Complex Analysis

Topic: Residues of functions

MA201 Mathematics III

Department of Mathematics
IIT Guwahati
August 2015

Complex Analysis Topic: Residues of functions 1 / 17

Residues
Question: Let γ is a simple closed contour in a simply connected
domain D and R let z0 lie in the interior of γ. If f has singularity only at z0
then what is γ f (z)dz?
Recall: Laurent Theorem: Suppose that 0 ≤ r < R. Let f be
analytic in the annulus r ≤ |z − z0 | ≤ R. Then
∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n ,
n=−∞

where the convergence is absolute and uniform in

r1 ≤ |z − z0 | ≤ R1 if r < r1 < R1 < R. The coefficients are given by
1 f (z)
Z
an = dz
2πi |z−z0|=s (z − z0 )n+1
for any r < s < R. Moreover, this series is unique.
Put n = −1. The answer of the above question is 2πia−1 .
Complex Analysis Topic: Residues of functions 2 / 17
Residues
Definition
Let f have an isolated singularity at z = z0 and let
∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n
n=−∞

be the Laurent series expansion about z0 . Then the coefficient a−1 is

called the residue at f at z0 .We write Res(f, z0 ) = a−1 .

If f has a removable singularity at z = z0 , then Res(f, z0 ) = 0.

Example.
sin z
If f (z) = , then Res(f, 0) = 0.
1
z
If g(z) = e z2 , then Res(g, 0) = 0.
2
If f (z) = e z , then Res(f, 0) = 2.
Complex Analysis Topic: Residues of functions 3 / 17
Residue at poles
If f has a pole of order m at z = z0 , then
g(z)
f (z) = (z−z 0)
m , g(z0 ) 6= 0. Since g is analytic at z0 , we have

g(n) (z0 )
g(z) = b0 + b1 (z − z0 ) + b2 (z − z0 )2 + · · · , where bn = .
n!
So
∞
g(z) bm−1
X
b0 b1
f (z) = (z−z0 )m = (z−z0 )m + (z−z0 )m−1 +· · ·+ (z−z0 ) + bm+k (z−z0 )k .
k=0
g(m−1) (z0 )
Thus, Res(f, z0 ) = bm−1 =
(m − 1)!
If f has a simple pole (pole of order one) at z = z0 , then
g(z) = (z − z0 )f (z), z 6= z0 , and so

Res(f, z0 ) = g(z0 ) = lim (z − z0 )f (z).

z→z0

Complex Analysis Topic: Residues of functions 4 / 17

Residue at poles
If f has a pole of order m at z = z0 , then
1 dm−1
Res(f, z0 ) = lim [f (z)(z − z0 )m ].
z→z0 (m − 1)! dz m−1
z
Let f (z) = then
(z − 1)(z + 1)2
1
Res(f, 1) = lim f (z)(z − 1) =
z→1 4
and
d 1
Res(f, −1) = lim [f (z)(z + 1)2 ] = − .
z→−1 dz 4
cos z 3
If f (z) = , then show that Res(f, 0) = − 4 and
z 2 (z − π)3 π
−(6 − π)2
Res(f, π) = .
2π 4
Complex Analysis Topic: Residues of functions 5 / 17
Residue at poles
g(z)
Suppose f (z) = , g(z0 ) 6= 0, h(z0 ) = 0, h0 (z0 ) 6= 0 (z0 is a simple
h(z)
zero of h(z). Then, f has a simple pole at z0 . Now, h(z) = (z − z0 )r(z),
where r(z) is analytic, r(z0 ) 6= 0. Thus, h0 (z) = r(z) + (z − z0 )r 0 (z),
which gives h0 (z0 ) = r(z0 ). Thus,
 

g(z)
Res(f, z0 ) = lim (z − z0 )f (z) = lim (z − z0 )
z→z0 z→z0 (z − z0 )r(z)
g(z) g(z0 )
= lim = 0 .
z→z0 r(z) h (z0 )

Example. Find the residue of f (z) = cot z about z0 = π.

cos z d
Ans. cot z = , cos π 6= 0, sin π = 0, dx (sin z) 6= 0 at z0 = π.
sin z
So, Res(f, π) = 1.
Complex Analysis Topic: Residues of functions 6 / 17
Residue at essential singularity

Example. Let f (z) = e1/z . Then, z = 0 is an essential singularity of f .

