database and geographic layers
are combined among themselves, the newly created geographic
and spatial queries aid in performing actual analysis on the data.
For example, a typical query could be to find all features of a
defined type within a certain area. Another is to find all features
that are adjacent to a specified feature. A third is to find all
features that are a certain distance from another defined feature.
A point and click type query could also be implemented (e.g.,
point to a road and tell me the attributes that are associated with
that road) (NSA, 2008).
Data display and output
The fourth and final functional component of a GIS is the role
of data display and output. All GIBs should include software
for this capability and they should provide means for both soft-
and hardcopy output. The ability to interface with output
peripherals such as wax thermal printers and plotters to be able
to produce a map depicting the results of analysis is important
to say the least. Report generation and business graphic
generation are necessary for some applications. Geographic
Information Systems have been found to be lacking in this
arena. Tabular data could be imported into desktop publishing
packages or spreadsheet packages with little trouble to
compensate for this deficiency. Spreadsheet packages could be
used to produce graphical output displays such as histograms
and time/frequency plots. One should also understand the types
of maps he wants to produce when evaluating GIS software
packages. Consider this list of maps when deciding what type
of output capability a package has: polygon/cloropleth maps,
contour/isarithm maps, three-dimension/perspective map and
grid-cell maps (NSA, 2008).
16.3 Architecture
Geographic information systems (GIS) are becoming more
usual due to the improved performance of computer systems.
GIS applications are being developed using the three-tier
software architecture traditionally used for general purpose
information systems. Even though this architecture is suitable
for GIS applications, the special nature and exclusive
characteristics of geographic information pose special
functional requirements on the architecture in terms of
conceptual and logical models, data structures, access methods,
analysis techniques, or visualization procedures. The
architecture of general-purpose information systems must
consist of three separate tiers, namely: the presentation tier, the
application logic tier (or business logic tier), and the data tier.
The main advantage of this architecture is that it enforces a
strict separation of the functionality of the system into three
different independent modules that interact only at well-
defined interfaces. This enables a developer to modify each one
of these modules of the application with little impact on the
others. Therefore, this architecture provides increased
performance, flexibility, maintainability, reusability and
scalability. Even though the three-tier architecture for general-
purpose information systems is suitable for GIS, the special
nature and exclusive characteristics of geographic information
pose special functional requirements on the architecture in
terms of conceptual and logical models, data structures, access
methods, analysis techniques, or visualization procedures. For
instance:
 Special data types and operations are needed to
represent and manipulate geographic information.
 Geographic information requires many different
analysis and visualization procedures.
 Geographic information is typically voluminous with
a naturally imposed hierarchical structure.
 Geographic information processing is characterized
by transactions that are much longer than a typical
standard relational database transaction.
 There are two different conceptual views of
geographic space: an object-based view and a field-
based view.
These and other features impact the overall architecture of a
GIS. (Miguel et al., 2005)
16.3.1 System Architecture
The special nature of geographic information makes more
important the fulfillment of some requirements of general-
purpose information systems, such as flexibility, extensibility,
reusability, scalability, reliability, and security. In order to
provide these features, the architecture of the GIS must be
based on an extensible DBMS providing geographic
information management services, and a collection of modular,
highly-distributed, geographic information processing and
visualization services (Miguel et al., 2005)
16.3.2 A Generic Architecture
This architecture is heavily influenced by the proposals of the
ISO/TC 211 and OGC, and reuses the work of these
organizations where their specifications are mature. Fig. 16.5
shows the proposal of a generic architecture for geographic
information systems. The architecture separates the
functionality of the system in three independent tiers, namely
the Data Tier, the Application Logic Tier and the Presentation
Tier. The Presentation Tier is responsible for implementing the
user interface of the system, displaying the maps and providing
some basic functionality over them. Finally, the Application
Logic Tier implements the problem-solving functionality of the
system. (Miguel et al., 2005)
 Fig. 16.5. A Generic System Architecture for GIS.
(Source: Miguel et al., 2005)
16.3.3 Web GIS Architecture:
In performing the GIS analysis tasks, WEB GIS is similar to
the client/server typical three-tier architecture. The geo-
processing is breaking down into server-side and client-side
tasks. A client typically is a Web browser. The server-side
consists of a Web server, Web GIS software and Database (Fig.
16.6) (Helali, 2001)
 Fig. 16.6. How a typical WEB GIS model works.
(Source: Alesheikh et al, 2001)
This model of network widely exists within enterprises, in
which some computers act as servers and others act as clients.
Servers simply have the proprietary GIS running, and add a
client interface at the client side and a middleware at the server
side to communicate between the client and the proprietary GIS
software. Recent development in object oriented programming
make it possible to produce software components, and send
them to the client before running it in the client machine, such
as Java classes, ActiveX components and plug-ins. This comes
out to the thick client GIS. The thick-client architecture let the
client machine do the most processing works locally. Both thin
and thick-client systems have some advantages and drawbacks,
but they are not the best solution in terms of taking advantage
of network resources. (Alesheikh et al, 2001)
16.3.3.1 Thin Client Architecture (Server Side
Applications)
The thin client architecture is used in typical architecture. In a
thin-client system, the clients only have user interfaces to
communicate with the server and display the results. All the
processing is done on the server actually as shown in Fig. 16.7.
The server computers usually have more power than the client,
and manage the centralized resources. Besides, the main
functionality is on the Server side in thin architecture there is
also the possibility for utility programs at the server side to be
linked to the server software. Fig. 16.3 shows schematic
communication between Web browser, Web Server and GIS
server. On the Web Server side, there are some possibilities to
realize the GIS connection to the World Wide Web; CGI, Web
Server Application Programming Interface (API), Active
Server Pages (ASP), Java Server Pages (JSP) and Java- Servlet.
The descriptions of the five possibilities mentioned above are
in Helali, (2001).

Fig. 16.7. Server Side Application.

(Source: Alesheikh et al, 2001)
The user on the client side does not need any knowledge about
the linkage of the IMS at the server side, but the system
administrator or application developers should be familiar with
these techniques. This Architecture used in ESRI ArcView
IMS, Map Objects IMS and MapInfo Map Xtreme systems.
Major advantages of this model driven form Data Base
centralization and are:
 Central control
 Easy for data eminence/updating
 Keep the latest version
 Generally cheaper
 Integration possibilities
 Regarding some cartographic aspects such
as font
And disadvantages are:
 Not responsive to local needs: users have
different invokes
 No local accountability: accountability need
application in client side
 Large data volume (size of the database)
 Response time slow: users use a browser and
it take long time to download new HTML
frame
 Less interactive: in client side there is
limited application and browsers abilities
  Vector data does not appear in client side:
browsers without additional plug-in cannot
read vector files.
(Alesheikh et al, 2001)
16.3.3.2 Thick Client Architecture (Client Side
Applications)
In general, a Web browser can handle HTML documents, and
embedded raster images in the standard formats. To deal with
other data formats like vector data, video clips or music files,
the browser's functionality has to be extended. Using exactly
the same client sever communication in Thin Client
architecture, vector files format could not be used. To
overcome this problem most browser applications offer a
mechanism that allows third tier programs to work together
with the browser as a Plug-in. The user interface functionality
has progressed from simple document fetching to more
interactive applications. This progress is as follows: HTML,
CGI, using HTML forms and CGI, Java script to increase user
interface capabilities, Java applets to provide client-side
functionality. Currently user interface capabilities combined
with remote invocations (Fig.16.8) (Byong-Lyol, 1998).

Fig. 16.8. Client Side Applications.

(Source: Alesheikh et al, 2001)
Major advantages of this model are:
  Document/graphics standards are not
required
 Vector data can be used
 Image quality not restricted to GIF and JPEG
 Modern interface is possible; it is not
restricted to single-click Operations
And disadvantages to Client Side GIS
 Nonconformance cans limits
 User base
 Users require to obtain additional software
 Platform/browser are incompatible
(Alesheikh et al, 2001)
16.3.3.3 Medium Client Architecture
For avoiding vector data in client side and reducing problems
of previous architectures, Medium Client is suggested. With
using extensions in both client and server side, clients may have
more functionally than Thin client architecture. In Fig. 16.9
these four components in interactive map are pictured as
services, each with interfaces, which can be invoked by clients
of that service. (Alesheikh et al, 2001)
 Fig. 16.9. Medium Client position in Open GIS point of
view.
(Source: Alesheikh et al, 2001)
In other words, if a user's computer contains just the display
service, then that user would be said to be using a thin client. If
the user's computer additionally contained a render service,
then that user would be said to be using a medium client. And
finally, if the user's computer also contained the display
element generator service that would indicate the user is using
a thick client. After some consideration, it was decided that
while this distinction may be somewhat helpful in describing
web mapping, the terms "thick client" and "thin client" were
already encumbered by very imprecise definitions used in
marketing literature and were therefore not suitable for
continued use in some cases (Doyle, 1999). (Alesheikh et al,
2001)
16.3.3.4 Distributed Architecture
Recent developments in information technology have resulted
in a number of distributed object architectures that provide the
framework required for building distributed applications. The
framework also supports a large number of servers and
applications running concurrently. Many of such frameworks
provide natural mechanism for interoperability (Kafatos,
1999). For example, Distributed Component Object Model
architecture in windows platform and Java Remote Method
Invocation (RMI) in Java Virtual Machine (JVM) are the most
popular protocols that are used in different cases. These
architectures may be applied to GIS to improve the traditional
client/server GIS model and develop scalable distributed GIS
model. Some attempts have been made in the academic area
(Zhang, 1998).
The general idea of the distributed GIS service model is that a
client program, in either an Internet browser or an independent
application, should be able to access the resources distributed
in the entire network. The resources here refer to both geo-data
and geo-processing components available in the network. The
client and the server in this context do not refer to a specific
machine. Any machine, when it requests the remote resources
during the processing, is a client, and any machine that provides
such resources is a server. In a specific program, a client may
connect to several servers if needed and a specific machine may
be the client at one time and the server at another time. An ideal
distributed GIS service model should be a "geo-data anywhere,
geo-processing anywhere" model, which means the geo-data
and geo-processing tool, could be distributed with the largest
flexibility virtually anywhere in the network. The geo-data and
geo-processing components do not have to be in the same site,
but they should be able to cooperate or integrate whenever they
are needed to finish a specific task (Yuan, 2000). (Alesheikh et
al, 2001).
Keywords: GIS, GIS Functional Components, GIS Software,
System Architecture, Web GIS.
References
 Alesheikh AA., Helali H., Behroz HA. K.N. 2001,
Toosi University of Technology. Web
 Biology 483: Application of GIS (2002). Applications
of geographic Information
 Generic Framework for GIS Applications. Spain.
 Geographical Information Systems.
 GIS: Technologies and Its Application.
 Gottfried Konecny. Geoinformation-Remote Sensing
Photogrammetry &
 http://www.naarm.ernet.in/virtual/downloads/GIS%2
0concepts.pdf
 http://www.tiger.esa.int/TrainingCds/cd_01/content_2
/sez_2_3/Unit-III-GIS.pdf
 IAI Summer Institute (2000). GIS: Definitions,
Software.
 Miguel Luaces R., Nieves Brisaboa R., José Paramá
R., and Jose R. Viqueira. A
 Nicholas Chrisman R (1999), What Does ‘GIS’
Mean? Washington.
 NSA (2008). Geographic Information Systems.
 Systems (GIS): Introductory Lecture.
 Lesson 17 Applications of GIS

17.1 Contributing Disciplines

GIS is convergence of technological fields and traditional
disciplines. GIS has been called an "enabling technology"
because of the potential it offers for the wide variety of
disciplines dealing with spatial data. Many related fields of
study provide techniques which make up GIS. These related
fields emphasise data collections while GIS brings them
together by emphasising integration, modelling and analysis.
Thus GIS often claims to be the science of spatial information.
Fig. 17.1 shows the technical and conceptual development of
GIS.
(http://www.geog.ubc.ca/courses/klink/gis.notes/ncgia/u01.ht
ml#SEC1.2). The list of contributing disciplines can be
classified according to (1) Heritage (2) Data Collection (3) Data
analysis (4) Data Reporting .
(http://gisserver.civil.iitd.ac.in/gislab/Lecture/Lecture%2001_
Introduction%20to%20GIS.pdf).

