The Northern Lights

The northern lights, or aurora borealis, offer an entrancing, dramatic,

magical display that fascinates all who see it — but just what causes this
dazzling natural phenomenon?
At the center of our solar system lies the sun, the yellow star that sustains
life on our planet. The sun's many magnetic fields distort and twist as our
parent star rotates on its axis. When these fields become knotted together,
they burst and create so-called sunspots. Usually, these sunspots occur in
pairs; the largest can be several times the size of Earth's diameter.

At the center of the sun, the temperature is 27 million degrees Fahrenheit (15
million degrees Celsius). As the temperature on its surface rises and falls, the
sun boils and bubbles. Particles escape from the star from thesunspot
regions on the surface, hurtling particles of plasma, known as solar wind,
into space. It takes these winds around 40 hours to reach Earth. When they
do, they can cause the dramatic displays known as the aurora borealis.

Auroras occur not only on Earth, but also on other worlds in our solar
system (and perhaps exoplanets as well). The gas giants in our solar system

The sunspots and solar storms that cause the most magnificent displays of
the northern lights occur roughly every 11 years. The solar cycle peaked in
2013, but it was the weakest solar maximum in a century

"This solar cycle continues to rank among the weakest on record," Ron
Turner of Analytic Services, Inc. who serves as a Senior Science Advisor to
NASA's Innovative Advanced Concepts program, said in a statement.
Since record-keeping of the ebb and flow of the sun's activity began in 1749,
there have been 22 full cycles. Researchers monitor space weather events
because they have the potential to affect spacecraft in orbit, knock out power
grids and communications infrastructure on Earth, and amp up normal
displays of the northern and southern lights. Scientists are also investigating
how fluctuations in the sun's activity affect weather on our planet.

Particles and polar attraction

Earth is constantly bombarded with debris, radiation and other magnetic
waves from space that could threaten the future of life as we know it. Most
of the time, the planet's own magnetic field does an excellent job of
deflecting these potentially harmful rays and particles, including those from
the sun.
Particles discharged from the sun travel 93 million miles (around 150
million km) toward Earth before they are drawn irresistibly toward the
magnetic north and south poles. As the particles pass through the Earth's
magnetic shield, they mingle with atoms and molecules of oxygen, nitrogen
and other elements that result in the dazzling display of lights in the sky.

What causes the colors?

The colors most often associated with the aurora borealis are pink, green,
yellow, blue, violet, and occasionally orange and white. Typically, when the
particles collide with oxygen, yellow and green are produced. Interactions
with nitrogen produce red, violet, and occasionally blue colors.
The type of collision also makes a difference to the colors that appear in the
sky: atomic nitrogen causes blue displays, while molecular nitrogen results
in purple. The colors are also affected by altitude. The green lights typically
in areas appear up to 150 miles (241 km) high, red above 150 miles; blue
usually appears at up to 60 miles (96.5 km); and purple and violet above 60
miles.
These lights may manifest as a static band of light, or, when the solar
flares are particularly strong, as a dancing curtain of ever-changing color.

How are the colors of the aurora created?

The sun radiates all visible colors, which is why sunlight appears white. The
spectrum of visible light associated with the aurora is much more restricted.
The aurora is caused by charged particles in the solar wind colliding with
atmospheric atoms and ions. The collisions cause the electrons of the
atmospheric atoms to become excited. As the electrons return to their
original energy levels, these atoms emit visible light of distinct wavelengths,
to create the colors of the display we see.

The color of the aurora depends on the wavelength of the light emitted. This
is determined by the specific atmospheric gas and its electrical state, and the
energy of the particle that hits the atmospheric gas. The atmosphere consists
mainly of nitrogen and oxygen, which emit the characteristic colors of their
respective line spectra. Atomic oxygen is responsible for the two main colors
of green (wavelength of 557.7 nm) and red (630.0 nm). Nitrogen causes blue
and deep red hues.
This is the spectrum of colors emitted by the various atoms in earth’s
outer atmosphere.
Most of the auroral features are greenish-yellow, but sometimes the tall rays
will turn red at their tops and along their lower edges. On rare occasions,
sunlight will hit the top part of the auroral rays to create a faint blue color.
On very rare occasions (once every 10 years or so) the aurora can be a deep
blood red color from top to bottom. Pink hues may also be seen in the lower
area of the aurora. In addition to producing light, the energetic auroral
collisions transmit heat. The heat is dissipated by infrared radiation, or
transported away by strong winds in the upper atmosphere.

