Assessments for learning -B.

ed Second year notes

1. 1. Unit 1: Perspectives on Assessment and Evaluation

1(a) Meaning of Assessment, Measurement, Tests, Examination, Appraisal, and

Evaluation and their interrelationships; Principles of assessment and evaluation,
Meaning of Assessment In education, the term assessment refers to the wide
variety of methods that educators use to evaluate, measure, and document the
academic readiness, learning progress, and skill acquisition of students from
preschool through college and adulthood. It is the process of systematically
gathering information as part of an evaluation. Assessment is carried out to see
what children and young people know, understand and are able to do. Assessment
is very important for tracking progress, planning next steps, reporting and
involving parents, children and young people in learning.

b) Meaning of Measurement:- Measurement is actually the process of estimating

the values that is the physical quantities like; time, temperature, weight, length etc.
each measurement value is represented in the form of some standard units. The
estimated values by these measurements are actually compared against the
standard quantities that are of same type. Measurement is the assignment of a
number to a characteristic of an object or event, which can be compared with other
objects or events. The scope and application of a measurement is dependent on the
context and discipline. Meaning of Tests A procedure intended to establish the
quality, performance or reliability of something, especially before it is taken into
widespread use. Meaning of Examination The act of examining or state of being
examined (Education). Written exercises, Oral questions or practical tasks, set to
test a candidate‘s knowledge and skill (as modifier): an examination paper.

c) Meaning of Appraisal:- An assessment or estimation of the worth, value or

quality of a person or thing. Impartial analysis and evaluation conducted according
to established criteria to determine the acceptability, merit, or worth of an item.

d) Meaning of Evaluation:- Evaluation is a broader term that refers to all of the

methods used to find out what happens as a result of using a specific intervention or
practice. Evaluation is the systematic assessment of the worth or merit of some
object. It is the systematic acquisition and assessment of information to provide
useful feedback about some object. Interrelation among Assessment, Evaluation and
Measurement Though the terms assessment and evaluation are often used
interchangeably (Cooper, 1999), many writers differentiate between them.
Assessment is defined as gathering information or evidence, and evaluation is the use
of that information or evidence to make judgments (Snowman, McCown, and
Biehler, 2012). Measurement involves assigning numbers or scores to an "attribute or
characteristic of a person in such a way that the numbers describe the degree to
which the person possesses the attribute" (Nitco and Brookhart, 2011, p. 507).
Assigning grade equivalents to scores on a standardized achievement test is an
example of measurement.

2. 2. PRINCIPLES OF ASSESSMENT

Reliability A test can be reliable but not valid, whereas a test cannot be valid yet
unreliable. Reliability, in simple terms, describes the repeatability and consistency
of a test.

Validity defines the strength of the final results and whether they can be regarded
as accurately describing the real world. Validity The word "valid" is derived from
the Latin validus, meaning strong. The validity of a measurement tool (for
example, a test in education) is considered to be the degree to which the tool
measures what it claims to measure; in this case, the validity is an equivalent to
accuracy.

Relevance and transferability In education, the term relevance typically refers

to learning experiences that are either directly applicable to the personal
aspirations, interests or cultural experiences of students (personal relevance) or
that are connected in some way to real-world issues, problems and contexts (life
relevance). Relevance is the concept of one topic being connected to another topic
in a way that makes it useful to consider the first topic when considering the
second. The concept of relevance is studied in many different fields, including
cognitive sciences, logic, and library and information science. Most
fundamentally, however, it is studied in epistemology (the theory of knowledge).
Transferability implies that results of the research study can be applicable to
similar situations or individuals. The knowledge which was obtained in situation
will be relevant in another and investigators who carry out research in another
context will be able to utilize certain concepts which were initially developed. It is
comparable to generalizability. Transferability in research is utilized by the readers
of study. Transferability can apply in varying degrees to many types of research.
Transferability doesn‘t involve broad claims, but invites readers of research to
make associations between elements of research and their own experience. For
example, lecturers at a school may selectively apply to their own class‘s results
from a research indicating that heuristic writing exercises aid students at the
university level.

1(b) Behaviorist, Cognitive and Constructivist Perspectives of assessment

LEARNING THEORY Learning theories are conceptual frameworks describing

how information is absorbed, processed and retained during learning. Cognitive,
emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a
part in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed and knowledge
and skills retained. Behaviorists look at learning as an aspect of conditioning and
will advocate a system of rewards and targets in education. Educators who
embrace cognitive theory believe that the definition of learning as a change in
behavior is too narrow and prefer to study the learner rather than their
environment and in particular the complexities of human memory. Those who
advocate constructivism believe that a learner's ability to learn relies to a large
extent on what he already knows and understands, and the acquisition of
knowledge should be an individually tailored process of construction.
Transformative learning theory focuses upon the often necessary change that is
required in a learner's preconceptions and world view. Behaviorism .

3. 3. Behaviorism is a philosophy of learning that only focuses on objectively

observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define
learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior. Experiments by
behaviorists identify conditioning as a universal learning process. There are two
different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioral pattern:
Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. The
most popular example is

 Pavlov's observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food.
Essentially, animals and people are biologically "wired" so that a certain stimulus
will produce a specific response. Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when
a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically,

 operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement

follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in
the future. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used reinforcement
techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley. How
Behaviorism impacts learning: Positive and negative reinforcement techniques of
Behaviorism can be very effective. Teachers use Behaviorism when they reward
or punish student behaviors. Cognitivism Jean Piaget authored a theory based on
the idea that a developing child builds cognitive structures, mental "maps", for
understanding and responding to physical experiences within their environment.
Piaget proposed that a child's cognitive structure increases in sophistication with
development, moving from a few innate reflexes such as crying and sucking to
highly complex mental activities. The four developmental stages of Piaget's model
and the processes by which children progress through them are: The child is not
yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical situations. As
physical experience accumulates, the child starts to conceptualize, creating logical
structures that explain their physical experiences. Abstract problem solving is
possible at this stage. For example, arithmetic equations can be solved with
numbers, not just with objects. By this point, the child's cognitive structures are
like those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning. Piaget proposed that
during all development stages, the child experiences their environment using
whatever mental maps they have constructed. If the experience is a repeated one, it
fits easily - or is assimilated - into the child's cognitive structure so that they
maintain mental "equilibrium". If the experience is different or new, the child loses
equilibrium, and alters their cognitive structure to accommodate the new
conditions. In this way, the child constructs increasingly complex cognitive
structures.

4. 4. How Piaget's theory impacts learning: - Educators must plan a

developmentally appropriate curriculum that enhances their students' logical
and conceptual growth. - Teachers must emphasize the critical role that
experiences, or interactions with the surrounding environment, play in student
learning. For example, instructors have to take into account the role that
fundamental concepts, such as the permanence of objects, play in establishing
cognitive structures. Constructivism Constructivism is a philosophy of learning
founded on the premise that, by reflecting on our experiences we construct our
own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own
"rules" and "mental models," which we use to make sense of our experiences.
Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to
accommodate new experiences. The guiding principles of Constructivism:
Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues
 around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. wholes as well
as parts and parts must be understood in the context of wholes. Therefore, the
learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts.

ll, we must understand the mental models that students use to perceive the
world and the assumptions they make to support those models. The purpose of
learning is for an individual to construct his or her own meaning, not just
memorize the "right" answers and repeat someone else's meaning. Since education
is inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to measure learning is to
make assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it provides students with
information on the quality of their learning. How Constructivism impacts learning:
- Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardized curriculum. Instead, it
promotes using curricula customized to the students' prior knowledge. Also, it
emphasizes hands-on problem solving. - Under the theory of constructivism,
educators focus on making connections between facts and fostering new
understanding in students. Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to student
responses and encourage students to analyze, interpret and predict information.
Teachers also rely heavily on open- ended questions and promote extensive
dialogue among students. - Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and
standardized testing. Instead, assessment becomes part of the learning process so
that students play a larger role in judging their own progress. 1(C) Purposes of
Assessment: Prognostic, Monitoring of Learning, Providing Feedback, Promotion,
Placement, Certification, Grading and Diagnostic

5. PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT Teaching and Learning The primary purpose

of assessment is to improve student’s learning and teacher’s teaching as both
respond to the information it provides. Assessment for learning is an ongoing
process that arises out of the interaction between teaching and learning. What
makes assessment for learning effective is how well the information is used.
System improvement Assessment can do more than simply diagnose and
identify student’s learning needs; it can be used to assist improvements across
the education system in a cycle of continuous improvement: Students and
teachers can use the information gained from assessment to determine their
next teaching
6. 5. and learning steps. Parents and families can be kept informed of next plans
for teaching and learning and the progress being made, so they can play an
active role in their children‘s learning. School leaders can use the information
 for school-wide planning, to support their teachers and determine professional
development needs. Communities and Boards of Trustees can use assessment
information to assist their governance role and their decisions about staffing
and resourcing. The Education Review Office can use assessment information
to inform their advice for school improvement. The Ministry of Education can
use assessment information to undertake policy review and development at a
national level, so that government funding and policy intervention is targeted
appropriately to support improved student outcomes. 1(d) Classification of
assessment: • based on purpose (prognostic, formative, diagnostic and
summative) • scope (teacher made, standardized), • attribute measured
(achievement, aptitude, attitude, etc.), • nature of information gathered
(qualitative, quantitative), • mode of response (oral and written; selection and
supply), • nature of interpretation (norm referenced, criterion referenced) and •
context (internal, external)
7. CLASSIFICATION OF ASSESSMENT Based on purpose There are three
types of assessment: diagnostic, formative and summative. Although are three
are generally referred to simply as assessment, there are distinct differences
between the three. Prognostic Assessment A prognostic assessment expands the
findings of an assessment with analysis of abilities and potentials with a further
dimension: the future development of the concerned person, as well as the
necessary conditions, timeframe and limits. Finding the right person for an
executive position needs a reliable comprehension of the personality as well as
the possibilities and limits concerning the personal development. Even an
experienced and keen observer of human nature may get deluded, even
recognized and proven test procedures may be incomplete or leading to wrong
results – and misjudgments can become expensive in substantial and immaterial
ways. Six Goals of the Prognostic Personality and Abilities Assessment
Analysis of existing abilities and interests, including the not (yet) known ones
and the development to be expected. If needed, a comparison with job
description and profile of requirements. Basic conditions and needs for the
development: how it can be enhanced and ensured. Period: how long the
development will take until the defined goals can be reached. Limits of
developmental possibilities, either referring to the defined goals (selection
assessment), or generally, with a realistic time frame of 3 to 5 years. Quality
assurance and sustainability: how the results can be monitored and ensured in
the long term. The prognostic assessment is suitable for all management
levels including executive board and administrative council, but likewise for
 young people with the aim of a comprehensive potential analysis. Typically, the
prognostic assessment is accomplished as an individual one day-assessment.
The objectives are defined individually. Formative Assessment
8. 6. Formative assessment provides feedback and information during the
instructional process, while learning is taking place, and while learning is
occurring. Formative assessment measures student progress but it can also
assess your own progress as an instructor. A primary focus of formative
assessment is to identify areas that may need improvement. These assessments
typically are not graded and act as a gauge to student’s learning progress and to
determine teaching effectiveness (implementing appropriate methods and
activities). Types of Formative Assessment: Observations during in-class
activities Homework exercises as review for exams and class discussions
Reflections journals that are reviewed periodically during the semester
Question and answer sessions, both formal—planned and informal—
spontaneous Conferences between the instructor and student at various points
in the semester In-class activities where students informally present their
results Student feedback collected by periodically Diagnostic Assessment:
Diagnostic assessment can help you identify your student’s current knowledge
of a subject, their skill sets and capabilities, and to clarify misconceptions
before teaching takes place. Knowing student’s strengths and weaknesses can
help you better plan what to teach and how to teach it. Types of Diagnostic
Assessments: Pre-tests (on content and abilities) Self-assessments
(identifying skills and competencies) Discussion board responses (on content-
specific prompts) Interviews (brief, private, 10-minute interview of each
student) Summative Assessment Summative assessment takes place after the
learning has been completed and provides information and feedback that sums
up the teaching and learning process. Typically, no more formal learning is
taking place at this stage, other than incidental learning which might take place
through the completion of projects and assignments. Types of Summative
Assessment Examinations (major, high-stakes exams) Final examination (a
truly summative assessment) Term papers (drafts submitted throughout the
semester would be a formative assessment) Projects (project phases submitted
at various completion points could be formatively assessed) Portfolios (could
also be assessed during its development as a formative assessment)
9. 7. Performances Student evaluation of the course (teaching effectiveness)
Instructor self-evaluation Based on scope Teacher-Made vs. Standardized
 Assessments In the broadest sense, assessments may be classified into two
categories: teacher-made and standardized. Teacher-made assessments are
constructed by an individual teacher or a group of teachers in order to measure
the outcome of classroom instruction. Standardized assessments, on the other
hand, are commercially prepared and have uniform procedures for
administration and scoring. They are meant for gathering information on large
groups of students in multiple settings (Karmel and Karmel, 1978). Based on
Attribute
10. ATTRIBUTE MEASURED Achievement Academic performance should
be measured in multiple manners and methods such as: teacher observation,
benchmark assessments, student portfolios, rubrics, progress monitoring tools,
standardized assessments and other local assessments. ―Using multiple
assessments helps educators determine what is working and not working… and
eventually can lead to better outcomes for students.‖ Aptitude The terms
intelligence, ability and aptitude are often used interchangeably to refer to
behaviour that is used to predict future learning or performance. However,
slight differences exist between the terms. The tests designed to measure these
attributes differ in several significant ways. How can one be improve Aptitude?
 Although studies seem to suggest that aptitude test scores cannot be
improved, other research shows that that may not be the case. Tests such as the
Scholastic Aptitude Tests contain many questions that are content-specific,
particularly in math areas. Performance on these specific types of items is
trainable. Some experts feel that short-term cramming might not affect aptitude
test scores. However, long-term instruction in broad cognitive skills might
improve general test performance. Cognitive theory and research suggest that
learning ability can be improved by training students in learning strategies.
Improving academic aptitude may be possible through a systematic curriculum
that complements direct training in learning strategies with both the
development of general thinking approaches and the application of those
approaches over a variety of different tasks and content areas. What has been
learned about training to improve aptitude can be summarized as follows: *
Attempts to train aptitude must go well beyond practice and feedback. What's
needed is intensive training in strategies involved in task performance along
with higher level monitoring and control strategies involved in guiding
performance and in transferring skills to new areas. * Educational efforts to
improve aptitude need to be long-term.
11. 8. * Abilities of students and methods of training interact. Attempts to
train strategies must fit the tested aptitudes of students. * Practice and feedback
can be effective when students are already proficient in the ability to be trained.
* Intrusive training may be harmful to high aptitude students. * Training ability
works best when treatment utilizes some of the student's other strengths. *
Some aspects of intellectual aptitude may be more easily trained than others.
Attitude Most simply put, attitudes are likes and dislikes. Social psychologists
have given various definitions of the concept. Most of them view attitudes as
inclinations or predispositions. According to Gordon W Allport defined an
attitude to be a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through
experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's
response to all objects and situations with which it is related. Milton Rokeach
defined it as a relatively enduring organization of beliefs around an object or
situation predisposing a person to respond in some preferential manner. Our
response to an object is often in line with what we believe about and how we
feel toward that object. Attitudes are, thus, said to have a knowledge/belief
(cognitive) component, an emotional or affective component and a Conative or
behavioral component. Having an idea or belief about the object is the
minimum condition for having an attitude with regard to it. When the object of
which you have an idea becomes associated with pleasant or unpleasant events
or with your aspirations and goals, you attach a corresponding affect or an
emotional tinge to that object. This affected belief energizes and directs your
response with regard to the object. An attitude may thus be understood as an
idea or belief charged with emotion predisposing an individual to act in a
particular way to persons, things, situations, issues, etc. Based on Nature of
information gathered (qualitative & quantitative) Research methods are split
broadly into quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is perhaps the simpler to define and identify. The data
produced are always numerical, and they are analyzed using mathematical and
statistical methods. If there are no numbers involved, then it‘s not quantitative
research. Some phenomena obviously lend themselves to quantitative analysis
because they are already available as numbers. Examples include changes in
achievement at various stages of education, or the increase in number of senior
managers holding management degrees. However, even phenomena that are not
obviously numerical in nature can be examined using quantitative methods.
Sources of Quantitative Data The most common sources of quantitative data
include: Surveys, whether conducted online, by phone or in person. These rely
 on the same questions being asked in the same way to a large number of
people; Observations, which may either involve counting the number of times
that a particular phenomenon occurs, such as how often a particular word is
used in interviews, or coding observational data to translate it into numbers;
and
12. 9. Secondary data, such as company accounts. Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is any which does not involve numbers or numerical data.
It often involves words or language, but may also use pictures or photographs
and observations. Qualitative analysis results in rich data that gives an in-depth