The contributing disciplines for the evolution of a GIS

(Burrough, 1998) are geography, cartography, remote sensing,
surveying and photogrammetry, computer science technology,
mathematics, and statistics.
(http://www.geog.ubc.ca/courses/klink/gis.notes/ncgia/u01.ht
ml#SEC1.2).

Fig. 17.1 GIS: the result of linking parallel developments

in many separate spatial data processing disciplines.
(Source: http://www.geog.ubc.ca/courses/klink/gis.notes/nc
gia/u01.html#SEC1.2)
Geography: is broadly concerned with understanding the
world and man's place in it. Geography has a long tradition in
spatial analysis, and provides techniques for conducting spatial
analysis and a spatial perspective on research.
Cartography: is concerned with display of spatial
information. It is now the main source of input data for GIS
(maps) and has a long tradition in the design of maps which is
an important form of output from GIS. It provides methods for
digital representation and manipulation of cartographic features
and methods of visualization.
Remote Sensing: is becoming an important source of
geographical data by providing digital images derived from
space and the air. Remote sensing provides techniques for data
acquisition and processing anywhere on the globe at a low cost,
and consistent update potential. While integrated with GIS,
remotely sensed imagery can be merged with other data in a
GIS providing real-time spatial information. The first part of
this book enlightens the concepts and the potential utility of
remote sensing.
Surveying and Photogrammetry: provide high quality data
on positions of cadastral objects like land parcel and building,
and topography. Aerial photogrammetry deals with the
photographs taken by an aerial camera on board aircraft at
different altitudes. Aerial photogrammetry is one of the most
powerful data-capturing techniques for the creation of GIS
spatial database. The relevant data can be extracted from the
aerial photographs of various scales (Fig. 17.2), and may be
used as input for GIS. Digital orthophotos provide the source
of digital data. These products are scanned airphotos that have
been rectified to eliminate displacement caused by variable
elevation of the ground surface and the tilt of the camera.
Properly registered with other digital data sets, these images
can be used directly as backdrops for vector data or to provide
a basemap for onscreen digitising. The user may abstract
information on land use, vegetation type and other aspects of
the landscape from the photograph. Curran (1989) identifies six
characteristics of aerial photographs of immense value as a data
source for GIS. They are (i) wide availability, (ii) low cost, (iii)
wide area views, (iv) time - freezing ability, (v) high spectral
and spatial resolution, and (vi) three-dimensional perspective.

Fig. 17.2. Varying scale on Aerial photographs.

(Source: http://www.geog.ubc.ca/courses/klink/gis.notes/nc
gia/u01.html#SEC1.2)
Geodesy: provides source of high accuracy positional control
for GIS. It concentrates on placing objects accurately on global
context. Many applications of GIS require use of optimizing
techniques for decision-making which involves Operational
research.
Computer Sciences: Computer Assisted Design (CAD)
provides software, techniques for data input, display and
visualisation, and representation, particularly in 3-dimensions.
Advances in computer graphics provide hardware and software
for handling and displaying graphic objects. Data Base
Management System (DBMS) contributes methods for
representing data in digital form and procedures for system
design and update. Artificial intelligence (AI) uses the
computer to make choices based on available data in a way that
is seen to enhance the human intelligence and decision-making.
Using AI, computer can act as an "expert" in such functions as
designing maps, generalizing map features and classification.
Mathematics: Several branches of mathematics, especially
geometry and graph theory, are used in GIS system design and
analysis of spatial data.
Statistics: is used to build models and perform spatial data
analysis in GIS. Statistics is also important in understanding
issues of error, quality and uncertainty in GIS data.
Availability of large quantities of spatial data in the form of
digital aerial photograph, digital remote sensing imagery,
advancement of computer hardware, software and software
development, increasing demand of spatial information for
management, and infrastructure development parameters, lead
to have a system to handle all these requirements. In order to
handle such data to meet these demands, to store, retrieve,
handle, analyse, manipulate, and display the results, it requires
computer based system. Such a system is Geographical
Information System (GIS).
(http://www.geog.ubc.ca/courses/klink/gis.notes/ncgia/u01.ht
ml#SEC1.2)
17.2 GIS Workflow
There are five essential elements that a GIS must contain. They
are data acquisition, preprocessing, data management,
manipulation and analysis, and product generation. For any
application of GIS, it is important to view these elements as a
continuing process. Figs. 17.3 and 17.4 show the work flow
process of GIS in procedural perspective. Data acquisition is
the process of identifying and gathering the data required for
any given application. Two main types of data acquisition are
primary data sources are those collected in digital format
specifically for use in a GIS project. Secondary sources are
digital and analog datasets that were originally captured for
another purpose and need to be converted into a suitable digital
format for use in a GIS project. The processes of data collection
are also variously referred to as data capture, data automation,
data conversion, data transfer, data translation, and
digitizing. Data collection is a time consuming, tedious, and
expensive process. Preparation involves obtaining data,
redrafting poor-quality map sources, editing scanned map
images, removing noise, setting up appropriate GIS hardware
and software systems to accept data. Digitizing and transfer are
the stages where the majority of the effort will be expended.
A GIS must be able to convert data from one structure to
another. The Data acquisition stage collects raw imagery data
that is redundant & needs to be stitched together into a more
apt data stream. Data pre-processing involves digitization of
the acquired data that includes:
 3D data processing- Creating realistic models of
buildings and structures by visualizing them in 3-
Dimensional environment is termed as 3D data
processing. Roof detail and elevation details of
building or structure are truly represented in this
process.
 Value addition to Image data for large scale
mapping- In order to transfer the spatial
components from images to maps, it is essential to
have accurate base maps on large scales. It is
necessary to generate large scale base maps for use
 in various thematic
applications.
(http://www.albireotelematics.com/pre_processing.html)

The other essential preprocessing procedures include: (a)

format conversion, (b) data reduction and generalisation, (c)
error detection and editing, (d) Merging of points into lines, and
lines into polygons, (e) Edge matching and tiling, (f)
Rectification/registration, (g) Interpolation, and (h)
Interpretation.
(http://www.geog.ubc.ca/courses/klink/gis.notes/ncgia/u01.ht
ml#SEC1.2).
The functions of database management govern the creation of
an access to the database itself. These functions provide
consistent methods for data entry, update, deletion, and
retrieval. Modern database management systems isolate the
users from the details of data storage, such as, the particular
data organisation on a mass storage medium. A modern
Database Management System (DBMS) is used to create GIS
database, that is, attribute database.
(http://www.geog.ubc.ca/courses/klink/gis.notes/ncgia/u01.ht
ml#SEC1.2).
Any DBMS makes assumptions about the data which it
handles. Two ways to use DBMS within GIS
 Total DBMS solution: In this all data are accessed
through the DBMS, so it must fit the DBMS
designer.
 Mixed solution: In this some data (usually attribute
tables and relationships) are accessed through the
 DBMS as they fit the model well, while some
data(usually locational) are accessed directly
because they do not fit the DBMS model.
(http://gis.nic.in/gisprimer/dbms.html)
Storage and retrieval mechanisms include the control of
physical storage of the data in memory, disk or tape, and
mechanisms for its retrieval to serve the needs of the other three
components. In a disaggregate GIS this data storage may be
physically more from the rest .of the system, and may meet the
database requirements. This module includes the software
structures used to organise spatial data into models of
geographic reality.
(http://www.geog.ubc.ca/courses/klink/gis.notes/ncgia/u01.ht
ml#SEC1.2)
The development of new derived data layers, which may form
the input to further analysis, is an important function of any
GIS. The list of data manipulation and analysis operations are,
(i) reclassification and aggregation, (ii) Geometric Operations:
as rotation, translation and scaling, rectification, and
registration, (iii) Controlled determination, (iv) Data structure
conversion, (v) Spatial operations of connectivity and
neighborhood operations, (vi) Measurement of Distance and
Direction, (vii) Statistical analysis as descriptive statistics
regression, correlation, and cross-tabulation, and (viii)
Modelling.
(http://www.geog.ubc.ca/courses/klink/gis.notes/ncgia/u01.ht
ml#SEC1.2)
 Fig. 17.3. Workflow process of GIS (Procedural
perspective)
(http://www.geog.ubc.ca/courses/klink/gis.notes/ncgia/u01.
html#SEC1.2)
This operation or subsystem represents the whole spectrum of
techniques available for the transformation of the digital model
by mathematical means. A library of data-processing
algorithms is available for the transformation of spatial data,
and incorporated in new visual maps. Using these techniques it
is possible to deliberately change the characteristics of the data
representation in order to meet theoretical requirements. It is
equally possible to mishandle or unintentionally distort the
digital map at this state.
(http://www.geog.ubc.ca/courses/klink/gis.notes/ncgia/u01.ht
ml#SEC1.2)
 Fig. 17.4. Workflow process of GIS (Procedural
perspective)
(Source:
http://people.aub.edu.lb/~webeco/GIS%20course.htm)
Output and Presentation is the phase where final outputs from
the GIS are created. These output products might include
statistical reports, maps, and graphics of various kinds. Some
of these products are softcopy images and some are hardcopy.
17.3 Standard Software
Software that is used to create, manage, analyze and visualize
geographic data is usually incorporated under the umbrella
term ‘GIS software’ (Steiniger & Weibel, 2009). Typical
applications for GIS software include the evaluation of places
for the location of new stores, the management of power and
gas lines, the creation of maps, the analysis of past crimes for
crime prevention, route calculations for transport tasks, the
management of forests, parks and infrastructure, such as roads
and water ways, as well as applications in risk analysis of
natural hazards, and emergency planning and response. For this
multitude of applications different types of GIS functions are
required and different categories of GIS software exist, which
provide a particular set of functions needed to fulfill certain
data management tasks. Different functional categories of GIS
software can be identified with respect to the tool sets that GIS
software offers, and with respect to the tasks that can be
accomplished. Such tasks involve basic activities that are
common to daily computer usage such as (1) data visualization
and exploration, (2) data creation, (3) data editing and (4) data
storage. Other common GIS tasks include (5) data conflation,
i.e., integration of data from different sources (Blasby, Davis,
& Kim, 2002), (6) data queries to select a subset of the data, (7)
data analysis, which we consider to be the creation of new
information (output) from existing data (input), (8) data
transformation, as some analysis tasks require the user to
transform, or manipulate, the data beforehand (e.g. transform
the data into a different coordinate system, or convert them
from raster to vector format), and lastly, (9) the creation of
maps - the most common method used to visualize analysis and
query results. (Hunter & Steiniger, 2012).
GIS software is the processing engine and a vital component of
an operational GIS. It is made up of integrated collections of
computer programs that implement geographic processing
functions. The three key parts of any GIS software system are
the user interface, the tools (functions), and the data manager.
All three parts may be located on a single computer or they may
be spread over multiple machines in a departmental or
enterprise configuration. (Longley, 2005).
Steiniger and Weibel (2009) identified seven major types of
GIS software: (i) Desktop GIS, (ii) Spatial Data Base
Management Systems (SDBMS), (iii) Web Map Server, (iv)
Server GIS, (v) Web GIS clients, (vi) Mobile GIS, and (vii)
Libraries and Extensions. For the purpose of this survey we did
split the last category “Libraries and Extensions” into the two
categories: “Libraries” and “GIS Extensions, Plug-ins and
APIs”. Web Map Server and Web GIS clients have been
subsumed under the category “Software for Internet Mapping
Applications”. Furthermore, we extend the set to include two
additional categories (viii) Remote Sensing Software, which
could be considered a special form of desktop GIS, and (ix)
Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis (ESDA) software. Fig. 1
characterizes the different software types with respect to GIS
functionality as defined above.