History of the auroral lights

For millennia, the lights have been the source of speculation, superstition
and awe. Cave paintings in France thought to date back 30,000 years have
illustrations of the natural phenomenon.
In more superstitious times, the northern lights were thought to be a
harbinger of war or destruction, before people really understood what causes
them. Many classic philosophers, authors and astronomers, including
Aristotle, Descartes, Goethe and Halley, refer to the northern lights in their
work.
As early as 1616, the astronomer Galileo Galilei used the name aurora
borealis to describe them, taking the name of the mythical Roman goddess
of the dawn, Aurora, and the Greek name for wind of the north, Boreas.
The aurora australis, or the southern lights, occur around the south polar
region. But, since the South Pole is even more inhospitable than the North
Pole, it is often trickier to view the southern lights.

The otherworldly colors of the Northern Lights and Southern Lights have
fueled folklore for millennia, but their cause is actually quite
straightforward.
The aurora is caused by the interaction of high-energy particles (usually
electrons) with neutral atoms in earth’s upper atmosphere. This process is
similar to the discharge in a neon lamp, or the fluorescence of a television
screen. The strongest auroras are quite bright, comparable to moonlight. The
aurora occurs only above altitudes of 80 km, and infrequently above 500 km.
The average altitude for a normal intensity aurora is between 110 and 200
km.

WHERE IS THE BEST PLACE TO WATCH THE NORTHERN

LIGHTS?
Northern Lights can be seen in the northern or southern hemisphere, in an
irregularly shaped oval centred over each magnetic pole. The lights are
known as 'Aurora borealis' in the north and 'Aurora australis' in the south.
Scientists have learned that in most instances northern and southern auroras
are mirror-like images that occur at the same time, with similar shapes and
colors.

Because the phenomena occur near the magnetic poles, northern lights have
been seen as far south as New Orleans in the western hemisphere, while
similar locations in the east never experience the mysterious lights. However
the best places to watch the lights (in North America) are in the northwestern
parts of Canada, particularly the Yukon, Nunavut, Northwest Territories and
Alaska. Auroral displays can also be seen over the southern tip of Greenland
and Iceland, the northern coast of Norway and over the coastal waters north
of Siberia. Southern auroras are not often seen as they are concentrated in a
ring around Antarctica and the southern Indian Ocean.

Areas that are not subject to 'light pollution' are the best places to watch for
the lights. Areas in the north, in smaller communities, tend to be best

When to see the lights

The northern lights are always present, but winter is usually the best time to
see them, due to lower levels of light pollution and the clear, crisp air.
September, October, March and April are some of the best months to view
the aurora borealis. The lights are known to be brighter and more active for
up to two days after sunspot activity is at its highest. Several agencies, such
as NASA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, also
monitor solar activity and issue aurora alerts when they are expected to put
on a particularly impressive show.
How does altitude affect the colors of the aurora?
The strong, green light originates at altitudes of 120 to 180 km. Red
Northern Lights occur at even higher altitudes, while blue and violet occur
mostly below 120 km. When the sun is "stormy," red colors occur at
altitudes of 90 to 100 km. Entirely red Northern Lights may sometimes be
seen, particularly at low latitudes. In earlier times, people often mistook this
red light for fire on the horizon.
As the above diagram shows, the different colors of the aurora at different
altitudes relate to the varying composition of the earth’s atmosphere and its
decreasing density moving away from the surface. The colors depend on the
relative proportions of oxygen and nitrogen at the level of the auroral
activity.

Composition
This is more of a discussion about certain preferences. What people like to
see in their picture and so forth? However, keep in mind that in this day and
age there are millions of pictures of northern lights. To make your picture
more unique, you should always try to aim to incorporate an interesting
subject in your foreground. Just a picture of aurora doesn't cut it anymore.
On a completely dark night it might be hard to take a properly exposed
picture of anything other than the sky. And so here comes the moon to save
the day again. I have found that the moonlight can be bright enough to
illuminate the whole scene and yet allow you to take properly exposed
aurora. Results can be stunning and otherworldly.
The aurora borealis – otherwise known as the northern lights – is a vivid
demonstration of the Earth's magnetic field interacting with charged particles
from the sun. It's also beautiful, and worth braving a cold night out when
visiting the high northern (or southern) latitudes.
Auroras are centered on the Earth's magnetic poles, visible in a roughly
circular region around them. Since the magnetic and geographic poles aren't
the same, sometimes the auroras are visible farther south than one might
expect, while in other places it's farther northIn the Northern Hemisphere,
the auroral zone runs along the northern coast of Siberia, Scandinavia,
Iceland, the southern tip of Greenland and northern Canada and Alaska.
Auroras are visible south of the zone, but they are less likely to occur the
farther away you go. The Southern Hemisphere auroral zone is mostly over
Antarctica, or the Southern Ocean. To see the southern lights (or aurora
australis), you have to go to Tasmania, and there are occasional sightings in
southern Argentina or the Falklands – but those are rare.
Here are some dazzling facts about these light shows.

