PROPOSITIONS

Propositions

Welcome to the third module of this course, Philosophy of man with

Logic! For this lesson, you will be able to discuss judgment,
enunciation, and types of proposition. You will also be able to
comprehend and apply the use of propositions in logic.

I. Judgment, Enunciation, Proposition

Judgment is the second act of the intellect by which it pronounces the

agreement or disagreement between terms or ideas. It is the act by which the
intellect relates or combines ideas or concepts.

When the intellect pronounces the objective identity or non-identity between

ideas or the agreement or disagreement of concepts, enunciation takes place.

Enunciation or a mental judgment is a pronouncement that is considered as

the mental product of the act of judgment.

2 Kinds of Judgment
1. Affirmative – is an expression of the agreement of identity between
two ideas or concepts.

2. Negative – is an expression of the non-identity or disagreement of

ideas or concepts.

view. Ideas in themselves are neither true nor false. It is

when ideas are combined that they attain logical value as
true or false. The assertion of truth happens in the very
moment of pronouncing or expressing the agreement

 A proposition is defined as a judgment expressed in sentence or a

sentence pronouncing the agreement or disagreement between terms.
.

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 A proposition always has a truth-value: it may be true or false. No

proposition can be both true and false.

 Truth is defined as the agreement of the mental judgment, as

expressed in proposition, with reality. A proposition, that is true,
agrees with reality. False proposition is otherwise.

 For a sentence to be a proposition, it must express an

assertion or claim that is meaningful and coherent. It must
assert the truth or falsity about reality, especially between
ideas and concepts.

Types of Proposition

1. Categorical – expresses a direct judgment or a direct assertion of

the agreement or disagreement of two terms in an absolute manner.
Since categorical proposition expresses a direct claim, therefore its
truth-value is also immediately known.

E.g.
The flower is pleasant.
Maria is compassionate.

2. Hypothetical – does not express direct judgment, rather a relation

between two judgments, in which the truth of one depends on the
other. The hypothetical is always a compound statement since it is
always composed of two single or basic propositions.

E.g.
If there is typhoon, then the ground is wet.
Mother is either tired, or depressed.
Anne cannot study and party at the same time.

Types of Hypothetical Proposition:

a. Conditional – uses “if-then” statement;
b. Disjunctive – uses “either-or”;
c. Conjunctive – uses “and.”

II. The Categorical Proposition

Elements of Categorical Proposition

SUBJECT – the term designating the idea (thing) about which

something is affirmed or denied.

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PREDICATE – the term designating the idea (thing or attribute)

which is affirmed or denied of the subject.
COPULA – the term expressing the mental act which pronounces
the agreement or disagreement between the subject and the predicate.
QUANTIFIER – expresses the application or extension of the
proposition.

Example:

All teachers are degree holders.

Quantifier subject copula predicate

Absolute Properties of Categorical Proposition

A. Quality of Proposition

The quality of the proposition affects the copula and makes the proposition
either affirmative or negative.

1. Affirmative – An affirmative proposition is a proposition whose predicate

is always affirmed of its subject according to the whole of its comprehension
and part of its extension. Based on this definition, the predicate of an
affirmative proposition is always particular except if the predicate of the
proposition is a definition of the subject. In such cases, the predicate applies
only to one individual the subject and, therefore, has a universal extension.

E.g. All doctors are literate persons.

Some books are expensive.

2. Negative – A negative proposition is one whose predicate is always denied

of its subject according to a part of its comprehension and the whole of its
extension.

E.g. Mothers are not males.

Majority of the Filipinos are not rich.

B. Quantity of Proposition

The quantity of the proposition expresses the number of individuals to whom

the proposition applies.

1. Universal – A universal proposition is a proposition whose subject is a

universal term, a term that applies distributively to each individual in a class

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or to the class itself. It usually starts with terms denoting universality, like,
all, each, every, in case of negative proposition, no, nobody etc.

E.g. All priests are ordained.

Every Filipino is nationalistic.