The Laurent series for f about 0 is

1 1 2
   
1/z 1 1
e =1+ + + · · · , for |z| > 0.
1! z 2! z

Thus, Res(f, 0) = 1.  
3
Exercise. Show that the residue of f (z) = z exp at z = 0 is 9/2.
z

Complex Analysis Topic: Residues of functions 7 / 17

Residue at isolated singularity ∞
Definition
Suppose z = ∞ is an isolated singular point of f . The the residue of f
at ∞ is defined to be Res(f, ∞) = −a−1 , where a−1 is the coefficient of
1
in the Laurent series of f at ∞.
z
1
Example. Let f (z) = . The Laurent series of f about ∞
(z − 1)(z − 2)
∞
X 2n − 1
is f (z) = n+1
, for |z| > 2. Therefore, Res(f, ∞) = 0.
n=0
z

Let C : |z| = R be a positively oriented circle which contains all

singular points of f except ∞ in its interior. Then,
Z
f (z)dz = −2πi Res(f, ∞).
C

Complex Analysis Topic: Residues of functions 8 / 17

Residue at isolated singularity ∞

Let f have isolated

  singularity at z = ∞ and g be defined by
1 1
g(z) = 2 f . Then, Res(f, ∞) = −Res(g, 0).
z z
1
Example. Let f (z) = . Then,
(z − 1)(z − 2)
1
g(z) = z12 f ( 1z ) = . Since z = 0 is not a singular point of
(1 − z)(1 − 2z)
g(z), the principal part of the Laurent series of g about 0 is trivial.
Hence, Res(f, ∞) = 0.

Complex Analysis Topic: Residues of functions 9 / 17

Cauchy residue theorem
Theorem
Let f be analytic inside and on a simple closed contour γ (positive
orientation) except for finite number of isolated singularities z1 , z2 · · · zn
in the interior of C. Then
Z Xn
f (z)dz = 2πi Res(f, zk ).
γ k=1
[Note: None of the points z1 , z2 · · · zn should lie on γ.]

Proof. Apply Cauchy’s theorem for multiply connected domain.

R
γ f (z)dz = (2πi)× sum of the residues of f at all singular points that
are enclosed in γ.
1
Z
dz = 2πi × Res(f, 0) = −2πi.
|z|=1 z(z − 2)
(Note: The point z = 2 does not lie inside unit circle.)
Complex Analysis Topic: Residues of functions 10 / 17
 1 f 0 (z)
Z
Analyzing dz: C a simple closed contour
2π i C f (z)
Case-1. f is analytic on and inside the contour C, f has a zero of
order m at z = z0 inside C and f has no zero on C.
Then, f (z) = (z − z0 )m g(z), where g is analytic and g(z0 ) 6= 0. Thus,
f 0 (z) m g0 (z) g 0 (z)
= + for 0 < |z − z0 | < r for some r > 0. Note:
f (z) z − z0 g(z) g(z)
f0
is analytic at z0 . So, the residue of at z0 is m. Hence,
f
1 f 0 (z) 1 
Z
2π i × Res(f 0 /f, z0 ) = m.

dz =
2π i C f (z) 2π i

If m is the number of zeros in C, counting multiplicity, then

1 f 0 (z)
Z
dz = m.
2πi C f (z)
Complex Analysis Topic: Residues of functions 11 / 17
 1 f 0 (z)
Z
Analyzing dz: C a simple closed contour
2π i C f (z)
Case-2. f is analytic on and inside the contour C, except at z = z0
inside C which is a pole.
h(z)
Then, f (z) = , where h is analytic and h(z0 ) 6= 0. At z 6= z0
(z − z0 )n
we get
h0 (z) nf (z) f 0 (z) h0 (z) −n
f 0 (z) = − , i.e., = + .
(z − z0 )n (z − z0 ) f (z) h(z) (z − z0 )
Thus, Res(f 0 /f, z0 ) = −n.