1. Different ions make different colors

Aurora displays are created when protons and electrons stream out from the
solar surface and slam into the Earth's magnetic field. Since the particles are
charged they move in spirals along the magnetic field lines, the protons in
one direction and the electrons in the other. Those particles in turn hit the
atmosphere. Since they follow the magnetic field lines, most of them enter
the atmospheric gases in a ring around the magnetic poles, where the
magnetic field lines come together.
The air is made up largely of nitrogen and oxygen atoms, with oxygen
becoming a bigger component at the altitudes auroras happen – starting
about 60 miles up and going all the way up to 600 miles. When the charged
particles hit them, they gain energy. Eventually they relax, giving up the
energy and releasing photons of specific wavelengths. Oxygen atoms emit
green and sometimes red light, while nitrogen is more orange or red.

2. They are visible from space

Satellites can take pictures of the aurora from Earth's orbit — and the images
they get are pretty striking. In fact, auroras are bright enough that they show
up strongly on the nightside of the Earth even if one were looking at them
from another planet.
The International Space Station's orbit is inclined enough that it even plows
through the heavenly lights. Most of the time nobody notices, as the density
of charged particles is so low. Rodney Viereck, director of the Space
Weather Prediction Test Bed at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA),said the only time it matters is during particularly
intense solar storms, when radiation levels are high. At that point all the
astronauts have to do is move to a more protected area of the station.
(Ironically, intense solar storms can actually reducethe amount of radiation
around the space station, because of the interactions of charged particles
with the Earth's magnetic field). Meanwhile, ISS astronauts can snap
gorgeous auroral panoramas.

3. Other planets have them

Voyagers 1 and 2 were the first probes to bring back pictures of auroras on
Jupiter and Saturn, and later Uranus and Neptune. Since then, the Hubble
Space Telescope has taken pictures of them as well. Auroras on either Jupiter
or Saturn are much larger and more powerful than on Earth, because those
planets' magnetic fields are orders of magnitude more intense.
On Uranus, auroras get weirder, because the planet's magnetic field is
oriented roughly vertically, but the planet rotates on its side. That means
instead of the bright rings you see on other worlds, Uranus' auroras look
more like single bright spots, at least when spied by the Hubble Space
Telescope in 2011. But it's not clear that's always the case, because no
spacecraft has seen the planet up-close since 1986.

4. The lights can move south

Occasionally the auroras are visible farther from the poles than usual. In
times of high solar activity, the southern limit for seeing auroras can go as
far south as Oklahoma and Atlanta — as it did in October 2011. A record
was probably set at the Battle of Fredericksburg in Virginia in 1862, during
the Civil War, when the northern lights appeared. Many soldiers noted it in
their diaries. Viereck said it is actually harder now than a century ago to tell
when auroras are very bright, because so many Americans live in cities, and
the lights wash out the aurora. "You could have a major auroral storm in
New York City and if you looked up you wouldn't notice," he said.

5. Divine signs?
Southern Lights captured by the crew aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavor.
Speaking of that Civil War aurora, a few observers took the swirling light
show as a bad omen (notably Elizabeth Lyle Saxon, who wrote about the
phenomenon in her 1905 book, "A Southern Woman's War Time
Reminiscences"), though most people just saw it as an unusual and
impressive display. In areas where the lights are rare, they were often taken
as bad omens, as the ancient Greeks did. The Inuit, who see auroras more
often, thought the lights were spirits playing in the sky, and some groups
would tell children not to play outside at night lest the aurora disappear and
take them along. Lapplanders thought the lights were the spirits of the dead.
In the Southern Hemisphere, the Maori and Aboriginal people of Australia
associated the southern lights with fires in the spirit world.
Oddly, the Old Norse and Icelandic literature doesn't seem to mention
auroras much. The Vikings thought the displays might be fires that
surrounded the edge of the world, an emanation of flame from the northern
ice, or reflections from the sun as it went around the other side of the Earth.
All three ideas were considered rational, non-supernatural explanations in
the Medieval Period.

6. Cold fire
The northern lights look like fire, but they wouldn't feel like one. Even
though the temperature of the upper atmosphere can reach thousands of
degrees Fahrenheit, the heat is based on the average speed of the molecules.
After all, that's what temperature is. But feeling heat is another matter – the
density of the air is so low at 60 miles (96 kilometers) up that a thermometer
would register temperatures far below zero where aurora displays occur.

7. Cameras see it better

Auroras are relatively dim, and the redder light is often at the limit of what
human retinas can pick up. Cameras, though, are often more sensitive, and
with a long-exposure setting and a clear dark sky you can pick up some
spectacular shots.

8. You can't predict a show

One of the most difficult problems in solar physics is knowing the shape of a
magnetic field in a coronal mass ejection (CME), which is basically a huge
blob of charged particles ejected from the sun. Such CMEs have their own
magnetic fields. The problem is, it is nigh impossible to tell in what direction
the CME field is pointing until it hits. A hit creates either a spectacular
magnetic storm and dazzling aurora with it, or a fizzle. Currently there's no
way to know ahead of time.

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