2. Particular – A particular proposition is a proposition whose subject is a

particular term, a term used partly and indeterminately. Its subject is usually
preceded by terms, like, some, many, few, majority, a number of, minority,
most, etc.

E.g. Most of the students are computer enthusiasts.

Some members of the congress are corrupt.

3. Singular – a singular proposition is a proposition whose subject is a

singular term, i.e. it applies to all individuals.

E.g. The dean is the head of the college.

Jesus Christ is our Savior.

4. Collective – A collective proposition is a proposition whose subject is a

collective term, a term that applies to a class or a group.

E.g. The Abu Sayaff Group is responsible for the terrorist attack.
The faculty is competent.

III. Types Categorical Proposition

By combining the two properties of proposition, namely, quality and
quantity, we obtain four different types of propositions.

These propositions are symbolized by four vowel letters.

The four propositions are as follows:

A Universal Affirmative All X are Y.

E Universal Negative No X is Y / All X are
not Y.
I Particular Affirmative Some X are Y.
O Particular Negative Some X are not Y / Not
all X are Y.

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IV. Scheme of Categorical Proposition

A categorical proposition follows a standard pattern, and for the sake of analysis we
reduce a proposition to its standard form by substituting letters and other signs in
place of the terms and the quality and quantity of the proposition and terms.

 The subject term may be symbolized by capital S, the predicate may be

symbolized by capital P.
 To indicate that the proposition is affirmative, we put a + sign between the S
and P.
 To indicate that the proposition is negative, we put a Q between S and P.
 To indicate that the proposition is universal, we put a small u after it and if
the term is particular then we put a small p after it.

 Hence, if the subject is universal, we write Su and if it is particular we write Sp.

 If the predicate is a particular term, then we write Pp and if it is a universal term, we
write Pu.

A universal affirmative proposition (A) has a universal subject, affirmative quality

and a particular predicate, unless the predicate is a definition of the subject. Hence
the pattern of an A proposition, for example:

All teachers are literate is Su + Pp

If the predicate is a definition of the subject, then the predicate is used as a singular
or universal term, because the predicate being a definition has no other extension but
the subject. Hence the pattern of the proposition:

A dog is a barking animal is Su + Pu

A universal negative proposition (E) has a universal subject, negative quality, and a
universal predicate. Hence the pattern of an E proposition, for example:

No teacher is illiterate is Su – Pu.

A particular affirmative proposition (I) has a particular subject, affirmative quality

and a particular predicate. Hence the pattern of an I proposition, for example:

Some students are discourteous is Sp + Pp.

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A particular negative proposition (O) has a particular subject, negative quality and a
universal predicate. Hence the pattern of an O proposition, for example:

Some girls are not conservative is Sp – Pu.

Type Quality/Quantity Example Schema

A Universal Affirmative All mothers are compassionate u + Pp
A mother is a woman who has a Su + Pu (in case of
child. definition)
E Universal Negative All students are not out-of-school- Su Z Pu
youths
I Particular Affirmative Some foods are expensive Sp + Pp
O Particular Negative Some vendors are not taxpayers Sp – Pu

V. Logical Opposition (Square of Opposition)

 Opposition is the relation existing between propositions having the

same subject and predicate but different quality or quantity or both.
There are four types of opposition: contradiction, contrariety, sub-
contrariety, and sub-alternation.

 While quality and quantity are absolute properties of proposition,

logical opposition is considered as a relative property of proposition
because opposition happens only when we relate two propositions
with the same subject and predicate.

Types of Opposition

A. Contradiction
Contradiction is the opposition existing between two propositions having the
same subject, the same predicate, but different quality and quantity. It is the
opposition between A and O; E and I.

Rule: Contradictory propositions cannot be both true or both false at the

same time. Hence, if one is true, the other is false; if one is false, the other
is true.

Example:

A All men are mortals True

O Some men are not mortals False
E All students are not responsible False

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I Some students are responsible True

B. Contrariety
Contrariety is the opposition existing between two propositions having the
same subject and predicate, the same universal extension, but different in
quality. It is the opposition between the two universals: A and E.