Fig. 17.5. Different types of GIS software.

(Source: Steiniger and Weibel, 2009)
17.3.1Popular GIS packages
A large number of GIS software options are available as open-
source or commercial products. Following is a brief summary
of some of the more popular GIS packages. A large listing of
GIS software can be found at
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIS_software.
17.3.1.1 Proprietary GIS
 ArcGIS: ArcGIS is the name of a suite of GIS
software product lines produced by ESRI
(http://www.esri.com/). At the desktop GIS
level, ArcGIS can include: ArcReader, which
allows one to view and query maps created with
the other Arc products; ArcView, which allows
one to view spatial data, create maps, and
perform basic spatial analysis; ArcEditor, which
includes all the functionality of ArcView as well
as more-advanced tools for manipulation of
shape files and geodatabases; or ArcInfo, the
most advanced version of ArcGIS, which
includes added capabilities for data
manipulation, editing, and analysis. There are
also server-based ArcGIS products as well as
ArcGIS products for personal digital assistants
(PDAs). Extensions can be purchased separately
to increase the functionality of ArcGIS.
 AutoCAD: AutoCAD is popular engineering
CAD software produced by Autodesk
(http://usa.autodesk.com/). AutoCAD Map 3D
software is a leading engineering platform that
bridges the gap between CAD and GIS. When
combined with Autodesk Map Guide
 technology, AutoCAD Map 3D provides a way
to publish data to the Web or an intranet.
 Cadcorp: Cadcorp (http://www.cadcorp.com/)
is the developer of GIS software and Open GIS
standard (e.g., Read/Write Open-Source Post
GIS database). Products include a Spatial
Information System (SIS), which runs on
Microsoft Windows and encompasses desktop
GIS modules, ActiveX- and COM-based
developer kits, Web-based GIS software
(GeognoSIS), and a mobile data-capture
solution (mSIS).
 ERDAS IMAGINE: ERDAS IMAGINE is a
raster graphics editor and remote-sensing
application designed by ERDAS, Inc.
(http://www.erdas.com/). It is aimed primarily
at geospatial raster data processing that allows
the user to display and enhance digital images.
It is a toolbox allowing the user to perform
numerous operations on an image and generate
an answer to specific geographical questions.
 IDRISI: GIS developed by Clark Labs
(http://www.clarklabs.org/products/) at Clark
University, Massachusetts. IDRISI Andes is an
integrated GIS and image-processing software
providing over 250 modules for spatial analysis
and display. Originally developed under United
Nations sponsorship, the IDRISI is widely used
worldwide.
 Intergraph: Intergraph
(http://www.intergraph.com/) provides
 software and services for infrastructure
management for the electric, gas, water,
pipeline, utility, and communications industries.
Products include GeoMedia, GeoMedia
Professional, GeoMedia WebMap, and add-on
products for industry sectors, as well as
photogrammetry.
 MapInfo: MapInfo
(http://www.mapinfo.com/) GIS software
products include the desktop GIS software,
MapInfo Professional, MapXtreme 2005, and
MapXtreme Java for Webbased and desktop
client mapping, as well as developer tools such
as MapBasic.
 Micro Station: Micro Station is a suite of
CAD/GIS software products for 2-D and 3-D
design and drafting, developed and sold by
Bentley Systems (http://www.bentley.com/). It
is used by engineering designers for
transportation and for water and wastewater
utilities. Bentley also offers GIS-based water
resources modeling software for water, sewer,
and storm water systems (Sewer CAD, Water
CAD, and Storm CAD). (Johnson, 2009)
17.3.1.2 Open-Source GIS
 GRASS: GRASS (Geographic Resource
Analysis Support System) is a public-domain
open-source raster GIS developed as a general-
purpose spatial modeling and analysis package
(Neteler and Mitasova 2008). GRASS is a
raster/vector GIS, image processing system, and
 graphics production system. GRASS contains
over 350 programs and tools to render maps and
images on monitor and paper; manipulate raster,
vector, and sites data; process multispectral
image data; and create, manage, and store
spatial data. GRASS uses both an intuitive
Windows interface as well as command-line
syntax for ease of operation. (Johnson, 2009)
17.3.2 Desktop GIS Software
Desktop GIS software is probably the most common GIS
software in use. The company ESRI (2012) defines desktop
GIS as mapping software that is installed onto and runs on a
personal computer and allows users to display, query, update,
and analyze data about geographic locations and the
information linked to those locations. All traditional GIS tasks,
i.e., not tasks related to web and remote processing
applications, can be accomplished with a desktop GIS.
Sometimes, proprietary GIS software vendors distinguish in
software pricing between two or three categories of desktop
GIS with respect to the functionality that the software offers. In
the case of 3 desktop GIS categories so-called viewer
applications offer functionality for viewing and exploring data,
while editor applications provide, in addition to viewer
capabilities, the ability to create and update spatial data.
Analysis GIS software, also termed “Professional edition”,
Typically offers the highest level of functionality by adding
functions for data analysis, map creation, data conflation, etc.,
to editor applications. (DeMers, 2009).
17.3.3 Open Source GIS Software
Due to the lack of money for buying licenses one of the biggest
considerations is the use of Open Source software. There are
many analyzed software packages with a certified OSI Open
Source License 10. The software is divided into different
categories according to what it is used for. (DeMers, 2009).
17.3.3.1 OGC Spatial servers
There is a set of available software that helps to create OGC
services. This software is normally installed in a web server and
is configured to publish your data trough OGC standards. More
specifically for our purpose we consider the following
standards necessary: WMS, WFS, CSW, and WCTS.
Degree 11: free software initiative founded by the GIS and
Remote Sensing unit of the Department of Geography,
University of Bonn, and lat/long. It is the reference
implementation for the WMS standard. With more than one
single software package, degree is a set of building blocks to
construct OGC services. The software is right now under a big
rebuild and a new version 2.0mis expected to be released before
the end of the year.
 OGC Standards supported: WMS,
WFS, WCS, WCAS, WFS-G, WTS,
WCTS, and CSW.
 Read & Write interfaces: ORACLE
Spatial, PostGres/PostGIS, MySQL, other
JDBC-enabled databases, ESRI
Shapefiles, several raster data formats
(JPEG, GIF, PNG, (Geo) TIFF, PNM und
BMP).
 Architecture: Java-servlet
17.3.3.2 Geoserver 12: again a free software initiative. It has a
good community support behind and some projects funding its
further development. It is the reference implementation for the
WFS standard. The installation is easy and the documentation
complete. Right now it only supports one feature per table and
the mapping of complex schemas is not complete. There are
people working on solving those limitations though.
 OGC Standards supported: WMS, WFS.
 Read & Write interfaces: PostGIS, ESRI
Shapefile, ArcSDE and Oracle, VPF, MySQL,
MapInfo, KML…
 Architecture: Java-servlet
(Javier de la Torre)
17.3.3.3 Mapserver 13: Originally developed at the University
of Minnesota (UMN) through the NASA-sponsored ForNet
project, a cooperative effort with the Minnesota Department of
Natural Resources. The software has grown and is maintained
by an increasing number of developers (nearing 20) from
around the world and is supported by a diverse group of
organisations funding enhancements.
The project started before the creation of these OGC standards
and was later adapted to support them up to a certain degree.
Right now the WFS service is read only and transactions are
not supported. A bigger limitation is the lack of support of
filters in feature attributes and POST operations.
 OGC Standards supported: WMS, non-
transactional WFS, and WCS.
 Read & Write interfaces: ESRI shapefiles,
PostGIS, ESRI ArcSDE, TIFF/GeoTIFF,
EPPL7
  Architecture: CGI implemented in C, scripts in
different scripting languages.
(Javier de la Torre)
17.3.4 Software Manufacturers and Projects
GIS software is not only provided by companies but
increasingly also by free and open source software projects.
While commercial vendors usually offer products for all of
software categories, open software projects often concentrate
on a single category, e.g. desktop GIS or WebMap server. The
key players in the GIS software market today are Autodesk,
Bentley, ESRI Inc., GE (Smallworld), Pitney Bowes
(MapInfo), and Intergraph. GIS software companies tend to
target specific application domains. For instance, ESRI’s
ArcGIS product tends to be mainly used for business analysis,
planning, and environmental applications, while Autodesk, GE
and Bentley products are rather used in utility and facility
management. Competitive GIS software that is developed by
free software projects exists as well - especially with respect to
server applications (MapServer, GeoServer) and spatial DBMS
(PostGIS). Free desktop GIS projects, such as Quantum GIS
and gvSIG, currently experience growing user communities.
Such free GIS software rather complements the set of
proprietary software instead of competing with it. (Steiniger
and Weibel, 2009).
Table 17.1. Sites of proprietary software suites and to
those providing programs which are shareware, or low
cost, or entirely free of license. (Source: Liu and Mason,
2009)

Autodesk www.usa.autodesk.com
ERDAS www.erdas.com

ER Mapper www.ermapper.com

ESRI www.esri.com

FME Safe Software www.safe.com

Geo tools www.geotools.codehaus.org

Global Mapper www.globalmapper.com

GRASS www.grass.itc.it

Idrisi www.clarklabs.org

ILWISS www.itc.nl/ilwis

ITTVis ENVI www.ittvis.com/envi

JUMP GIS www.jump-project.org

Landserf www.landserf.org

Map Window www.mapwindow.org

MapInfo www.mapinfo.com

PCI Geomatics www.pcigeomatics.com

Quantum GIS opensource www.qgis.org

SAGA GIS www.saga-gis.org

Various independent www.rockware.com

Variowin www.sst.unil.ch/research/variowin

Virtuozo www.supresoft.com.