picture and it is particularly useful for exploring how and why things have
happened. Sources of Qualitative Data Although qualitative data is much more
general than quantitative, there are still a number of common techniques for
gathering it. These include: Interviews, which may be structured, semi-
structured or unstructured; Focus groups, which involve multiple participants
discussing an issue; ‘Postcards’, or small-scale written questionnaires that
ask, for example, three or four focused questions of participants but allow
them space to write in their own words; Secondary data, including diaries,
written accounts of past events, and company reports; and Observations,
which may be on site, or under laboratory conditions‘, for example, where
participants are asked to role-play a situation to show what they might do.
Based on Mode of Response Mode of Response Oral Response and Written
Assessments Student oral responses are longer and more complex, parallel to
extended written response questions. Just as with extended written response,
one evaluates the quality of oral responses using a rubric or scoring guide.
Longer, more complicated responses would occur, for example, during oral
examination or oral presentations. Written assessments are activities in which
the student selects or composes a response to a prompt. In most cases, the
prompt consists of printed materials (a brief question, a collection of historical
documents, graphic or tabular material, or a combination of these). However, it
may also be an object, an event, or an experience. Student responses are usually
produced ―on demand, i.e., the respondent does the writing at a specified time
and within a fixed amount of time. These constraints contribute to
standardization of testing conditions, which increases the comparability of
results across students or groups. Selected-Response Tests Characteristics
Selected-response tests are so named because the student reads a relatively brief
opening statement (called a stem) and selects one of the provided alternatives as
the correct answer. Selected-response tests are typically made up of multiple-
 choice, true-false, or matching items. Quite often all three item types are used
in a single test. Selected-response tests are sometimes called "objective" tests
because they have a simple and set scoring system. If alternative (b) of a
multiple-choice item is keyed as the correct response and the student chose
alternative (d), the student is marked wrong, regardless of how much the
teacher wanted the student to be right. Advantages
13. 10. A major advantage of selected-response tests is efficiency -- a teacher
can ask many questions in a short period of time. Another advantage is ease and
reliability of scoring. With the aid of a scoring template (such as a multiple-
choice answer sheet that has holes punched out where the correct answer is
located), many tests can be quickly and uniformly scored. Disadvantages
Because items that reflect the lowest level of Bloom's Taxonomy (verbatim
knowledge) are the easiest to write, most teacher-made tests are composed
almost entirely of knowledge level items (a point we made initially in Chapter
7). As a result, students focus on verbatim memorization rather than on
meaningful learning. Another disadvantage is that, while we get some
indication of what students know, such tests tell us nothing about what students
can do with that knowledge. Supply - Response Tests Fill –in-the- Blank Fill –
in-the- Blank with a word bank is just another form of matching and only test
the lower cognitive levels. Rules Rule I: Position in the blank at the end of the
statement. Poor Item A -------------- is used to keep food cold. Better Item To
keep food cold use a ----------------- Rule II: Limit the number of blanks in a
statement. Poor Item A -------------- sends ------------of electrical current through
---------------. Better Item Pulses of electrical current are sent through wore by a
(n) ----------------- Rule III: Keep blanks the same length Poor Item American
flag is composed of ------ and ------------------------. Better Item American flag is
composed of ---------------- and -----------------. Short-Answer Tests
Characteristics Instead of selecting from one or more alternatives, the student is
asked to supply a brief answer consisting of a name, word, phrase, or symbol.
Like selected-response tests, short-answer tests can be scored quickly,
accurately and consistently, thereby giving them an aura of objectivity. They are
primarily used for measuring foundational knowledge. Advantages Short-
answer items are relatively easy to write, so a test, or part of one, can be
constructed fairly quickly. They allow for either broad or in-depth assessment
of foundational knowledge since students can respond to many items within a
short space of time. Since students have to supply an answer, they have to
recall, rather than recognize, information. Disadvantages This item type has the
 same basic disadvantages as the selected-response items. Because these items
ask only for short verbatim answers, students are likely to limit their processing
to that level, and these items
14. 11. provide no information about how well students can use what they
have learned. In addition, unexpected but plausible answers may be difficult to
score. Essay Tests Characteristics The student is given a somewhat general
directive to discuss one or more related ideas according to certain criteria. One
example of an essay question is "Compare operant conditioning theory and
information- processing theory in terms of basic assumptions, typical research
findings, and classroom applications". Advantages Essay tests reveal how well
students can recall, organize, and clearly communicate previously learned
information. When well written, essays tests call on such higher-level abilities
as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Because of these demands, students are
more likely to try to meaningfully learn the material over which they are tested.
Disadvantages Consistency of grading is likely to be a problem. Two students
may have essentially similar responses, yet receive different letter or numerical
grades. These test items are also very time consuming to grade. And because it
takes time for students to formulate and write responses, only a few questions at
most can be given.
15. NATURE OF INTERPRETATION Norm-referenced Norm-referenced
assessments compare individual scores to those of a norm-reference group,
generally students of the same grade or age. They are designed to demonstrate
"differences between and among students to produce a dependable rank order"
(Bond, 1996, p.1) and are often used to classify students for ability-grouping or
to help identify them for placement in special programs. They are also used to
provide information to report to parents. Criterion-referenced Criterion-
referenced assessments determine the specific knowledge and skills possessed
by a student. In other words, identify "the kind of performances a student can
do in a domain, rather than the student's standing in a norm group" (Nitco and
Brookhart, 2011, p. 369). Standards-based assessments involve comparing
students' scores to "clearly defined levels of achievement or proficiency" (Nitco
and Brookhart, 2011, p. 514), such as state or national standards.
16. CONTEXT (INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL) Internal assessment is set
and marked by the school (i.e. teachers). Students get the mark and feedback
regarding the assessment. External assessment is set by the governing body, and
is marked by non-biased personnel. Some external assessments give much more
limited feedback in their marking. The student’s performances are measured
 periodically in different context during the period of the course. Student‘s
performance in slip tests, weekly tests, monthly tests with behaviour are being
taken into account besides assignments and project wok while calculating the
internal mark. At the same time, the performance of the students at the end of
the course has been measured which is called as external. In other way it is
called as formative and Summative evaluation. a) Need for continuous and
comprehensive assessment
17. CONTINUOUS AND COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENT
18. 12. A teacher needs to know where his learners stand in terms of their
learning. But he cannot always wait till a formal examination is conducted.
Learning, particularly at the primary stage, has to be evaluated on a
developmental pattern, hence it has to be evaluated in a continuous form.
Further, any scheme of evaluation has to cover all the learning experiences of a
child. Hence evaluation has to be comprehensive apart from being continuous.
In short, as the process of learning is continuous and comprehensive, any
scheme of evaluation has to be continuous and comprehensive. Learning a
language basically means acquiring the four major skills: listening, speaking,
reading and writing. Of these four skills, listening and reading are receptive in
the sense that the language learner receives information, knowledge etc., from
the spoken or written form of the language. In other words, he/she understands
and comprehends what he/she has heard or read. Speaking and writing are skills
that involve production on the part of the language learner. Here the language
user is using these two skills to communicate. Thus the skills of listening and
reading are comprehension skills, and the skills of speaking and writing are
expression skills. It is apparent that any evaluation in the area of language
learning should take into account the evaluation of the learners’ competencies
in all the four skills. Different types of test items are to be developed for
evaluating learners’ comprehension and expression. In view of the above, an
attempt has been made in this unit to explain the concept of continuous and
comprehensive evaluation, as well as the ways and means by which the
different language skills can be evaluated. Education is a continuous process.
Therefore, evaluation and development must go hand in hand. Evaluation has to
be carried out in every possible situation or activity and throughout the period
of formal education of a pupil. Hence, evaluation has to be continuous. By
comprehensive evaluation, we mean that evaluation should not concern itself
only with knowledge but it shall also take into account the factors that are
inherent in students’ growth such as skills, understanding, appreciation, interest,
 attitude and habits. In other words, evaluation should cover all the learning
experiences of the learner in curricular as well as non-cognitive areas. Let us
now discuss what to evaluate in learners while we talk about continuous and
comprehensive evaluation. Being a teacher, during the course of lesson
planning you might have formulated the objectives in behavioural terms. These
objectives are called teaching and learning objectives or instructional
objectives. These objectives are the criteria against which you as a teacher are
making a value judgement (evaluation). On the basis of the objectives teachers
evaluate learners’ progress and performance. Evaluation should be carried out
in relation to learners’ cognitive, affective and psychomotor growth. Cognitive
growth refers to the intellectual development of learners (such as learners’
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation).
Affective growth emphasizes learners’ attitude, interest and personal
development. Psychomotor growth deals with learners’ ability to perform some
activity or do some practical work. Therefore, if you want the teaching-learning
process to be really effective, you should evaluate the learners continuously and
comprehensively. Unit 2: Assessment for Learning 2(a) Use of Projects,
Assignments, Work sheets, Practical work, Performance based activities,
Seminars and Reports as assessment devices
19. PROJECT Project is the modern method in which the students creativity
in designing the content of studies. According to W.H. Kilpatrick, ―A project
is a wholehearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment.
20. 13. Types of Project Individual and Social Projects: In individual project
every students problem is solved in their own according to interest, capacity