If m and n are the numbers of zeros and poles in C, respectively,

counting multiplicity, then

1 f 0 (z)
Z
dz = m − n.
2πi C f (z)

Complex Analysis Topic: Residues of functions 12 / 17

Meromorphic functions

Definition: A function f is said to be meromorphic in a domain D if f

is analytic throughout D except for poles.
z
Example. , tan z, cot z.
(z − 1)(z + 5)
Suppose f is meromorphic inside a closed contour γ, analytic on
γ has no zero on γ. Let Γ be the image of γ under f i.e. Γ = f (γ)
then Γ is a closed contour (not necessarily simple).
As z traverses γ in positive direction, its image w = f (z) traverses
Γ in a particular direction that determines the orientation of Γ .

Complex Analysis Topic: Residues of functions 13 / 17

Winding number

Fix f (z0 ) = w0 ∈ Γ. Let φ0 = arg w0 . Take w ∈ Γ. Vary arg w

continuously starting with the value φ0 .
When w returns to the point w0 (in this case z traverses from z0 to
z0 ), arg w assumes a particular value of arg w0 (say φ1 ).
The change in arg w (independent of the point w0 ) is φ1 − φ0 which
is an integral multiple of 2π.
1
The integer 2π (φ1 − φ0 ) represents orientation and the number of
times the point w winds around the origin called the winding
number.

Complex Analysis Topic: Residues of functions 14 / 17

Winding number
f 0 (z)
Z
The contour integral dz can be interpreted in following
γ f (z)
(informal) ways:
as the total change in the argument of f (z) as z travels around
γ, explaining the name of the theorem; since
d f 0 (z)
log(f (z)) = ,
dz f (z)
f 0 (z)
the integration of over γ gives
f (z)
 
log f |γ = log |f (z)| + i arg f (z) γ .

as 2πi times the winding number of the path f (γ) around the
origin, using the substitution w = f (z) one has
Z 0
f (z) 1
Z
dz = dw.
γ f (z) f (γ) w
Complex Analysis Topic: Residues of functions 15 / 17
Argument Principle

Let C be a simple closed contour. Let f (z) be analytic and nonzero at

each point of C, and meromorphic inside C. Suppose f has zeros
z1 , . . . , zk with multiplicities m1 , . . . , mk and poles p1 , . . . , pl with
multiplicities n1 , . . . , nl . Then
k l
1 f 0 (z)
Z X X
dz = mi − nj
2πi C f (z)
i=1 j=1
= the winding number of Γ = f (C).

Z
Evaluate: tan z dz.
Z|z− 2 |=1
π

dz
Evaluate: .
|z|=1 sin z

Complex Analysis Topic: Residues of functions 16 / 17

Rouché’s Theorem

Theorem
Suppose f, g be two analytic functions inside and on a simple closed
contour γ such that |f (z)| > |g(z)| at each point on γ. Then f (z) and
f (z) + g(z) have same number of zeros, counted according to their
multiplicity inside γ.

Example: Determine the number of zeros of the equation

z 7 − 4z 3 + z − 1 = 0 inside the circle |z| = 1.
Take f (z) = −4z 3 ; g(z) = z 7 + z − 1. Then |f (z)| = 4 and |g(z)| ≤ 3
when |z| = 1. Since f has three zeros inside |z| = 1, by Rouché0 s
theorem, the equation z 7 − 4z 3 + z − 1 = 0 has three zeros inside the
circle |z| = 1.

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