Table 17.2. Information and technical information on

standards, best practice, formats, techniques and various
publications. (Source: Liu and Mason, 2009)

Association for Geographic Information

www.agi.org.uk
(AGI)

British Geological Survey

www.bgs.ac.uk
(BGS)

Committee on Earth Observation

www.coes.cnes.fr
Satellites (CEOS)

Digital
Earth www.dgeo.org
Digital National
Framework www.dnf.org

ESRI ArcUser www.esri.com/ne

online ws/arcuser

ESRI online knowledge www.support.esri.

base com

Geospatial Analysis www.spatialanaly

online sisonline.com

Geospatial Information and Technology

www.gita.org
Association (GITA)

GIS
Day www.gisday.com

GIS Research UK
www.geo.ed.ac.u
(GISRUK)
k/gisruk

www.gridforum.o
Grid Forum 2001
rg

International Association of
www.isprs.org
Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing
 International DEM
www.cse.dmu.ac.
Service

Open Geospatial www.opengeospat

Consortium ial.org

Ordnance Survey www.ordnancesur

(OS) vey.co.uk

Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry

www.rspsoc.org
Society (RSPSoc)

UKGeoForum (umbrella www.ukgeoforum

organization) .org.uk

Web 3D Consortium www.geovrml.org

World Wide Web Consortium www.w3.org

Table 17.3. Data sources including online satellite imagery

from major suppliers, Dem data plus GIS maps and data
of all kinds. (Source: Liu and Mason, 2009)

ALOS data search www.cross.restec.or.jp

Asia Pacific Natural Hazards

www.pdc.org/mde/explorer.jsp
Network
Digital Globe (Quickbird &
www.browse.digitalglobe.com
WorldView)

EarthExplorer www.earthexplorer.usgs.gov

Table 17.4. Online resources for information, software and

data. (Source: Liu and Mason, 2009)

ALOS data
www.cross.restec.or.jp
search

EOS Data
Gateway www.cr.usgs.gov/pub/imswelcome/plain.html
edcims

ESA EOLI
www.catalogues.eoportal.org
catalogues

Geo
Communit
www.data.geocomm.com
y GIS free
data depot

GeoEye
(GeoFUSE www.geofuse.geoeye.com/landing
)

GIS data
www.gisdepot.com
depot
GIS
www.gislounge.com
Lounge

GLCF wwwlcf.umiacs.umd.edu

Glovis www.glovis.usgs.gov

SPOT
www.sirius.spotimage.fr
catalogue

SRTM
www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/cbanddataproducts.ht
Public
ml
Data

GIS software is a fundamental and critical part of any

operational GIS. The software employed in a GIS project has a
controlling impact on the type of studies that can be undertaken
and the results that can be obtained. There are also far reaching
implications for user productivity and project costs. Today,
there are many types of GIS software product to choose from
and a number of ways
to configure implementations. One of the exciting andat times
unnerving characteristics of GIS software is its very rapid rate
of development. This is a trend that seems set to continue
as the software industry pushes ahead with significant research
and development efforts.
17.4 Applications of GIS
An important distinction between GIS applications is whether
the geographic phenomena studied are man-made or natural.
Clearly, setting up a cadastral information system, or using GIS
for urban planning purposes involves a study of man-made
things mostly: the parcels, roads, sidewalks, and at larger scale,
suburbs and transportation routes are all man-made, those
entities often have clear-cut boundaries. On the other hand,
geomorphologists, ecologists and soil scientists often have
natural phenomena as their study objects. They may be looking
at rock formations, plate tectonics, distribution of natural
vegetation or soil units. Often, these entities do not have clear-
cut boundaries, and there exist transition zones where one
vegetation type, for instance, is gradually replaced by another.
(de et al, 2001).
The applications of GIS include mapping locations, quantities
and densities, finding distances and mapping and monitoring
change. Function of an Information system is to improve one’s
ability to make decisions. An Information system is a chain of
operations starting from planning the observation and
collection of data, to store and analysis of the data, to the use
of the derived information in some decision making process. A
GIS is an information system that is designed to work with data
referenced to spatial or geographic coordinates. GIS is both a
database system with specific capabilities for spatially
referenced data, as well as a set of operation for working with
data. There are three basic types of GIS applications which
might also represent stages of development of a single GIS
application. (ESRI White Paper, 2006).
17.4.1 Inventory Application
Many times the first step in developing a GIS application is
making an inventory of the features for a given geographic area.
These features are represented in GIS as layers or themes of
data. The emphasis at this stage of application development
consists of updating and simple data retrieval. (ESRI White
Paper, 2006).
17.4.2 Analysis Application
Upon completion of the inventory stage, complex queries on
multiple layers can be performed using spatial and aspatial
analysis techniques. (ESRI White Paper, 2006).
17.4.3 Management Application
More advanced spatial and modeling techniques are required to
support the decisions of managers and policy makers. This
involves shifting of emphasis from basic geographic data
handling to manipulation, analysis and modeling in order to
solve real world problems.
17.4.4 Five Ms
There is, quite simply, a huge range of applications of GIS.
They include topographic base mapping, socio-economic and
environmental modeling, global modeling, and education. The
five Ms of GIS application are Mapping, Measurement,
Monitoring, Modeling, and Management.
In very general terms, GIS applications may be classified as
traditional, developing, and new. Traditional GIS application
fields include military, government, education and utilities. The
mid-1990s saw the wide development of business uses, such as
banking and financial services, transportation logistics, real
estate, and market analysis. The early years of the 21st century
are seeing new forward-looking application areas in small
office/home office (SOHO) and personal or consumer
applications, as well as applications concerned with security,
intelligence, and counter-terrorism measures. This is a
somewhat rough-and-ready classification, however, because
the applications of some agencies (such as utilities) fall into
more than one class. Many applications involve use of GIS by
large numbers of people. Once GIS applications become
established within an organization, usage often spreads widely.
Integration of GIS with corporate information system (IS)
policy and with forward planning policy is an essential
prerequisite for success in many organizations.
 Government and public service
 Business and service planning
 Logistics and transportation
 Environment
(Longley, 2005)
17.4.5 Government and public service
Government users were among the first to discover the value of
GIS. Today GIS is used at all levels of government from the
national to the neighborhood, and government users still
comprise the biggest single group of GIS professionals. As GIS
has become cheaper, so it has come to be used in government
decision making at all levels from the nation to the
neighborhood. GIS is used to inventory resources and
infrastructure, plan transportation routing, improve public
service delivery, manage land development, and generate
revenue by increasing economic activity. Typical GIS
applications thus include monitoring public health risk,
managing public housing stock, allocating welfare assistance
funds, and tracking crime. It is convenient to group local
government GIS applications on the basis of their contribution
to asset inventory, policy analysis, and strategic
modeling/planning.
(Longley, 2005)
Table 17.5. GIS applications in Local Government
 Management/
Inventory Policy Analysis
Policy Making
Applications Applications
Applications

Analysis of
Location of major
resource Informing the
Economic business and their
demand by availability of local
development primary resource
potential local suppliers
demands
supplier

Analysis of
potential
Identification of ideal
Identification of capacity
Transportation high density
sanitation, truck development in
and Services development areas
routes, land fill and certain area and
Routing based on
recycling area accident
transportation
patterns in
certain sites

Analysis of
public support
for housing by Analysis of funding
Inventory of
geographic area, for housing
housing condition,
Housing drive time from rehabilitation,
status, durability
low income location of related
and demographics
areas to needed public facilities
service facilities
etc
 Analysis of
infrastructure by
Inventory of roads, demographic Analysis to schedule
Infrastructure sidewalks, bridges, variables such maintenance and
utilities as income and expansion
population
change

Spatial, time
series analysis
of the spread of
Location of person
disease, effects Analysis of possible
Health with particular
of sources of diseases
health problems
environmental
condition on
disease

Analysis of tax
revenues by
Identification of Projecting land
landuse within
Tax Maps ownership data by revenue change due
various distance
land plot to land use change
from the city
centre

Inventory of Analysis of
Reallocation of
location of police police visibility
police resources and
station, crimes, and presence;
Law facilities to areas
arrests, patrol car officers in
Enforcement where they are likely
routing, alarm and relation to
to be most efficient
security system density of
and effective.
locations criminal activity
 Analysis of
percentage of
Parcel inventory of land used in
Evaluation of land-
zoning areas, each category,
use plan based on
Land-use floodplains, density levels
demographic
planning industrial parks, by
characteristics of
land uses, trees, neighbourhoods,
nearby population
green space etc threats to
residential
amenities

Analysis of
neighbourhood
access to parks
Modeling population
Inventory of park and recreation
Parks and growth projections
holdings/playscapes, opportunities,
Recreation and potential future
trails by type etc age-related
recreational needs
proximity to
relevant
playscapes

Analysis of
Inventory of Modeling potential
spread rates and
environmental environmental harm
cumulative
hazards in relation to specific local
pollution level;
Environmental to vital resources areas; analysis of
analysis of
Monitoring such as place- specific
potential years
groundwater; multilayered
of life lost in a
layering of nonpoint pollution abatement
particular area
pollution sources plans
due to hazards
 Analysis of
Location of key Modeling effect of
potential effects
emergency exit placing emergency
of emergencies
Emergency routes, their traffic facilities and
of various
Management flow capacity and response capacities
magnitudes on
critical danger in particular
exit routes,
points locations
traffic flows etc

Location of persons
with specific
demographic Analysis of
Modeling effect of
characteristics such voting
Geodemo- placing information
as voting patterns, characteristics
graphics kiosks at particular
service usage and of particular
locations
preferences, areas
commuting routes
occupations