and attitude. Group Projects: The problem is solved by the group of pupil in the
class. Here the social, citizenship qualities developed. Simple and Complex
Projects: In the simple projects the students are completing only one work at a
time. It gives the deep information of the project, thus the students get deeper
and broader knowledge about the problem. In the complex project the students
are carried out more than one work at a time. They are focuses on the work in
various activities and dimensions. According to Kilpatrick there are four types
of projects. They are Constructive Project: Practical or physical tasks such as
construction of articles, making the models and playing the drama all done in
this. Aesthetic Project: Appreciation powers of the students are developed in
this type of project through the musical programmes of beautician and
appreciation of poems. Problematic Project: In this type of project develops the
problem solving capacity of the students through their experiences. It is based
 on cognitive domain. Drill Project: It is for mastery of skill and knowledge of
the students, also increases the capacity and efficacy of the students. Steps of
a Project Method Creating Situation In the first step teacher creates the proper
situation to the students in the class. He puts the knowledge of project it should
not force but arise of need with them. Selection of the problem The teacher
helps the students to select the problem and guide them. Students are having
freedom to select the problem. Planning The teacher discuss with the students
about the problem in various angles and points. After the free express of
student‘s opinion about the problem, the teacher writes stepwise in the board.
Execution The students are stating their work in this step. They are collecting
the relevant information and materials at first. The teachers give time and right
to the students according to their speed to complete the work with their ability
and interest. Evaluation Evaluation of the project should be done both by the
pupils and the teachers. Here the students evaluating their task. Has done in
light of plans and achieved results. Reporting and Recording It is the last step
of the project method in which each and every step of the work is reported. The
reported forms are recorded in book.
21. 14. Role of the Teacher In project method of teaching the role of a
teacher is that of a guide, friend and philosopher not a He encourages the
students to work cooperatively and alert to avoid thedictator or commander.
mistakes. If the students face failure during execution of some steps of the
project, the teacher should not execute any portion of the project instead he
encourages better methods or approaches to get success. He should have a
thorough knowledge of individual children so as to allot them work
accordingly. He should have initiative, tact and zest for learning. Teacher
should active and alert then he also maintain the democratic atmosphere.
Merits of Project Method Students get proper freedom to execute the project in
accordance with their interest and abilities because they satisfied the needs.
Habit of critical thinking gets developed among the students through this
method. With this method, students get ample chances which they can
develop coordination among their body and mind. This method helps in
promoting social interaction and co-operation among the students, as they have
to work in group and interact with experts. Mostly the projects are
undertaken in classroom as classroom assignments, because of which load of
homework from the students for reduced to considerable extent. Demerits of
Project Method This method takes a lot of time to plan and execute a single
 project. It is not possible to design different projects for different topics and
also not able to cover all topics in the content. Such method can only be
proving successful if the teacher is highly knowledgeable, alert and
exceptionally gifted. Teachers do not possess lot of information regarding the
manner in which this method should be used as result and hesitate to use.
Project learning, is a dynamic approach to teaching in which students explore
real world problems and challenges, simultaneously developing cross
curriculum skills while working in small collaborative groups. Because students
are evaluated on the basis of their projects, rather than on the comparatively
narrow rubrics defined by exams, essays, and written reports, assessment of
project work is often more meaningful to them. They quickly see how academic
work can connect to real-life issues and may even be inspired to pursue a career
or engage in activism that relates to the project they developed.
ASSIGNMENTS Assignments are used as learning device and tool for
evaluation. There is no doubt that assignment is carefully planned and regularly
valued by the teachers to improve the student‘s attainment. The assignment is
one of the most important phases of teaching. Purpose of Assignments To
provide opportunities to students to work and practice independently. To
develop self-reliance and initiative.
22. 15. To develop habits of reading regularly among the students. To
provide opportunities to students to utilize the leisure time profitably. To
provide remedial measures for backward students. Kinds of Assignment
Page-by-Page Assignment This type is sometimes called the textbook
assignment. It designates the number of pages to be covered. Page-by-page
assignment is unsatisfactory, but recent studies have revealed that this type is
still widely used in the elementary grades. Chapter Assignment This is
another form of traditional or textbook assignment. Like the first type, it is still
extensively used in secondary schools and in colleges. Preparation for this type
of assignment is left entirely to the pupils. Problem Assignment This type of
assignment gets away from the basic textbook idea. It encourages the use of
references and stimulates reflective thinking. In this type the problem to be
solved is the prime consideration. Special directions and suggestions are
important in this type of assignment. Topical Assignment In this kind of
assignment the topic to be developed is the prime consideration. This is also a
form of textbook assignment which is often given in social and natural science
subjects. Project Assignment This is a special type of assignment which is
 best adapted to vocational courses, to natural science subjects, and in some
measure to social science subjects and others content subjects. In this type of
assignment a project is considered a unit. Contract Assignment This form of
assignment is extensively used in individualized types of instruction with the
main purpose of adjusting the task to the ability and interest of the individual.
Unit Assignment This type is associated with the Mastery Plan and the Cycle
Plan of instruction. It is best adapted to the subjects which are divided into
units. The so called flexible assignment is used with the unit assignment plan.
Cooperative or Group Assignment Cooperative assignment is most frequently
utilized in a socialized type of recitation, or in a project method of instruction.
Assignment of this type stimulates pupils to do their own thinking and to
organize their materials. Here pupils also participate in determining desirable
objectives and in deciding what should be done to attain them. Cooperative
assignment can be utilized to advantage in many high school classes. Syllabus
Assignment Syllabus assignment is often utilized in the college or university.
In this type of assignment, questions and references are given to guide the
students. Here again guide questions and other suggestions are given to insure
attention to the important points of the lesson.
23. 16. Drill Assignment It is the purpose of this assignment to strengthen
the connections formed in the process of growth in mental motor skills.
Memorizing a poem or mastery of facts or simple combination facts in
Arithmetic are good examples of this type of assignment. Drill assignment, like
other type of assignment, should be motivated. Writing Assignments,
particularly for portfolio units, often reflect the length and depth of the units
themselves. The assignments may last between six and eight weeks and the
initial briefing seems a long time ago. Teachers need to o compile assignments
that are broken down into a series of tasks, building in reviews and feedback
opportunities. Prescribe a completion date for each task and provide support to
ensure that learners set individual targets to meet the required outcomes of the
task. Provide informal oral feedback when required as part of classroom
monitoring activities. Review the progress against targets and provide
feedback. Provide opportunities for learners to reflect on feedback provided
and act on advice given. Provide opportunity for consolidation work to be
undertaken by less able learners. make sure that any remedial work is again
reviewed and feedback provided before learners progress to the subsequent
task. Create opportunities for learners to participate in peer assessment and
 selfassessment activities on completion of the overall assignment. Undertake
formal assessment of learners work and return assessed work with written
feedback within the agreed period.
24. PRACTICAL WORK Practical work is considered an integral part of
students experience in the discipline. Practical work is a necessary part of the
learning experience of most students and especially those of science,
engineering and health related disciplines. It serves many purposes it can
develop essential transferable skills, perhaps associated with information
technology, it can develop subject specific skills and it can serve to demonstrate
and reinforce material of lecture courses. Practical work helps them to learn
team-working skills, safe working practices and self-dependence. Practical
work refers to those activities in which students manipulate and observe real
objects and materials in the laboratory and the field. Practical work in the
subjects sits within thinking and working scientifically and is intrinsic to a full
learning experience for students; it is not an additional component of teaching
and learning. There should be an expectation that on completing the course
students are able to perform a range of procedures with due regard for accuracy
and risk management. They should have hands on experience of conducting
specific technical and manipulative tasks. Students should be given the
opportunity to undertake work in which they make their own decisions, for
example through an investigation of their choosing over an extended period of
time. They should be assessed on their ability to plan, observe, record, analyze,
communicate and evaluate through this activity. A range of practical activities
should be incorporated into the teaching of ideas to enable students to develop
their understanding through interacting with objects and observations. It is
widely recognized that practical work is a vital element of school and there are
a number of high quality resources to support it. However, practical work
always impact sufficiently on pupil‘s engagement and learning.
25. 17. Practical work aims to improve Clarity of learning outcomes
associated with practical work Effectiveness and impact of practical work on
learning Quality rather than quantity of practical work and To ensure that
these developments are sustainable
26. WORKSHEET Worksheet commonly refers to a sheet of paper with
questions for students and places to record answers. The term may also refer to
a single array of data in spreadsheet software or an informal piece of paper that
an accountant uses to record information. In the classroom setting worksheets
usually refer to a loose sheet of paper with questions or exercises for students to
 complete and record answers. They are used, to some degree, in most subjects,
and have widespread use in the curriculum. These are intended to help a student
become proficient in a particular skill that was taught to them in class. They are
commonly given to students as homework. They made up of a progressive set
of questions that leads to an understanding of the topic to be learned.
27. PERFORMANCE-BASED LEARNING In the act of learning, people
obtain content knowledge, acquire skills and develop work habits and practice