Rule: Contrary propositions cannot be both true but may be both false.
Hence, if one is true the other is false. If the one is false, the other may be
true or false, meaning doubtful or undetermined.

A All teachers are literate True

E All teachers are not literate False
A All birds are flying animals False
E All birds are not flying animals Doubtful

C. Sub-Contrariety
Sub-Contrariety is the opposition existing between two propositions
having the same subject and predicate, the same particular extension,
but different quality. It is the opposition between the two particulars:
I and O.

Rule: Sub-Contrary propositions cannot be both false, but may be

both true. Hence, if one is false the other one is true and if one is true
the other may be true or false, i.e. doubtful

O Some students are not enrolled False

I Some students are enrolled True
I Some movies are educational True
O Some movies are not educational Doubtful

D. Sub-Alternation

Sub-alternation is the opposition existing between proposition having

the same subject and predicate, the same quality, but different
extension or quality. It is the opposition between A and I; E and O.

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Rule:

1. From the truth of the universal (A/E), follows the truth of the
particular (I/O). But from the truth of the particular (I/O), the
truth of the universal (A/E) does not follow. Hence, if the
universal is true, the particular is also true, but if the particular is
true, the universal need not be true, it may be false, i.e. doubtful.

2. From the falsity of the particular (I/O), follows the falsity of the
universal (A/E). But from the falsity of the universal (A/E), the
falsity of the particular (I/O) does not follow. Hence, if the
particular is false, the universal is also false, but if the universal
is dales the particular need not be false, it may be true, i.e.
doubtful.

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3. Logical Opposition (Square of

Opposition)
Equivalence is the similarity in terms of meaning between propositions.
Equivalent propositions may be different in expression but they express the
same meaning. Like logical opposition, logical equivalence is a relative
property of propositions.

The process of forming equivalent proposition is called eduction. Eduction is

the process of immediate inference in which from a proposition taken as true,
another proposition which is implied in it is derived. There are two kinds of
eduction: obversion and conversion.
A. Obversion

Obversion is the process of eduction in which the derived proposition,

while retaining the subject of the original proposition, has, for its
predicate, the contradictory of the original predicate. The original
proposition is called obvertend and the derived proposition is called
obverse.

Example:

All men are not immortal (obverted)

All men are mortal (obverse)

Process of Obversion

1. Retain the subject.

All men are not immortal.

Subject copula predicate

2. Contradict the predicate – this means replacing the predicate

with a term of an opposite or contrary meaning. By prefixing the
term with non-, un-, im-, dis-, il-, and other similar terms, we
form their contradictory or opposite. Or we can give a different
term with an opposite meaning.

All men are not immortal.

Subject copula predicate

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men mortal

3. Negate the copula – this means changing the quality of the

proposition. If the original proposition is negative then it is
changed to affirmative, if it is affirmative it is changed to
negative.

All men are not immortal.

Subject copula predicate

men mortal

4. Retain the quantity.

All men are not immortal.

Subject copula predicate

All men are mortal

The obverse proposition of A is E

The obverse proposition of E is A
The obverse proposition of I is O

The observation proposition of O and I

B. Conversion

Conversion is the process of eduction in which the derived proposition

takes the predicate of the original proposition for its subject and the
original subject for its predicate. The original proposition is called
convertend and the derived proposition is called converse.

Example:

All doctors are professionals (converted)

Some professionals are doctors (converse)

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Process of conversion

1. Interchange the subject and the predicate. The subject of the original
proposition becomes the predicate of the converse proposition and
the predicate becomes the subject.

3. No term may have a greater extension in the converse proposition

than in the converted proposition. This is more of a rule rather than a
part of the process. If the term is particular in the original
proposition, it must remain particular: it cannot be universal.
However, if it is universal, it may remain universal or it can be used
as a particular term.

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References
Fieser, James. Modern Philosophy. Retrieved from
http://www.utm.edu/staff/jfieser/class/315/4-empiricism.htm

Zunjic, Bob. The Critique of Judgment. Retrieved from

http://www.uri.edu/personal/szunjic/philos/critjudg.htm

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