Source:http://www.scribd.com/doc/55973482/Geographic-
InformationSystems and-Science
17.4.6 Business and service planning
Business and service planning (sometimes called retailing)
applications focus upon the use of geographic data to provide
operational, tactical, and strategic context to decisions that
involve the fundamental question, where? Geodemographics is
a shorthand term for composite indicators of consumer
behavior that are available at the small area level (e.g., census
output area, or postal zone). Geodemographic data are the basis
for much market area analysis.
The tools of business applications typically range from simple
desktop mapping to sophisticated decision sup-port systems.
Tools are used to analyze and inform the range of operational,
tactical, and strategic functions of an organization. These tools
may be part of standard GIS software, or they may be
developed in-house by the organization, or they may be
purchased as a ‘business solution’ product. Operational
functions concern the day-to-day processing of routine
transactions and inventory analysis in an organization, such as
stock management. Tactical functions require the allocation
of resources to address specific (usually short term) problems,
such as store sales promotions. Strategic functions contribute
to the organization’s longer-term goals and mission, and entail
problems such as opening new stores or rationalizing existing
store networks. Early business applications were simply
concerned with mapping spatially referenced data, as a general
descriptive indicator of the retail environment. This remains the
first stage in most business applications, and in itself adds an
important dimension to analysis of organizational function.
(Longley, 2005)
17.4.7 Logistics and transportation
Knowing where things are can be of enormous importance for
the fields of logistics and transportation, which deal with the
movement of goods and people from one place to another and
the infrastructure (highways, railroads, canals) that moves
them. Logistics companies (e.g., parcel delivery companies,
shipping companies) need to organize their operations,
deciding where to place their central sorting warehouses and
the facilities that transfer goods from one mode to another (e.g.,
from truck to ship), how to route parcels from origins to
destinations, and how to route delivery trucks. All of these
fields employ GIS, in a mixture of operational, tactical, and
strategic applications.
The field of logistics addresses the shipping and transportation
of goods. Each of these applications has two parts: the static
part that deals with the fixed infrastructure, and the dynamic
part that deals with the vehicles, goods, and people that move
on the static part. Of course, not even a highway network is
truly static, since highways are often rebuilt, new highways are
added, and highways are even some-times moved. But the
minute-to-minute timescale of vehicle movement is sharply
different from the year-to-year changes in the infrastructure.
Historically, GIS has been easier to apply to the static part, but
recent developments in the technology are making it much
more powerful as a tool to address the dynamic part as well.
Today, it is possible to use GPS to track vehicles as they move
around, and transit authorities increasingly use such systems to
inform their users of the locations of buses and trains. (Longley,
2005)
17.4.8 Environment
GIS allows us to compare the environmental conditions
prevailing in different nations. Generally, it is understood that
the 21st century will see increasing proportions of the world’s
population resident in cities and towns, and so understanding
of the environmental impacts of urban settlements is an
increasingly important focus of attention in science and policy.
Researchers have used GIS to investigate and understand how
urban sprawl occurs, in order to understand the environmental
consequences of sprawl and to predict its future consequences.
Such predictions can be based on historic patterns of growth,
together with information on the locations of roads, steeply
sloping land unsuitable for development, land that is otherwise
protected from urban use, and other factors that encourage or
restrict urban development. Each of these factors may be
represented in map form, as a layer in the GIS, while specialist
software can be designed to simulate the processes that drive
growth. These urban growth models are examples of dynamic
simulation model, or computer programs designed to simulate
the operation of some part of the human or environmental
system. (Longley, 2005)
17.4.9 Other Applications
GIS applications involve both natural and man-made entities.
Examples are common in areas where we study the effect of
human activity on the environment. Railroad construction is
such an area: it may involve parcels to be reclaimed by
Government; it deals with environmental impact assessment
and will usually be influenced by many restrictions, such as not
crossing seasonally flooded lands, and staying within
inclination extremes in hilly terrain.
A second distinction in applications of GIS stems from the
overall purposes of use of the system. A prototypical use of GIS
is that of a research project with an explicitly defined project
objective. Such projects usually have an a priori defined
duration. Feasibility studies like site suitability, but also
simulation studies, for instance in erosion modeling, are
examples. We call all of these project-based GIS applications.
In contrast to these are institutional GIS applications. They can
be characterized in various ways. The life time (duration) of
these applications is either indefinite or at least not a priori
defined. Their goal is usually to provide base data to others, not
to address a single research issue. Good examples of this
category are monitoring systems like early warning systems for
food/water scarcity, or systems that keep track of weather
patterns. Indeed, our El Niño example is best qualified under
this heading, because the SST and WS measurements continue.
Another class of examples is found in governmental agencies
like national topographic surveys, cadastral organizations and
national census bureaus. They see it as their task to administer
(geographic) changes, and their main business is to stay up-to-
date, and provide data to others, in the form of printed material
such as maps or in the form of digital data. (DeMers, 2009)
17.4.9.1 Managing business activities
GIS is about business. In fact, a whole new industry of business
geographic is developing because GIS can affect the bottom
line, improve product quality, and provide new opportunities.
Here are a few examples of how different sectors of the
business world are using GIS:
17.4.9.2 Banking: GIS activities in banking and financial
institutions include regulatory compliance customer
prospecting, and locating new branches and ATMs.
17.4.9.3 Business locations and customer behavior: You can
more effectively Fig. out where to place a business if you know
your customer base’s location. The closer or more accessible
you are to the people whose buying patterns match your
products, the more apt you are to be successful. Businesses can
also compare market share with other surrounding businesses
and adjust to changing demographic conditions.
17.4.9.4 Insurance claims adjustment: GIS can perform all
the typical business and marketing tasks, including identifying
potential clients, and determining risk factors. And if you’re an
insurance broker, imagine being able to match applications for
storm and flood insurance with a map of the 100-year flood
zone.
17.4.9.5 Journalism: The media, especially the television
news media, use flythrough, zoom-ins, and visual overlays of
maps on imagery, providing a media-rich and enticing product.
17.4.9.6 Real estate: Real estate agents, both residential and
commercial, use a GIS to search for and select properties that
match client needs. Some appraisers use GIS to perform mass
appraisals of whole regions at the same time.
17.4.9.7 Trucking and delivery: Moving products and
material is getting more expensive all the time. Minimizing
route lengths reduces cost, speeds delivery times, and increases
customer satisfaction. GIS has tools specifically designed to
work with road and rail networks.
17.4.9.8 Planning city operations and expansion: City,
county, and regional planning has long used GIS to track
development, zone land parcels, assess available resources, and
plan for future growth. GIS allows planners to evaluate master
plans, monitor expansion and traffic patterns, predict change,
monitor population, and even decide the best place to put the
new government planning office. Many GIS operations across
the world are called planning departments, not GIS
departments. But they often use GIS as their primary tool.
17.4.9.9 Providing protection and emergency
services: Police, human services, and emergency services are
beginning to use GIS. Crime mappers can identify crime hot
spots and move officers where needed, corrections officers can
track their parolees, hospitals can be placed where they meet
the most need, and dispatchers can route emergency services
(such as ambulance and fire) to their destinations — all with
the power of GIS.
17.4.9.10 Land management and conservation: The first
major implementation of GIS managed the enormous expanse
of Canada’s natural and mineral resources. In this and similar
applications, the software can help monitor fires and dispatch
firefighters, monitor and manage disease and insect outbreaks,
control land use and land inventory, select set asides and
easements, track and manage wildlife, plan for ecotourism,
and much more. Combined with today’s expanding
complement of Earth-sensing satellites, the role of GIS in land
management is sure to continue to expand.
17.4.9.11 Military and defense-related tasks: The military
and intelligence communities are taking advantage of the
GIS toolkit, which includes tools specifically targeted to those
users. By combining top-secret satellite data and visual
evaluation from unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) with the
power of GIS and existing datasets, defense departments can
evaluate troop movements, target artillery fire, test scenarios,
perform supply and logistics operations, and monitor borders.
The military and intelligence communities often rely on the
same geospatial tools available to the general public — but they
have exclusive access to certain data and data sources, as well
as some additional and quite sophisticated software. (DeMers,
2009)
17.4.9.12 Uses Of Coastal GIS Packages
1. Retrieval of information of any specific site.
2. Provision of summary data for planning purpose.
3. Graphical display for educational and public relation
exercise.
4. Classification of coasts and management zone.
5. Predicting modeling to determine.
A. Projections of coastal changes.
B. Impacts of individual schemes.
C. Impacts from changes of use.
D. Impacts from natural calamities.
(ESRI White Paper, 2006)
17.4.9.13 GIS for Fire Prevention
Wildfire prevention efforts can be focused where wildfires pose
the greatest risk of resource loss. When intense fire areas
(highly flammable landscapes) exist near high-risk areas
(ignition sources) and high values, fire prevention becomes
critical. Historical fire information can be viewed with all the
other landscape information. Fire prevention officers can begin
to determine an appropriate program strategy. This fire
prevention strategy may be one of education, enforcement, or
engineering, depending on the type of land use and historical
fire causes. As housing development continues to expand and
encroach into wooded and brush-covered areas, it becomes fire
prone. The "urban interface" requires extensive fire prevention
and fire protection measures. GIS can model and display
potential fire prevention/protection strategies. (Ramachandran,
2005)
17.4.9.14 GIS for Vegetation Management
Landscapes that require vegetation management treatments
(e.g., prescribed fire, mechanical treatments) will stand out
when using GIS. Landscapes with high flammability
characteristics (high hazard, high risk, and high value) become
obvious candidates for vegetation or fuel treatment programs.
GIS technology allows fire managers to identify prescribed fire
and vegetation management projects with the highest benefit
(meeting multiple goals for resource and fire management).
Vegetation management tactics can include mechanical,
chemical, or prescribed burning techniques. GIS can assist in
modeling how a fire will behave and spread under a variety of
conditions to assist in developing fire prescriptions.
(Ramachandran, 2005)
17.4.9.15 Education and Training
GIS is beneficial for education and training. Wildfire
management personnel require several years of experience and
training to become proficient. GIS provides access to detailed
landscape information during wildfire events. Fire personnel
begin to understand the complexities, fire effects, and fire
behavior characteristics of various wildfires much sooner when
using GIS. Modeling provides a better understanding of what a
fire might do and what elements influence the wildfire most.
Wildfire knowledge has traditionally been gained through
years of experience, formal training, and discussions with
experienced fire personnel. GIS is now another resource fire
personnel can use to expand their understanding of the
variables and complexities that affect wildfires. As modeling
becomes more precise, dispatchers will be able to determine the
potential of new starts and possible dispatch requirements.
GIS is a vital tool for wildfire information management. GIS is
a primary repository of information that can be quickly
accessed and viewed when required. GIS is becoming more
suitable for emergency field operation use and is integrating
tools that allow real-time display of information. Rapid access
to information, safety, efficiency, and better resource
management decisions are being made with the use of GIS for
wildfire management. Information is critical for wild land fire
management. GIS is information, all in one place, easy to
visualize and understand.
(Ramachandran, 2005)
Keywords: GIS Workflow, Database Management System
(DBMS), GIS packages, Open-Source GIS, Applications of
GIS.
References
 Blasby, D., Davis, M., Kim, D. and Ramsey, P.
(2002). GIS Conflation using Open Source Tools, A
white paper, pp.3-4.
 de By R.A, Knippers R.A, Sun Y, Ellis M.C, Kraak
M.J, Weir M.J.C, Georgiadou Y, Radwan M.M,
Westen C.J, Kainz W and Sides E.J. (2001) Principles
of Geographical Information Systems, ITC, (43-44).
 DeMers N.M (2009) GIS for Dummies, Wiley
Publishing, pp. 20-22 and pp.315.
 ESRI White Paper (2006) GIS Technology and
Applications for the Fire Service
 http://dusk.geo.orst.edu/gis/Chapter9_notes.pdf
 http://gis.nic.in/gisprimer/dbms.html
 http://gisserver.civil.iitd.ac.in/gislab/Lecture/Lecture
%2001_Introduction%20to%20GIS.pdf
 http://www.albireotelematics.com/pre_processing.ht
ml
 http://www.geog.ubc.ca/courses/klink/gis.notes/ncgia/
u01.html#SEC1.2
 Hunter, A.J.S and Steiniger, S. (2012), The 2012 Free
and Open source GIS Software Map – A Guide to
facilitate Research, Development and Adoption,
Computers, Environment and Urban Systems.
 Javier de la Torre, Report of existing GIS standards
and software – Deliverable 3.6.1, Synthesys NA- D
3.6.
 Johnson, E.L. (2009). Geographic Information
Systems in Water Resources Engineering, CRC Press,
pp. 18.
 Liu, J.G. and Mason, P.J. (2009). Essential Image
Processing and GIS for Remote Sensing, John Wiley
& Sons Ltd, pp.424.
 Longley P.A, Goodchild M.F, Maguire J.D, and
Rhind W.D. (2005) Geographic Information Systems
and Science, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2(170-175) and
2(36-60).
 Steiniger, S. and Weibel, R. (2009). GIS Software –
A description in 1000 words, University of Calgary,
University of Zurich.
 Lesson 18 Data Models