the application of all three to real world situations. Performance-based learning
and assessment represent a set of strategies for the acquisition and application
of knowledge, skills and work habits through the performance of tasks that are
meaningful and engaging to students. Performance-based learning and
assessment achieve a balanced approach by extending traditional fact-and-skill
instruction. Performance- based learning and assessment are not a curriculum
design. Whereas we decide what to teach, performance- based learning and
assessment constitute a better way to deliver the curriculum. Teachers do not
have to give up units of study or favorite activities in a performance-based
classroom. Because authentic tasks are rooted in curriculum, teachers can
develop tasks based on what already works for them. Through this process,
assignments become more authentic and more meaningful to students.
Performance Tasks Performance tasks build on earlier content knowledge,
process skills and work habits and are strategically placed in the lesson or unit
to enhance learning as the student pulls it all together. They are both an integral
part of the learning and an opportunity to assess the quality of student
performance. When the goal of teaching and learning is knowing and using, the
performance-based classroom emerges. Performance tasks range from short
activities taking only a few minutes to projects culminating in polished
products for audiences in and outside of the classroom. In the beginning, most
performance tasks should fall on the short end of the continuum Performance
Task Assessment Performance task assessment lists are assessment tools that
provide the structure students need to work more independently and to
encourage them to pay attention to the quality of their work. Assessment also
enables the teacher to efficiently provide students with information on the
strengths and weaknesses of their work. In creating performance task teachers
focus on what students need to know and be able to do. One result is that
teachers can more consistently and fairly evaluate and grade students work.
Information from performance task assessment also helps students set learning
 goals and thus helps teachers focus subsequent instruction. Before they submit
their work, students do a final inspection of their own graphs and complete
28. 18. the self-assessment column. During this self-assessment step, students
often find ways to improve their work. Peer assessment can also take place at
this time. Experiences with peer assessment often improve students' self-
assessing skills. The final step is for the teacher to assess the work and at the
same time, evaluate the student's self-assessment. When discrepancies are
found between the student's self-assessment and the teacher's assessment of the
student's work, the teacher may decide to hold conferences with the students
who need work on improving the accuracy of their self-assessment. Strategy for
Assessment for Learning Video clips of good practice provided in the file were
used in the first training session The school believes that Hind sight it would
have been better to use examples of good achievability at their also its
suitability for their learners. All staff is undertaking all units of the training
pack. At the end of the training for a unit, staff audit where they are up to,
undertake individual target- setting and then they are required to plan how
they are going to meet these targets. Self and peer assessment helps to create a
learning community within a classroom. Students who can reflect while
engaged in metacognitive thinking are involved in their learning. When
students have been involved in criteria and goal setting, self-evaluation is a
logical step in the learning process. With peer evaluation, students see each
other as resources for understanding and checking for quality work against
previously established criteria Collaborative learning Student’s progress
personally, while collectively working towards a common goal. Students are
accountable to one another and, with appropriate direction, will self-manage
this. Pupils learn to better understand and anticipate difference, recognize it in
themselves and others, and use it to their advantage. A typical collaborative
learning process: Students organize their efforts between themselves (group-
structured) Students source material to help them complete the activity The
activity is not monitored by the teacher (although they can help when assistance
is requested by the group) Students assess their own individual and group
performance Success depends on individual strengths Cooperative learning
Like the cast and crew of a theatre production, co-operation involves
interdependence. Roles and responsibilities are clearly defined but are open for
negotiation. This method of collaboration brings with it a strong sense of
accountability. In contrast to collaborative learning, a cooperative learning
structure takes the following form: Activities are structured with each student
 assigned a specific role (teacher-structured) Teachers supply information for
students to read and analyse (or let pupils know where this info can be found)
Teachers observe, listen and intervene where necessary Students submit work
at the end of lesson for evaluation/assessment The success of the group
depends upon the efforts of everyone involved The benefits of cooperative and
collaborative learning The majority of students learn best when they are
immersed in learning, through interaction and application. A student is more
likely to remember something discovered through active participation and peer
work than through the passive acceptance of information presented by the
teacher.
29. 19. As well as making learning more memorable, with collaborative and
cooperative learning: By working with their classmates, students come to
recognise, understand and respect cultural differences and different
perspectives Performance is improved. With collaborative/cooperative methods
much more valuable than individualistic ways of building student performance
and progression Group work helps students who have difficulty with social
skills. Providing a safe and structured space to interact with others
Confidence is emboldened, with students able to recognise and value the
importance of their contributions Inclusivity is encouraged. There is no such
thing as an average child, and collaborative/cooperative methods allow each
child to work to their strengths. To help with this, tools such as Class Flow let
teachers create study groups (and assignments for cooperative learning) based
on each pupil’s ability, level, and learning style. With this approach, children
are more likely to play an active role and are less liable to become disengaged
and frustrated Social Skills For cooperative learning to be effective, students
must learn Social Skills for successful cooperation. Social Skills to develop
include: a. Trust Building 1.) Get to Know Each Other Activities 2.) Problem
Solving 3.) Adventure Based Learning b. Communication 1.) Active Listening
2.) Encouraging Others c. Decision Making Strategies 1.) Break A Tie: Rock-
Paper-Scissors, One-Potato-Two-Potato, Flip a Coin 2.) Consensus Building
Vs. Voting d. Conflict Resolution 1.) Disagreeing in an Agreeable Way 2.)
Seeking Assistance When Needed e. Leadership Skills 1.) Share leadership -
Allowing each member to lead on their task. 2.) Self-assessing social skills and
leadership To Teach Social Skills Means to Help Students Understand: 1. Why
they are learning the skill 2. What the skill is 3. Ways the skill will be practiced
4. How well they used the skill and how they can improve their use of the skill
 c) Portfolio Assessment – its meaning, scope and uses; Planning, development
and assessment
30. PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT METHODS PORTFOLIO A Portfolio is a
purposeful collection of student work that exhibits that exhibits the student’s
efforts, The collection must include student participation inprogress and
achievement in one or more areas. selecting contents the criteria for selection
the Criteria for judging merit and evidence of student Self- reflection.
31. 20. The greatest value of portfolios is that in building them, students
become actives participants in the Portfolio Assessment is one of a several
authentic and non-learning process and its assessment. traditional assessment
techniques in Education. Portfolio Assessment Possess Several Features And
Essential Characteristics Which Are: A portfolio is a form of assessment that
students do together with their teachers. The teacher’s guide the students in the
planning, execution and evaluation of contents of the portfolio .Together, they
formulate the overall objectives for constructing the portfolio. As such students
and teachers in interact in every step of the process in developing a Portfolio. A
portfolio represent a selection of what the students believe are best included
from among the possible collection of things related to the concept being
studied. It is the teacher’s responsibility to assist the students in actually
choosing from among a possible set of choices. To be included in the portfolio.
However the final selection should be done by the students themselves since the
portfolio represents what the students believe are important considerations. A
portfolio provides samples of the students work which show growth over time.
By reflecting on their own learning (self-assessment) students begin to identify
the strengths and weakness in their work. These weakness then become
improvement goals. The criteria for selecting and assessing the portfolio
contents must be clear to the teacher and the students. At the outset of the
process. If the criteria are not clear at the beginning then there is tendency to
include Among Unessential components in the portfolio and to include those
which happen to be available at the time. The portfolio is prepared at each step
of the process, the students need to refer to the agreed set of criteria for the
construction and development of the portfolio. Purposes of portfolio
Assessment Why should we resort to portfolio assessment methods? Portfolio
assessment has several purposes and rationale for its use. First portfolio
assessment matches assessment of teaching. The final outputs to be assessed are
products of classroom discussions and classroom work and are not simple
diversions from the tedium of classroom activities. Second portfolio assessment
 has a clear goals. In fact, they are decided on the beginning of instruction and
are clear to teacher and student alike. In cognitive testing the objectives are set
at the beginning but the actual items may or may not reflect achievement of
such objectives. In portfolio assessment however the students control the items
to be included and therefore are assured that the goals are achieved. Third,
portfolio assessment gives a profile of a learner abilities in term of depth,
breadth, and growth. Portfolio assessment enable the students to demonstrate
quality work done without pressure and constraints of time presents in
traditional testing through the help of resource. Fourth, portfolio assessment is a
tool for assessing a variety of skills not normally testable in a single setting for
traditional testing. The portfolio can show written, oral and graphics output of
students in a variety of way which demonstrate skills developed by students.
Fifth portfolio assessment develops awareness of own learning students.
Students have to reflect on their own progress and the quality of their work in
relation to known goals. This is achieved at each stage of the progress since the
students continually refer to the set of goals and objectives set at the beginning.
Every portfolio must obtain the following essential elements:
32. 21. 1. Cover Letter “About the author” and “What my portfolio shows
about my progress as a learner” (written at the end, but put at the beginning).
The cover letter summarizes the evidence of a student’s learning and progress.
2. Table of Contents with numbered pages. 3. Entries – both core (items
students have to include) and optional (items of student’s choice). The core
elements will be required for each student and will provide a common base
from which to make decisions on assessment. The optional items will allow the