A data model describes in an abstract way how data is

represented in an information system or in a database
management system. It is also a description of structural
properties that define all entities represented in the database,
and all the relationships that exist among them. The manner in
which data is generally organized in the database management
system is sometimes also called as database model. A database
model is a theory or specification describing how database is
structured and used (also called data structure). Several such
models have been suggested. Common model include
hierarchical model, network model, relational model, entity-
relationship model and object oriented model.
A data model aims to identify and organize the required data
logically and physically, used as part of a database design
phase. A model provides attributes of a data element and also
the relationship between them. Study of data model is
necessary to understand the data in a better way.
Maps may be represented by several GIS data models such as
raster, vector, etc. knowledge about the data models of GIS is
important because it provides us information on how data are
stored on the computer and their representation. Depending on
the GIS data model and representation, the way in which our
analysis is done and result obtained may be different (Bhatia,
2010).
18.1 Spatial Data
Data that describe a part of the Earth’s surface or the features
found on it could be described as geographical ‘spatial’ data. It
includes cartographic and scientific data with photographs,
videos, land records, travel information, customer databases,
property records, legal documents and so on. Another term
used, Features in reference to objects, located at the surface of
the Earth, whose positions have been measured and described.
Features may be naturally occurring objects or anthropogenic
constructions and classifications. Features appearing on the
map are stored as separate entities which have other
intelligence stored with them as ‘attributes’ (Jian et al, 2009).
18.1.1 Spatial Data Model
The real world too complex for our immediate and direct
understanding, so we create models or abstractions of reality
that are intended to have some similarity with selected aspects
of real world. A spatial database is a collection of spatially
referenced data that act as model of reality.
There are two types of data models used for spatial data:
(A) Conceptual data models: It organizes principles that
translate the real world into functional descriptions of how
phenomena are represented and related to one another.
 Objects: Objects with discrete boundaries
represented by geometric features.
 Fields: continuous phenomena such as
elevation, temperature and soil chemistry; they
exists everywhere (every point has an elevation
or temperature); they are not discrete entities.
Spatial feature may be discrete (objects) or continuous (fields).
Discrete features are those that do not exist between
observations, those that form separate entities, and are
individually distinguishable. Roads, buildings, water bodies,
etc. are the examples of continuous features.
(B) Logical data models: It provides the explicit forms, which
the conceptual model can take.
  Raster: A grid of cells or pixels.
 Vector: Objects are represented as geometric
entities, including points, spaghetti lines,
arc/node lines, networked lines with
directionally, whole polygons, and topological
polygons. Continuous fields may be also
represented by vector such as triangular
irregular network (TINs).
 Object oriented: Real-world objects are used as
basis for abstraction, instead of geometric
objects such as points lines and polygons.
Understanding the type of data model by which particular
dataset is created and stored is important, since the type of
functions or transformations that can be performed on the data
is dependent on how it is represented and organized. The
logical data model should not only describe how data is
represented, but it should also describe entities of features are
related to one another (Bhatia, 2010).
18.1.2 Spatial Data File:
1) Spatial data files are somewhat like other files you work with
on a computer. They can be:
a) stored on a hard drive, memory stick, CD, DVD
b) Assigned either a user-defined file name, or are given default
file name by a software application
c) Organized into folders
d) Have the ability to be opened, viewed and edited by one or
more GIS software applications that understand their format.
2) However, that is where the similarities end. Spatial data files
are unique in that they store “georeferenced” information –
information that defines location or place. In addition,
descriptive information about the georeferenced information is
stored in each spatial data file.
3) Thus rather than just text (like a word processing document)
or numbers (like a spreadsheet), an individual spatial data file
is a digital representation of a similar group of geographic
features on the surface of the earth (or any other planetary
body!).
4) The geographic features can be actual physical entities or
events, or they can represent conceptual features.
5) Examples of individual spatial data files representing real
geographic features or events are lakes, rivers, wetlands,
elevation contours, roads, forested areas, rare species habitats,
soils, earthquakes, vehicle thefts, electricity distribution lines,
and groundwater reservoirs.
6) Examples of individual spatial data files representing
conceptual geographic features are census tract boundaries,
zoning boundaries, or parcel boundaries (i.e. conceptual
features do not physically exist on the landscape, but are
imposed by us for various reasons and can be represented in a
geographic context).
7) Each spatial data file is uniquely constructed to work within
GIS software applications. Each one consists of unique
characteristics:
a) “Shapes” that attempt to reflect / convey the appearance and
position of individual geographic features as accurately as
possible.
b) Records within a related tabular database that contain
numeric and/or textual descriptions of each feature.
c) A coordinate system that defines the true location of all the
features on the earth’s surface (i.e. the latitude/longitude).
18.1.3 Formats of Spatial Data Files
Spatial data files come in several different formats. You may
need to use only one, or you may need to use a combination of
them, depending on your particular application and/or type of
analysis. Each format falls under one of two different
categories: vector or raster.
 Vector spatial data files are ones in which the
geographic features being represented are built
by a collection of vertices and lines.
 Raster spatial data files are ones in which the
geographic features across an entire area are
represented by a continuous set of “pixels” or
“cells”.
1. The Shapefile spatial data file format
a) This is a very common format for spatial data files in the
vector category.
b) In this format, geographic features can be represented in one
of three ways:
i) Points
ii) Lines (aka arcs)
iii) Polygons (aka areas, polylines
2. The Coverage spatial data file format
a) This was the original spatial data file format used in GIS
software. While this format has taken a “backseat” to the
shapefile format due to the simplicity of shapefiles, coverages
are still very viable and have many advantages.
b) Along with shapefiles, the coverage format is being
superseded by the new geodatabase format (see below).
c) However, many web sites still offer spatial data for
download in the coverage format, so you should at least know
that they exist, and know a little bit about their structure in the
event you need to use one.
d) Just like shapefiles, geographic features are represented as
points, lines, or polygons and many factors come into play
when deciding which representation is best (see B-1-c above).
Coverages also fall within the vector category.
e) Unlike shapefiles, a single coverage is actually comprised of
two folders. Each folder contains a multitude of other files that
the GIS software “puts together” in order to represent
geographic features and associated tabular information when it
is opened.
f) If either folder is missing, or if files from within either folder
are missing, the coverage will be “corrupt” and not useable.
g) Coverages and shapefiles are often used almost
interchangeably in GIS. They each can represent the same
geographic features. It is only the internal file structure that is
different. An analogy would be a Microsoft Word document vs.
a Corel Word Perfect document. Both files are used to contain
text (primarily) and you can import and export them at will, but
they have different underlying structures which are, most of the
time, invisible to you. Similarly, coverages and shapefiles are
both used to contain geographic data of the vector type. It is
possible to convert a shapefile to a coverage and vice-versa.
3. The Grid spatial data file format
a) In most respects, grids are very different from either
shapefiles or coverages. Grids fall into the raster category; they
are constructed of rows and columns of pixels instead of
vertices and arcs.
b) Like coverages however, grids are comprised of two folders,
each containing files that the software “puts together” for
display and manipulation
c) Grids can be either:
i) Integer Grids – in this case, the pixel values are integers and
each integer may also be associated with one or more textual
descriptions.
ii) Floating Point Grids – in this case, the pixel values will be
expressed as decimals. Floating point grids cannot have textual
descriptions.
4. Images as Spatial Data Files
a) Many different image formats can be used in GIS. Some of
these may be more familiar than others: .jpg, .tif, .bil, .png,
.img, .sid
b) All image formats fall within the raster category of spatial
data.
c) In some cases, images are not used specifically as “spatial
data”, but are used to enhance spatial data by providing a digital
photograph of a place or object. For example, a shapefile
representing all land parcels within a city may have links to
digital photographs of each house on each parcel.
d) In other cases, the images themselves are spatial data. Data
provided from the Landsat satellite is an example of imagery
that is spatial. If you have ever used Google Earth, the images
that appear when you zoom in are spatial data.
e) When an image is “georeferenced” - meaning that
information is embedded within the image that describes its
position on the surface of the earth in real world coordinates
(Latitude/longitude) – It becomes spatial data.
e) In addition to being “georeferenced”, many images may also
be “orthorectified”. This term refers to a complex process
wherein distortions caused by differences in terrain, camera tilt,
and edge effects are removed from the image. Images that are
both georeferenced and ortho rectified are frequently called
“orthophotographs” or just “Orthos” for short
(http://gisatbrown.typepad.com/gis/files/spatialdatafiles.pdf).
18.2 Attributes and Measurement Scales
Descriptive attributes can also be described as being spatial or
non-spatial, though the difference between them may be subtle
and ambiguous. The nature of the information stored, or rather
the scale of measurement to which they belong, dictates what
kind of processing or analysis can be performed with them.
Measurement scales describe how values are assigned to
features and objects represented in GIS. The type of scale
chosen is dictated by the intended use of the recorded
information. There are five scales commonly used in GIS,
namely nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio and cyclic, and
these are summarized, along with the numerical operators
appropriate to each case, in Table 18.1 (Jian et al, 2009).
Nominal data are discrete (i.e., mutually exclusive) and are
classed according to type or quality. For example, a line could
represent either a road or river, and a land use polygon could
be residential, commercial, or a recreational area. Nominal data
are often labeled with numbers or letters, but these labels do not
imply ranking. A nominal datum can only be examined for its
physical similarity to, or its difference from, other occurrences,
or for the frequency of its occurrence
(http://www.rain.org/gis/map-classroom/maps-symbols-for-
maps.html). Nominal or categorical scales include numerical
values used to represent real-world objects or qualitative
descriptions. They can be used as ‘pointers’ to other descriptive
(textual) information held in attribute tables (Jian et al, 2009).
Ordinal data provide information about rank or hierarchy, in
other words, relative values. Therefore, it is possible to describe
one item as larger or smaller than another, or as low, medium
or high. However, it is not possible to measure the differences
between ordinal data, because there are no specific numerical
values attached to them. An example of ordinal data is roads
ranked as expressway, main thoroughfare, and secondary road
(http://www.rain.org/gis/map-classroom/maps-symbols-for-
maps.html). Ordinal measures involve values ranked or
ordered according to a relative scale and which generally have
unequal intervals. Greater than or less than operators are
therefore useful but addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division are not appropriate. One example is multi-element
geochemical data where element concentrations are given on a
percentile scale and the intervals between classes are not
constant but arbitrary (Jian et al, 2009).

Sca Operato
Examples
le rs
No
=,≠ and Categorical (class) identifiers (e.g.
min
mode 5=forest, 4=pasture,9= urban)
al

<,≤, ≥,>
Ord Sequences of natural order, for example 1,
and
inal 2, 3, 4
median

Ranges between, and sections along,

Inte +, -, ×, ÷
distance measures, for example
rval and mean
temperature scales

Rati All the Distance measures, and subdivisions

o above thereof, along lines and routes

Cyc All the Special measures, for example 360_

lic above bearings (azimuth), flow directions

Table 18.1 Measurement of scale: methods for describing

and operating on thematic information
(Source: Jian et al, 2009)
Interval data, in addition to being ranked, include numerical
values. The information can be arranged along a scale using a
standard unit. Therefore, it is possible to calculate the distance
or difference between ranks, which must be expressed in terms
of a standard unit (http://www.rain.org/gis/map-
classroom/maps-symbols-for-maps.html). Interval measures
are used to denote quantities like distances or ranges but in this
case the intervals between the values are based on equal or
regular units. There is, however, no true zero on an interval
scale because the position of zero depends on the units of the
quantity being described. Temperature scales are a good
example because the position of zero temperature depends on
the units of measurement, Fahrenheit or Celsius (Jian et al,
2009).
Ratio data are the same as interval data, except there is a natural
zero; therefore, it is possible to express data as ratios. Physical
measurements of height, weight, and length are examples of
ratio variables. With this type of data it is meaningful to state
that a measurement is twice that of another. This ratio remains
true no matter what the unit of measurement (e.g., meters or
feet) because this type of data has a natural zero. A natural zero
is a non-arbitrary starting point for data. For example, a
measurement of distance at zero units has no length;
furthermore, it makes sense to state that two metres are twice
as long as one metre. Whereas, with the measurement of time,
the year zero is arbitrary, so it is not sensible to state that the
year 2000 is twice as old as the year 1000
(http://www.rain.org/gis/map-classroom/maps-symbols-for-
maps.html).
Ratio measures are similar to interval scales and are often used
for distances or quantities but the zero value represents absolute
zero, regardless of the units.
Cyclic measures are a special case describing quantities which
are measured on regular scales but which are circular or cyclic
in their framework, such as aspect or azimuth directions of
slopes, or flow directions, both of which are angular measures
made with respect to north. Appropriate operators are then any
or all of the previously mentioned arithmetic and average
operators (Jian et al, 2009).
18.2.1 Data structures
There are two basic types of structures used to represent the
features or objects, namely raster and vector data, and as a
consequence of this split, there are different types of GIS
software, and different types of analysis, which have been
designed in such a way as to be effective with one or the other
type (Jian et al, 2009).
In its simplest form, a raster consists of a matrix of cells (or
pixels) organized into rows and columns (or a grid) where each
cell contains a value representing information, such as
temperature. Rasters are digital aerial photographs, imagery
from satellites, digital pictures, or even scanned maps.

Fig. 18.1. Raster data structures.

(Source: http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisdesktop/9.2/index.c
fm?TopicName=What_is_raster_data%3F)
Data stored in a raster format represents real-world phenomena,
such as:
 Thematic data (also known as discrete),
representing features such as land-use or soils
data
 Continuous data, representing phenomena such
as temperature, elevation or spectral data such
as satellite images and aerial photographs
  Pictures, such as scanned maps or drawings and
building photographs
Thematic and continuous rasters may be displayed as data
layers along with other geographic data on your map but are
often used as the source data for spatial analysis with the
ArcGIS Spatial Analyst extension. Picture rasters are often
used as attributes in tables—they can be displayed with your
geographic data and are used to convey additional information
about map features.
While the structure of raster data is simple, it is exceptionally
useful for a wide range of applications. Within a GIS, the uses
of raster data fall under four main categories.
(1) Raster as a base map
A common use of raster data in a GIS is as a background
display for other feature layers. For example, orthophotographs
displayed underneath other layers provide the map user with
confidence that map layers are spatially aligned and represent
real objects, as well as representing additional information.

Fig. 18.2. Rasters as base maps.

(http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisdesktop/9.2/index.cfm?Topi
cName=What_is_raster_data %3F)
(2) Rasters as surface maps
Rasters are well suited for representing data that changes
continuously across a landscape (surface). They provide an
effective method of storing the continuity as a surface. They
also provide a regularly spaced representation of surfaces.
Elevation values measured from the earth's surface are the most
common application of surface maps, but other values, such as
rainfall, temperature, concentration, and population density,
can also define surfaces that can be spatially analyzed. The
raster below displays elevation using green to show lower
elevation and red, pink and white cells to show higher
elevation.

Fig. 18.3. Raster as a surface map.

(Source: http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisdesktop/9.2/index.c
fm?TopicName=What_is_raster_data%3F)
(3) Rasters as thematic maps
Rasters representing thematic data can be derived from
analyzing other data. A common analysis application is
classifying a satellite image by land-cover categories.
Basically, this activity groups the values of multispectral data
into classes (such as vegetation type) and assigns a categorical
value. Thematic maps can also result from geoprocessing
operations that combine data from various sources, such as
vector, raster, and terrain data. For example, you can process
data through a geoprocessing model to create a raster dataset
that maps suitability for a specific activity.
Below is an example of a classified raster dataset showing land
use.

Fig. 18.4. Raster as a thematic map.

(Source: http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisdesktop/9.2/index.c
fm?TopicName=What_is_raster_data%3F)
(4) Rasters as attributes of a feature
Rasters used as attributes of a feature may be digital
photographs, scanned documents, or scanned drawings related
to a geographic object or location. A parcel layer may have
scanned legal documents identifying the latest transaction for
that parcel, or a layer representing cave openings may have
pictures of the actual cave openings associated with the point
features. Below is a digital picture of a very large, old tree that
could be used as an attribute to a landscape layer that a city may
maintain.
Vector data provide a way to represent real world features
within the GIS environment. A feature is anything you can see
on the landscape. Imagine you are standing on the top of a hill.
Looking down you can see houses, roads, trees, rivers, and so
on. Each one of these things would be a feature when we
represent them in a GIS Application. Vector features have
attributes, which consist of text or numerical information that
describe the features.
A point symbol represents a geographic feature or event
characterized by location and attributes. Its location can be
represented by a single "x, y" coordinate pair, while attributes
can be many. For example, a populated place or a mine site can
be represented by a point symbol.
A line symbol represents a geographic feature characterized by
linear dimension, but not area. In digital technology, a line is a
sequence or stream of point coordinates with a node at each end
(vector data) that symbolizes a linear feature such as a road,
river, or boundary.
An area symbol represents a closed geographic surface feature,
two-dimensional geometric region, or a polygon. A census
division, a lake, or a province (any geographically defined
surface) is examples of area features.
Rasters, images or grids consist of a regular array of digital
numbers or DNs, representing picture elements or which are
usually square. The basic unit of such data is the pixel, or grid
cell, such that points, lines and areas are represented in raster
form as individual or groups of pixels. Vector or discrete data
store the geometric form and location of a particular feature,
along with its attribute information describing what the feature
represents. Vector data typically resemble cartographic data.
Points and pixels represent discrete geographic features of no
or limited area, or which are too small to be depicted in any
other way, such as well locations, geochemical sample points,
towns or topographic spot heights. Lines are linear features
consisting of connected positions which do not in themselves
represent area, such as roads, rivers, railways or elevation
contours. Areas are closed features that represent the shape,
area and location of homogeneous features such as countries,
land parcels, buildings, rock types or land-use categories.
A surface describes a variable which has a value for every
position within the extent of the dataset, such as elevation or
rainfall intensity, and implies data of a ‘continuous’ nature.
Surfaces are typically represented on conventional cartographic
maps as a series of isolines or contours; within GIS there are
other possibilities. Deciding how these features should be
stored in the database, and represented on the map, depends on
the nature of that information and the work it will be required
to do.
The two most basic components of GIS are therefore the pixel
and the point. Every other, more complex, structure in GIS
stems from, and depends on, one or other of these two basic
structures. GIS operations and spatial analysis can be
performed on either type of data, but that analysis will be
performed slightly differently as a result of this difference. We
will now describe these structures in turn
(http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisdesktop/9.2/index.cfm?TopicN
ame=What_is_raster_data%3F).
Keywords: Spatial Data Model, Data structures, Formats of
Spatial Data Files, Raster, Vector.
References
 Bhatia B., Remote Sensing and GIS, Oxford
University Press (2010); 455-458
 Jian, Guo Liu, Philippa, J. Mason, Essential Image
Processing and GIS for Remote Sensing, John Wiley
& Sons, Ltd (2009); 141-143
  http://gisatbrown.typepad.com/gis/files/spatialdatafile
s.pdf
 http://www.rain.org/gis/map-classroom/maps-
symbols-for-maps.html
 http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisdesktop/9.2/index.cfm?
TopicName=What_is_raster_data %3F
Suggested Reading
 http://www.mcc.cmu.ac.th/mccwwwthai/graduate/ags
722/Attribute%20Data.pdf
 http://ocw.tufts.edu/data/54/676127.pdf
 http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40625.pdf
 Lesson 19 Data Model Classification

19.1 Raster Data

Raster data represent a regular grid or array of digital numbers,
or pixels, where each has a value depending on how the image
was captured and what it represents. One important aspect of
the raster data structure is that no additional attribute
information is stored about the features it shows.
19.1.1 Data quantization and storage
The range of values that can be stored by image pixels depends
on the quantization level of the data, i.e. the number of binary
bits used to store the data. The more the number of bits, the
greater the range of possible values. The most common image
data quantization formats are 8 bit and 16 bit. The binary
quantization level selected depends partly on the type of data
being represented and what it is used for. In many cases, the
image data file contains a header record that stores information
about the image, such as the number of rows and columns in
the image, the number of bits per pixel and the geo referencing
information. The main issue in connection with raster data
storage is the disk space potentially required. The goal of raster
compression is then to reduce the amount of disk space
consumed by the data file while retaining the maximum data
quality.
19.1.2 Spatial variability
The raster data model can represent discrete point, line and area
features but is limited by the size of the pixel and by its regular
grid-form nature. A point’s value would be assigned to and
represented by the nearest pixel; similarly, a linear feature
would be represented by a series of connected pixels; and an
area would be shown as a group of connected pixels that most
closely resembles the shape of that area.
19.1.3 Representing spatial relationships
Because the raster data model is a regular grid, spatial
relationships between pixels are implicit in the data structure
since there can be no gaps or holes in the grid. Each raster is
referenced at the top-left corner; its location is denoted by its
row and column position and is usually given as 0, 0. All other
pixels are thenidentified by their position in the grid relative to
the topleft. The upper left pixel being used as the reference
point for ‘raster space’ is in contrast to ‘map space’ where the
lower left corner is the geographical coordinate origin; this
difference has an effect on the way raster images are geo
referenced. Another benefit of implicit spatial relationships is
that spatial operations are readily facilitated.
19.1.4 The effect of resolution
The accuracy of a map depends on the scale of that map. In the
raster model the resolution, scale and hence accuracy depends
on the real-world area represented by each pixel or grid cell.
The pixel can be thought of as the limit beyond which the raster
becomes discrete, and with computer power becoming ever
greater we may have fewer concerns over the manageability of
large, high-resolution raster files. Providing we maintain
sufficient spatial resolution to describe adequately the
phenomenon of interest, we should be able to minimize
problems related to accuracy.
19.1.5 Representing surfaces
Raster’s are ideal for representing surfaces since a value, such
as elevation, is recorded in each pixel and the representation is
therefore ‘continuously’ sampled across the area covered by the
raster. The input dataset representing the surface potentially
contributes two pieces of information to this kind of perspective
viewing. The first is the magnitude of the DN which gives the
height and the second is the way the surface appears or is
encoded visually, i.e. the DN value is also mapped to colour in
the display. [(Liu, and Mason, 2009) Essential Image
Processing and GIS for Remote Sensing, UK.]
(A) Advantage of Raster Data
 The geographic location of each cell is implied by its
position in the cell matrix. Accordingly, other than
an origin point, e.g. bottom left corner, no
geographic coordinates are stored.
 Due to the nature of the data storage technique data
analysis is usually easy to program and quick to
perform.
 The inherent nature of raster maps, e.g. one attribute
maps, is ideally suited for mathematical modeling
and quantitative analysis.
 Discrete data, e.g. forestry stands, is accommodated
equally well as continuous data, e.g. elevation data,
and facilitates the integrating of the two data types.
 Grid-cell systems are very compatible with raster-
based output devices, e.g. electrostatic plotters,
graphic terminals.
(http://bgis.sanbi.org/gis-primer/page_19.htm Accessed on
03.12.2012.)
(B) Disadvantage of Raster Data
  The cell size determines the resolution at which the
data is represented.
 It is especially difficult to adequately represent linear
features depending on the cell resolution.
Accordingly, network linkages are difficult to
establish.
 Processing of associated attribute data may be
cumbersome if large amounts of data exist. Raster
maps inherently reflect only one attribute or
characteristic for an area.
 Since most input data is in vector form, data must
undergo vector-to-raster conversion. Besides
increased processing requirements this may
introduce data integrity concerns due to
generalization and choice of inappropriate cell size.
 Most output maps from grid-cell systems do not
conform to high-quality cartographic needs.
19.2 Vector Data
Vector data is a series of discrete features described by their
coordinate positions rather than graphically or in any regularly
structured way. Tabular data represent a special form of
vectordata which can include almost any kind of data, whether
or not they contain a geographic component. Tabular data are
not necessarily spatial in nature. The vector model could be
thought of as the opposite of raster data in this respect, since it
does not fill the space it occupies; not every conceivable
location is represented, only those where some feature of
interest exists.
There have been a number of vector data models developed
over the past few decades, which support topological
relationships to varying degrees, or not at all. The
representation, or not, of topology dictates the level of
functionality that is achievable using those data. These models
include spaghetti (unstructured), vertex dictionary, dual
independent map encoding (DIME) and arc-node (also known
as POLYVRT). To understand the significance of topology it
is useful to consider these models, from the simplest to the
more complex.
19.2.1 Unstructured or spaghetti data
Spaghetti form of vector data is stored without relational
information. There is no mechanism to describe how there
features relate to one another i.e. there is no topology. The
advantages of unstructured data are that their generation
demands little effort and that the plotting of large unstructured
vector files is potentially faster than the structured data.
Disadvantages are that storage is insufficient.
19.2.2 Vertex dictionary
Vertex dictionary is a minor modification of the ‘spaghetti’
model. It involves the use of two files to represent the map
instead of one. This prevents duplication, since each coordinate
pair is stored only once, but it does not allow any facility to
store the relationships between the features, i.e. topology is still
not supported.
19.2.3 Dual Independent Map Encoding (DIME)
The DIME structure was developed by the US Bureau of the
Census for managing its population Databases. Both street
addresses and UTM coordinates were assigned to each entity in
the database. Here again, additional files (tables) are used to
describe how the coordinate pairs are accessed and used.
19.2.4 Arc-node Structure or “POLYVRT”
(POLYgonconVeRTer)
A more efficient model for the storage of vector data, and one
which supports topological relationships, is the ‘arc-node’ data
structure. Here vector entities are stored separately but are
linked using pointers. An arc is a line which, when linked with
other arcs, forms a polygon. Arcs may be referred to as edges
and sometimes as chains. A point where arcs terminate or
connect is described as a node. Polygons are formed from an
ordered sequence of arcs and may be termed ‘simple’ or
‘complex’ depending on their relationship to other polygons.
When the features are digitized each arc is digitized between
nodes, in a consistent direction; it has a start node, and is a
given identifying number.
19.2.5 Connectivity
Connectivity allows the identification of a pathway between
two locations, between your home and the airport, along a bus,
rail and/or underground route,for instance. Using the arc-node
data structure, a route along an arc will be defined by two end
points, the start or from-node and the finish or to-node.
Network connectivity is then provided by an arc node list that
identifies which nodes will be used as the from and to positions
along an arc
19.2.6 Area Definition
This is the concept by which it is determined that the Boating
Lake lies completely within Regent’s Park, i.e. it represents an
island polygon inside it, as shown inFig. bellow.
 Fig. 19.1. (a) A topographic map showing the Regent’s
Park in London; and (b) a topological map showing the
location of the London zoo and the Boating Lake which lie
inside the Regent’s Park in London .
(Source: Liu, and Mason, 2009)
19.2.7 Contiguity or Adjacency
Contiguity, a related concept, allows the determination of
adjacency between features. Two features can be considered
adjacent if they share a boundary. Hence, the polygon
representing London Zoo can be considered adjacent to
Regent’s Park.The from-node and to-node define an arc’s
direction, so that the polygons onits left and right sides must
also be known, left–right topology describes this relationship
and therefore adjacency.
19.2.8 Extending the Vector Data Model
Topology allows us to define areas and to model three types of
association, namely connectivity, area definition and adjacency
(or contiguity), but we may still need to add further complexity
to the features we wish to describe. For instance, a featuremay
represent a composite of other features, so that a country could
be modelled as the set of its counties, where the individual
counties are also discrete and possibly geographically disparate
features. Alternatively, a feature may change with time,and the
historical tracking of the changes may be significant. For
instance, a parcel of land might be subdivided and managed
separately but the original shape, size and attribute information
may also need to be retained. Other examples include naturally
overlapping features of the same type, such as the territories or
habitats of several species, or the marketing catchments of
competing supermarkets, or surveys conducted in different
years as part of an exploration program (as illustrated in Fig.
19.2). The ‘spaghetti’ model permits such area
subdivisionand/or overlap but cannot describe the relationships
between the features. Arc-node topology can allow overlaps
only by creating a new feature representing the area of overlap,
and can only describe a feature’s relationship with its
subdivisions by recording that information in the attribute
table. Several new vector structures have been developed by
ESRI and incorporated into its ArcGIS technology. These
support and enable complex relationships and are referred to as
regions, sections, routes and events.