folder to represent the uniqueness of each student. Students can choose to
include “best” pieces of work, but also a piece of work which gave trouble or
one that was less successful, and give reasons why. 4. Dates on all entries, to
facilitate proof of growth over time. 5. Drafts of oral and written products and
revised versions; i.e., first drafts and corrected/revised versions. 6. Reflections
can appear at different stages in the learning process (for formative and/or
summative purposes.) and at the lower levels can be written in the mother
tongue or by students who find it difficult to express themselves in English.
Assessing and Evaluating the Portfolio According to Paulson, Paulson and
Meyer Portfolios offer a way of assessing student learning that is different from
the traditional methods. Portfolio assessment provides the teacher and students
an opportunity to observe students in a broader context taking risk developing
 creative solution and learning to make judgments about their own
performances.
33. PORTFOLIO INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING: Thoughtfulness (including
evidence of students monitoring of their own comprehension metacognitive
reflection and productive habits of mind). Growth and development in
relationship to key curriculum expectancies and indicators. Understanding and
application of key processes. Completeness correctness and appropriateness of
products and processes presented in the portfolio Diversity of entries (e.g use of
multiple formats to demonstrate achievement of designated performance
standards).
34. SAMPLE OF RATING SCALE FOR COVER LETTER ASSESSMENT
TOOLS: Self/peer assessment with rating scales Checklist with criteria (such
as: clear presentation, relevant vocabulary, correct spelling/pronunciation),
depending on the task Teacher/peer observation Learning log Answer key
35. 22. Guided reflection on the task One of the more significant aspects of
Portfolio assessment is its “Collaborative Approach” in which students and
teachers work together to identify especially to significant or important artifacts
and processes to be capture in the portfolio. Student-Teacher Conferences The
main philosophy embedded in portfolio assessment is “Shared and active
assessment”. The teacher should have short individual meetings with each
students, in which progress is discuss and goals are set for a future meeting.
The teacher and the student keep careful documentation of the meeting noting
significant agreements and finding each individual session. The formative
evaluation process of the portfolio assessment is facilitated. Indeed the use of
portfolio assessment takes time but in the end it gains.fteacher Finally, student-
teacher conference can also be used for summative evaluation purposes when
the students present his final portfolio product and where final grades are
determined together with the teacher. This conference can be prepared in pairs,
where students practice presenting their portfolio. d) Self, Peer and Teacher
Assessments Peer Assessment It is widely recognized that when learners are
fully engaged in the learning process, learning increases. A fundamental
requirement of Assessment for Learning is for learners to know what they have
to learn, why it is required and how it is to be assessed. When learners are able
to understand the assessment criteria, progress is often maximized, especially
when individuals have opportunities to apply the assessment criteria to work
produced by their peers as part of planned classroom activities. Peer assessment
using the predefined assessment criteria is the next stage to evaluate learner
 understanding and consolidating learning. Benefits of organizing peer
assessment activities learners clarifying their own ideas and understanding of
the learning intention Checking individual’s understanding of the assessment
criteria and how it is to be applied to learner’s work. Self-Assessment Once
learners are able to use the assessment criteria appropriately and can actively
contribute to peer- assessment activities, the next step is to engage them in self-
assessment tasks. Self-assessment is a very powerful teaching tool and crucial
to the Assessment for Learning process. Once learners can engage in peer-
assessment activities, they will be more able to apply these new skills to
undertaking objective ‘assessment of their own work. We all know it is easy to
find fault in other people‘s work, but it is a far more challenging process to
judge one‘s own work. Once learners can assess their own work and their
current knowledge base, they will be able to identify the gap in their own
learning; this will aid learning and promote progress and contribute to the self-
management of learning. Teachers need Provide opportunities for learners to
reflect on their own work Ensure they provide individuals with the necessary
support so that they are able to acknowledge shortcomings in their own work
Support learners through the self-assessment process so that strengths in their
work are fully recognized and weaknesses are not exaggerated to the point that
they damage learner’s self-esteem. Unit 3: Assessment of Learning
36. 23. a) Dimensions of learning: cognitive, affective and performance
Cognitive learning Cognitive learning is the mental process of acquiring
knowledge and understanding through thought, experience and the senses. It
has so many thinking skills such as Convergent, Divergent, Critical, Problem
Solving and Decision Making. Convergent thinking is characterized by rigidity,
conformity and unquestioning acceptance of authority whereas divergent
thinking stimulates a questioning frame of mind and discourages blind
acceptance. Critical thinking is a general term that covers all thinking processes
that strive to get below the surface of something: questioning, probing,
analyzing, testing and exploring. At the same time, Problem-solving is a mental
process that involves discovering, analyzing and solving problems. Affective
learning Affective domain describes the way people react emotionally and their
ability to feel other living things' pain or joy. Affective objectives typically
target the awareness and growth in attitudes, emotion and feelings. Performance
based assessment Direct, systematic observation and rating of student’s
performance of an educational objective, often an ongoing observation over a
period of time and typically involving the creation of products. The assessment
 may be a continuing interaction between teacher and student and should ideally
be part of the learning process. The assessment should be a real-world
performance with relevance to the students and learning Community. b)
Assessment of cognitive learning: • types and levels of cognitive learning:
understanding and application; • thinking skills –convergent, divergent, critical,
problem solving, and decision making; • items and procedures for their
assessment Cognitive assessment and student learning Cognitive learning is the
mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through
thought, experience and the senses. It encompasses processes such as
knowledge, attention, memory and working memory, judgment and evaluation,
reasoning and computation, problem solving and decision making,
comprehension and production of language, etc. Human cognition is conscious
and unconscious, concrete or abstract, as well as intuitive (like knowledge of a
language) and conceptual (like a model of a language). Cognitive processes use
existing knowledge and generate new knowledge. It is important to understand
the relationship between cognitive assessment and student learning, particularly
in the context of determining a student‘s need for special education services.
Defining intelligence can be rather complicated. Some define intelligence as it
relates to the general interpretation of the global IQ as derived from intelligence
tests, or achievement tests. Others claim that intelligence should be analyzed at
a more specific level by examining each of the cognitive functions which make
up the global IQ Convergent and Divergent Thinking Convergent thinking To
converge means to tend towards or meet in one point or value‘. To diverge
means to tend from a common point in different direction‘. Convergent thinking
is characterized by rigidity, conformity and unquestioning acceptance of
authority. It is a stereotyped behavior. Divergent Thinking
37. 24. Divergent thinking is a kind of healthy departure from the beaten
track. It stimulates a questioning frame of mind and discourages blind
acceptance. It is a goal-directed activity aimed at a destination one is only
dimly aware of. One becomes venturesome and exploratory rather than being a
slave to conventional mode of thinking. Why do majority of teachers encourage
convergent thinking mostly in class? Perhaps, it safeguards their ego and status.
They find it easier to practice. This kind of teaching contributes to success in
the present mode of examination where in pure recall-type questions
predominate. Since very little time and opportunity would be provided for
discussion or debate, the syllabus could be covered within the stipulated time.
Such teachers are unimaginative and unproductive. How does a teacher who
 promotes divergent thinking conduct his/her class? He tends to encourage
independent thinking, suspend judgment and be tolerant toward those who
differ from 82 him. He has an open mind and whenever he gives a definition he
would also encourage students to redefine in a simpler language than what is
presented in the text book. Students feel free to suggest ideas for discussion and
not remain tongue-tied or insecure. Critical Thinking Training children in the
art of critical thinking or reasoning will be effective, limited of course by the
natural intellectual endowments of children. Critical thinking is a general term
that covers all thinking processes that strive to get below the surface of
something: questioning, probing, analyzing, testing and exploring. It is not a
negative term as such, although it can sound it. Critical thinking requires
detective-like skills of persistence to examine and re-examine an argument, in
order to take in all the angles and weigh up evidence on every side. To think
critically is never to take something on face value but to question and think
independently about an issue, however authoritative a writer or thinker may be.
There are several stages involved in critical reading: Identifying the author‘s
line of reasoning Critically evaluating the line of reasoning Identifying
evidence in the text Evaluating the evidence Questioning surface
appearances and assumptions Identifying the writer‘s conclusions
Deciding whether the evidence supports the conclusions Problem Solving An
individual faces a problem when he finds obstacles in his attempt to reach a
desired goal. If the goal could be reached easily then there is no need for any
reasoning. Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering,
analyzing and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to
overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the issue. The best
strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some
cases, people are better off learning everything they can about the issue and
then using factual knowledge to come up with a solution. In other instances,
creativity and insight are the best options.
38. 25. Nature of Problem-Solving • Goal specific • Deliberate and purposeful
• Attempts at the removal of interference • Results in novel procedures or novel
products Decision Making Decision making is the process of making choices
by setting goals, gathering information and assessing alternative occupations.
Selected-response assessment (Items and procedure for assessment) Objective
Type To mitigate some of the evils of the essay type examinations, objective
tests seem to be very useful. Modern educationists lay much stress on this type
of tests to supplement the traditional type of tests. Objective tests are of a large
 variety. An objective type of test item is one which the response will be
objective. Objective type test item broadly classified into two: Supply type
(Recall Type - The respondent has to supply the responses) and Selection type
(Recognition Type - The respondent has to select the responses from among the