Fig. 19.2. (a) Map of the boundaries of three survey areas,

carried out at different times. Notice that the areas
overlap in some areas; this is permitted in ‘spaghetti’ data
but not in arc-node structures; (b) the same survey maps
after topological enforcement to create mutually exclusive
polygonal areas; (c) the attribute table necessary to link
the newly created polygons (1 to 5) to the original survey
extents (A, B and C).
(Source: Modified after Bonham-Carter, 2002)
19.2.8.1 Regions
A region consists of a loose association of related polygons and
allows the description of the relationships between them. A
series of arcs and vertices construct a polygon and a series of
polygon forms a region. The polygon comprising the region
may be listed in any order. Point’s lines and polygon has a
unique identifier. The polygons representing the features within
the region are independent, they may overlap and they do not
necessarily cover the entire area represented by the region. So
overlapping survey areas in fig 19.2 could simply be associated
within a survey region. Constructing overlapping regions is
rather similar to constructing polygons; where regions overlap,
they share a polygon in the same way that polygons share an
arc where they meet, as shown in Fig. 19.3

Fig. 19.3. Illustration of different types of region:

associations of polygons and overlapping polygons which
share a polygon.
 (Source: Liu, and Mason, 2009)
19.2.8.2 Linear referencing
Routes, sections and events can be considered together since
they tend not to exist on their own, and together they constitute
a system of linear referencing as it is termed in ESRI’s ArcGIS.
The constructed route defines a new path along an existing
linear feature or series of features, as illustrated in Fig. 19.4.

Fig. 19.4. Several routes representing different measures

(linear and point events), created from and related to a
pre-existing polyline feature representing, in this case, a
road network. (Source: Liu, and Mason, 2009)
 ROUTE
A route may be circular, beginning and ending in the same
place. Routes may be disconnected, such as one that passes
through a tunnel and so is not visible at the surface. A further
piece of information necessary for the description of a route is
the unit of measurement along the route. This could be almost
any quantity and for the example of a journey the measure
could be time or distance.
 SECTION
A section describes particular portions of a route, such as a
where road works are in progress on a motorway, where speed
limits are in place on a road, or where a portion of a pipeline is
currently undergoing maintenance. Again, starting and ending
nodes of the section must be defined according to the particular
measure along the route.
 EVENT
An event describes specific occurrences along a route, and
events can be further subdivided into point and linear events. A
point event describes the position of a point feature along a
route, such as an accident on a section of motorway or a leak
along a pipeline. The point event’s position is described by a
measure of, for instance, distance along the route. A linear
event describes the extent of a linear feature along a route, such
as speed restrictions along a motorway, and is rather similar in
function to a section. A linear event is identified by measures
denoting the positions where the event begins and ends along
the route.Route and event structures are of use in the
description of application-specific entities such as seismic lines
and shot-point positions. Since conventional vector structures
cannot inherently describe the significance of discrete
measurements along such structures. Along seismic lines the
shot points are the significant units of measurement but they
are not necessarily regularly spaced or numbered along that
line, so they do not necessarily denote distance along it or any
predictable quantity.
19.2.9 Representing surfaces
The vector data model provides several options for surface
representation. Iso-lines (or contours), the triangulated
irregular network, or TIN, and, Thiessen polygons (although
less commonly used). Contours can only describe the surfaces
from which they were generated and so do not readily facilitate
the calculation of further surface parameters, such as slope
angle, or aspect (the facing direction of that slope); both of
these are important for any kind of ‘terrain’ or surface analysis.
The techniques surrounding the calculation of contours are
comprehensively covered in many other texts and so we will
skirt around this issue here.
19.2.9.1 TIN Surface Model (Triangulated Irregular
Network)
The TIN data model describes a 3D surface composed of a
series of irregularly shaped and linked but non-overlapping
triangles. The TIN is also sometimes referred to as the
‘irregular triangular mesh’ or ‘irregular triangular surface
model’. The points which define the triangles can occur at any
location, hence the irregular shapes. This method of surface
description differs from the raster model in three ways. Firstly,
it is irregular in contrast with the regular spacing of the raster
grid; secondly, the TIN allows the density of point spacing (and
hence triangles) to be higher in areas of greater surface
complexity (and requires fewer points in areas of low surface
complexity); and lastly it also incorporates the topological
relationships between the triangles.
The process of Delaunay triangulation is used to connect the
input points to construct the triangular network. The triangles
are constructed and arranged so that no point lies inside the
circumcircle of any triangle (Fig. 19.5). Delaunay triangulation
maximizes the smallest of the internal angles and so tends to
produce ‘fat’ rather than ‘thin’ triangles.
 Fig. 19.5. The Delaunay triangle constructed from three
points by derivation of the circumcircle and circumcentre;
the position of the latter is given by the intersection of the
perpendicular bisectors from the three edges of the
triangle. (Source: Liu, and Mason, 2009)
As with all other vector structures, the basic components of the
TIN model are the points or nodes, and these can be any set of
mass points with which are stored values other than x, y and a
unique identifying number, i.e. a z value in their attribute table.
Nodes are connected to their nearest neighbours by edges,
according to the Delaunay triangulation process.
The input mass points may be located anywhere.Of course the
more carefully positioned they are, themore closely the model
will represent the actual surface. TINs are sometimes generated
from raster elevation models, in which case the points are
located according to an algorithm that determines the sampling
ratio necessary to describe the surface adequately. Well-placed
mass points occur at the main changes in the shape of the
surface, such as ridges, valley floors, or at the tops and bottoms
of cliffs
TINs allow rapid display and manipulation but have some
limitations. The detail with which the surface morphology is
represented depends on the number and density of the mass
points and so the number of triangles. So to represent a surface
as well and as continuously as a raster grid, the point density
would have to match or exceed the spatial resolution of the
raster. Further, while TIN generation involves the automatic
calculation of slope angle and aspect for each triangle, in the
process of its generation, the calculation and representation of
other surface morphological parameters, such as curvature, are
rather more complex and generally best left in the realm of
theraster. (Liu & Mason, 2009)
A) Advantage of Vector Data
 Data can be represented at its original resolution
and form without generalization.
 Graphic output is usually more aesthetically
pleasing (traditional cartographic
representation).
 Accurate geographic location of data is
maintained.
 Hard copy maps, is in vector form no data
conversion is required.
(B) Disadvantage of Vector Data:
 The cell size determines the resolution at which
the data is represented.
 It is especially difficult to adequately represent
linear features depending on the cell resolution.
Accordingly, network linkages are difficult to
establish.
  Processing of associated attribute data may be
cumbersome if large amounts of data exists.
Raster maps inherently reflect only one attribute
or characteristic for an area.
 Since most input data is in vector form, data
must undergo vector-to-raster conversion.
Besides increased processing requirements this
may introducedata integrity concerns due to
generalization and choice of inappropriate cell
size.
 Most output maps from grid-cell systems do not
conform to high-quality cartographic needs.
(http://bgis.sanbi.org/gis-primer/page_19.htm Accessed on
03.12.2012.)
Keywords: Data quantization and storage, Spatial variability,
Spaghetti data, Unstructured or Vertex dictionary, Dual
Independent Map Encoding (DIME), Arc-node Structure or
“POLYVRT” (POLYgonconVeRTer) Contiguity or
Adjacency, Triangulated Irregular Network.
References
 Liu, J.G., Mason, P.J., (2009). Essential Image
Processing and GIS for Remote Sensing, UK.
 http://bgis.sanbi.org/gis-primer/page_19.htm
Accessed on 03.12.2012.