given responses). Objective Type – 4 Types True – False Items (Alternate
Response Type) Multiple Choice Items Matching Type Items and
Completion Type Test Advantages of Objective Type Items A large amount of
study material can be tested in a very short period time Economy of time.
Objectivity of scoring. No bluffing It reduces the subjective element of the
examiner to the minimum and If carefully planned, it can measure the higher
mental process of understanding, application, analysis, prediction and
interpretation. Limitations of Objective type items o Difficulty in preparing
good items. o Problem of guessing. o Problem of cheating.
39. 26. o Inefficiency in testing complicated skills o High printing cost and o
Emphasis on testing superficial knowledge. Matching Items A matching item
consists of two columns: one column of stems or problems to be answered, and
another column of responses from which the answers are to be chosen.
Traditionally, the column of stems is placed on the left and the column of
responses is placed on the right. Short Answer Type A question requiring three
value points at most may be defined as a short answer question. Value points
diminish the subjectivity. Help in ensuring wide coverage of content.
Advantages of Short answer Type Items Large portion of the content can be
covered in a test. No opportunity for guessing. Easy to construct, because it
measures a relatively simple outcomes. It can be made quit objective by
carefully fixing the value points. Useful in evaluating the ability to interpret
diagrams, charts, graphs, etc. If carefully prepared, deep level objectives
understanding, application and problem solving skill can be evaluated.
Limitations of Short answer Type Items It is more subjective than the objective
type of items. It may encourage student to memories fact and develop poor
study habits. Mechanical scoring is not possible Essay Type It is free
response test item. Help in ensuring a wide coverage of content and variety of
objectives. Help in evaluating complex skills. Advantages Essay Type Items
Easy to prepare. Useful in measuring certain abilities and skills. Permit the
examinee to write down comprehensively what he knows about something.
Promote originality and creative thinking. Possibility of guess work can be
eliminated. Reduce chance on the spot copying. Low printing cost.
 Limitations of Essay Type Items Minimum validity. Lack of reliability. No
objectivity. Rote memory is encouraged. It is a time consuming test item.
b) Assessment of affective learning: attitude and values, interest, self-concept;
items and procedures for their assessment
40. AFFECTIVE LEARNING
41. 27. Affective domain describes the way people react emotionally and their
ability to feel other living things' pain or joy. Affective objectives typically
target the awareness and growth in attitudes, emotion and feelings. Attitude
Meaning and Definition of Attitude An attitude is a variable which directly
observed, but it is inferred from overt behaviour both verbal and non-verbal
responses. In more objective term the concept of attitude may be said to
connote response tendency with regard to certain categories of stimuli. In actual
practice the term attitude has been most frequently associated with emotionally
toned responses. The deep rooted feelings are the attitudes which cannot be
changed easily. An attitude is defined as a tendency to react in certain way
toward a designated class of stimuli or an object. Values Meaning and
Definition of Values The term value is more sociological concept. The values
fall in the realm of ethics, economics, aesthetics and religion. They exist as they
are experienced in human minds and translated into human actions. The value
determines the direction of human actions. Thus values are the significant
determinant for individual differences. The values are related to feelings and
beliefs of an individual which are deep rooted. The value is defined in terms of
sentiments and emotions likes and dislikes etc. Characteristics of values The
following are the characteristics of value It is the satisfaction of human wants.
It is the psychological needs of a person. It is a generalized and that guides
individual behavior and it is an organized ends. It is an outcome of human
choices among the competitive human interest. It is the psychic-energy
invested in the personality of an individual. It is the real determinant of
human behavior and relationship between subject and object. It is socially
approved desires and goals, and experiences of life which guides the actions
and behavior are known as values. Interest Interest is the integral part of one‘s
personality. It is an acquired trait from the environment. Personality is a wider
term including all the psycho-physical dispositions, behaviors, views, Interests
and attitudes of an individual. Adjustment has some relevance with interests.
According to Kelly, interests of an individual really important information
about the make-up of his personality. Interests are one of the determinants of
the individual differences. Definition of Interest The following are some
 important definitions of the term interest. “An interest is a tendency to become
absorbed in an experience and to continue it” - Bingham, W.V.
42. 28. The following are the main characteristics of Interest 1. Interests are
not necessarily related to ability or aptitude. 2. Interest can be hereditary as well
as acquired from environment, through the interests are mainly acquired. 3.
Interests are fairly stable, cannot be changed easily. 4. Interests of an individual
resemble with his parents or family interests. 5. Interests are the aspects of
personality of an individual. 6. Interests are related to aptitudes and
achievements. Self-concept One's self-concept (also called self-construction,
self-identity, and self-perspective or self- structure) is a collection of beliefs
about oneself that includes elements such as academic performance, gender
roles, sexuality and racial identity. Generally, self-concept embodies the answer
to "Who am I?". Self-concept is a cognitive or descriptive component of one's
self (e.g. "I am a fast runner"), Self- concept is made up of one's self-schemas,
and interacts with self-esteem, self-knowledge and the social self to form the
self as whole. It includes the past, present, and future selves, where future
selves (or possible selves) represent individuals' ideas of what they might
become, what they would like to become, or what they are afraid of becoming.
Possible selves may function as incentives for certain behavior. c) Assessment
of Performance: tools and techniques for assessment of skills Performance
based assessment Direct, systematic observation and rating of student’s
performance of an educational objective, often an ongoing observation over a
period of time and typically involving the creation of products. The assessment
may be a continuing interaction between teacher and student and should ideally
be part of the learning process. The assessment should be a real-world
performance with relevance to the students and learning Community.
Assessment of the Performance is done using a rubric or analytic scoring guide
to aid in objectivity. Performance based assessment is a test of the ability to
apply knowledge in a real life setting. Evaluation of the product of learning
experiences can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching methods.
Stiggins: Defines this Assessment as used of performance criteria to determine
the degree to which a student has met an achievement target. Important
elements of performance based assessment include clear goals or performance
criteria clearly articulated and communicated to the Learner; the establishment
of a sound sampling that clearly envisions the scope of an achievement target
and the type of learning that is involved. Attention to extraneous interference
and establishment of a clear purpose for the data collected during the
 assessment before the assessment is undertaken, keeping in mind the needs of
the groups involved (teachers, Students, Parents, etc.). Unit 4: Preparing a
Report on Assessment a)Guidelines for construction and administration of
Achievement Test(Test design, items and question paper , marking scheme)
43. ACHIEVEMENT TEST
44. 29. Any test designed to assess the achievement in any subject with regard
to a set of predetermined objectives. Major steps involved in the construction of
achievement test Planning of test Preparation of a design for the test
Preparation of the blue print Writing of items Preparation of the scoring key
and marking scheme Preparation of question-wise analysis a) Planning of
test Objective of the Test Determine the maximum time and maximum
marks b) Preparation of a design for the test Important factors to be
considered in design for the test are: Weightage to objectives Weightage to
content Weightage to form of questions Weightage to difficulty level. c)
Weightage to objectives This indicates what objectives are to be tested and what
weightage has to be given to each objective. d) Weightage to content This
indicates the various aspects of the content to be tested and the weightage to be
given to these different aspects. e)Weightage to form of questions This indicates
the form of the questions to be included in the test and the weightage to be
given for each form of questions.
45. 30. f)Weightage to difficulty level This indicates the total mark and
weightage to be given to different level of questions. g)Preparation of the blue
print Blue print is a three-dimensional chart giving the placement of the
objectives, content and form of questions. h)Writing of items The paper setter
writes items according to the blue print. The difficulty level has to be
considered while writing the items. It should also check whether all the
questions included can be answered within the time allotted. It is advisable to
arrange the questions in the order of their difficulty level. In the case of short
answer and essay type questions, the marking scheme is prepared. In
preparing marking scheme the examiner has to list out the value points to be
credited and fix up the mark to be given to each value point.
46. 31. i)Preparation of Question-wise Analysis
47. TYPE OF TEST ITEMS Objective type (Already discussed) Short
answer type (Already discussed) Essay Type (Already discussed)
48. MEANING OF MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY You have an
idea generally that an average which is very often used in daily practice. What
 is that average? You say an average mark of the pupil, an average height or
weight of the pupils, an average income of the family and etc. The above
concepts average indicates a single value which is the outcome of the total
measure. The above typical measures indicate that the values in the data
concentrate at the centre or somewhere in the middle of the distribution. Such
measures are called measures of central tendency. Tendency of occurrence
somewhere in the middle. Here, you are representing the performance of the
group as a whole by the single measure and enable you to compare two or more
groups in terms of their performance. It describes the characteristics of the
given data. Of the many averages, three have been selected as the most useful
methods in educational research. They are the mean, median and mode.
49. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA
50. 32. Any data presented in the form of numbers and tables are not effective
and do not create much interest in the reader. If the same data presented in
graphs or charts will definitely attracts the attention of the reader and makes the
process more effective and very easy to follow, to understand and to remember.
Apart from this the devise attracts the attention of the reader. Visual
presentations impress more on the mind of a person and translate numerical
values how they have been distributed in the data given. Drawings are often
called graphs. Graphs may be used effectively in understanding a group of test
scores other measures in the research process. Thus graphs are more effective,
appealing than numerical than numerical data and tables. Bar- Diagram A bar
diagram is a chart that uses bars to show comparisons between categories of
data. The bars can be either horizontal or vertical. Bar graphs with vertical bars
are sometimes called vertical bar diagrams. A bar diagram will have two axes.
One axis will describe the types of categories being compared, and the other
will have numerical values that represent the values of the data. It does not
matter which axis is which, but it will determine what bar diagram is shown. If
the descriptions are on the horizontal axis, the bars will be oriented vertically,
and if the values are along the horizontal axis, the bars will be oriented
horizontally. Types of Bar- Diagram There are many different types of bar
diagrams. They are not always interchangeable. Each type will work best with a
different type of comparison. The comparison you want to make will help
determine which type of bar diagram to use. A simple vertical bar diagram is
best when you have to compare between two or more independent variables.
Each variable will relate to a fixed value. The values are positive and therefore
can be fixed to the horizontal value. Pie- Diagram Pie- Diagram is otherwise
 called as sector graph or angular graph. It is called Pie- diagram because it
resembles pie and with the help of a circle the data will be presented hence, also
referred as circle graph or sector graph. Histogram Another way of presenting
the data by means of a graph is Histogram. Histogram presents an accurate
picture of the relative positions of the total frequency from one interval to the
other interval. The frequencies within each interval of Histogram are presented
by a rectangle, the base of which equals the length of the interval and height of
which equals the numbers of the scores within a given interval are presented by
the midpoint of the class interval. FREQUENCY POLYGON Polygon means
many angled figure. In this graph various frequencies are being plotted with the
corresponding class intervals. Thus the polygon is plotted from the scores by of
a straight line. The procedure for plotting a frequency is as follows.
51. ITEM RESPONSE ANALYSIS Item response analysis (IRA) is a
psychometric paradigm used to design, develop, assemble, deliver, score and
analyze assessments. It offers many advantages over its predecessor, classical
test theory, by implementing more sophisticated mathematical modeling. Most
large scale assessments that you can think of, from professional certifications
up to worldwide assessments like PISA, utilize IRT. The basic building block of
IRA is the item response function, which describes the probability of a given
response as a function of a person‘s true standing on a latent trait or ability.
Advantages of item response analysis Better description of item performance
(difficulty, discrimination, and guessing) and model fit More precise scoring
52. 33. Examinees and items are placed on the same scale Greatly improves
linking an equating of scores across forms or years Classical test theory tries
to force a linear model on something that is known to be nonlinear Examinee
scores are independent of test difficulty and the set of items used Item
parameters are independent of examinee sample Enables computerized
adaptive testing (CAT) to dramatically reduce test length and improve score
precision Provides an estimate of each examinee‘s score precision, based on
their responses
53. REPORTING STUDENT PERFORMANCE Requirements for formal
and informal reporting are based on ministerial orders and regulations
authorized under the School Act. Schools must follow the specific requirements
for reporting student progress as outlined in the policy. 5.14.1 Formal Reports
Formal reports communicate to parents and students’ significant aspects of the
student’s progress in the areas of intellectual, social, human and career
development. Performance Scale The performance scale for Primary students
 indicates, in words or as a graph, the student‘s level of performance in relation
to the expected learning outcomes set out in the provincial curriculum for each
subject and grade. For Kindergarten, performance is described as one of the
following: Approaching Expectations • Meeting Expectations • Exceeding
Expectations • For Grades 1 to 3, performance is described as one of the
following: Not Yet Meeting Expectations Use of the performance scale to show
progress in language arts (including reading, writing, and speaking/listening),
mathematics, social studies and science is mandatory. The performance scale
may also be used to report progress in other areas, such as fine arts, personal
planning, physical education, social responsibility and work habits. Progress
Report A critical element of any student's learning experience is the need for
informed and meaningful feedback to those invested in the student's progress.
Reporting on student progress must have a well- defined purpose for it to be
meaningful. It must clearly identify the information needing to be
communicated, the audience it is intended for and how that information will be
used to improve future or related learning. Three primary purposes for reporting
student progress: 1. To communicate student growth to parents and the broader
community. 2. To provide feedback to students for self-evaluation. 3. To
document student progress and the effectiveness of instructional programs.
Because reporting student progress serves a variety of purposes, we believe no
one method of reporting is capable of serving all purposes well. A multi-faceted
comprehensive reporting system is essential. Multiple means of reporting
progress is divided into two subsets, individual and whole school reports.
Individual Subset - report cards, progress reports, standardized testing,
evaluated projects and assignments, portfolios and exhibitions of student work,
homework, individual web pages, parent- teacher conferences, student-teacher
conferences and student led conferences.
54. 34. Whole School Subset- Standardized testing, open houses, classroom
and school-wide newsletters, each means of reporting on student progress will
include a statement of purpose. The statement of purpose may vary according to
the specific type of reporting taking place and the audience it is directed
toward. Cumulative Record This is longitudinal record of pupils’ educational
history. The progress of the development pattern of each student is recorded
cumulatively from period to period in a comprehensive record designed for the
purpose. Such a record is known as a cumulative record. Elements of a
Cumulative Record -curricular activities Special achievements Profile An
outline of something, especially a person's face, as seen from one side. A short
 article giving a description of a person or organization. Describe (a person or
organization) in a short article. Represent in outline from one side. Open House
An open house (also known as open day and at-home day) is an event held at an
institution where its doors are open to the general public to allow people to
have a look around it in order to gain information on it. These are often held at
schools and universities in most areas to attract prospective students,
familiarize them (and their parents) with facilities, and allow new students to
become familiar with facilities and meet others, or to open informal
communication channels between school staff and students and parents. a)
Using feedback for reporting to different stakeholders – students, parents, and
administrators ( for Learners’ Development and teachers’ self-improvement ) A
stakeholder is anyone who is involved in the welfare and success of a school
and its students, including administrators, teachers, staff, students, parents,
community members, school board members, city councilors and state
representatives. Stakeholders may also be collective entities, such as
organizations, initiatives, committees, media outlets and cultural institutions.
Students Feedback is any response made in relation to students' work or
performance. It can be given by a teacher, an external assessor or a student peer.
It is usually spoken or written. Feedback is ... most effective when it is timely,
perceived as relevant, meaningful and encouraging, and offers suggestions for
improvement that are within a student's grasp (Brown, Bull, & Pendlebury,
1997). It is intended to acknowledge the progress students have made towards
achieving the learning outcomes of a unit. Good feedback is also constructive,
and identifies ways in which students can improve their learning and
achievement. Providing a mark or a grade only, even with a brief comment like
"good work" or "you need to improve" is rarely helpful. Students may complain
that feedback on assessment is unhelpful or unclear, and sometimes even
demoralizing. Additionally, students sometimes report that they are not given
guidance as to how to use feedback to improve subsequent performance. Even
worse, students sometimes note that the feedback is provided too late to be of
any use or relevance at all. For their part, lecturers frequently
55. 35. comment that students are not interested in feedback comments and
are only concerned with the mark. Furthermore, lecturers express frustration
that students do not incorporate feedback advice into subsequent tasks. Parents
A review process of the new reporting resources was carried out with a number
of schools. Schools that reviewed the materials found them useful and easy to
follow. They believed that the materials signaled a desirable paradigm shift in
 reporting to parents. In particular, the following aspects of the materials were
highly valued by schools: school newsletters. ions were welcomed, considered
overdue ‘and seen as clear and useful for both teachers and parents. ng process
diagram was seen as helpful ‘and well-constructed. Administrator To assess
student progress toward the established district standards and to facilitate the
planning of various types of instruction, administration should ensure that
teachers are utilizing information from a variety of valid and appropriate
sources before they begin planning lessons or teaching. This could include data
regarding students' backgrounds, academic levels, and interests, as well as other
data from student records to ascertain academic needs and to facilitate planning
appropriate initial learning. It is important for the administration to note that
information regarding students and their families is used by the staff for
professional purposes only and is kept confidential as a matter of professional
ethics. Administrators should determine if teachers are using the numerous
formative and summative diagnostic processes available to assist in planning
meaningful instruction. Formative measures include ongoing teacher
monitoring of student progress during the lessons, practice sessions, and on
daily assignments. Measures administered periodically like criterion-referenced
tests, grade level examinations or placement tests that are teacher-made or part
of districtadopted material, also provide helpful information on the status of
student learning as instruction progresses. Summative measures like minimum
competency examinations, district mastery tests and standardized tests provide
a different perspective from the ongoing formative measures.
56.

USE OF FEEDBACK FOR TEACHERS' SELF IMPROVEMENT Receiving

student feedback in the middle of the semester can help you to know what you are
doing that facilitates the learning of the students and it will help make you aware
of any difficulties they may be having with your instruction. It allows you to make
adjustments needed by students in your class before the end of the semester and
will foster a feeling among your students that you care about your teaching. Often
minor adjustments on your part can make a tremendous difference in the
classroom. Unit 5: Issues, Concerns and Trends in Assessment and Evaluation

EXISTING PRACTICES Class /Unit Tests A class test is an assessment intended

to measure a test takers knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness or
classification in many other topics in a class. A test may be administered verbally,
on paper, on a computer, or in a confined area that requires a test taker to
physically perform a set of skills. Tests vary in style, rigor and requirements. A test
may be administered formally or informally. Formal testing often results in a grade
or a test score. A test score may be interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion,