Bulletin 1-I

C v1 , F L1

FL1 > FL 2
(p −F ) Fpv

C v 2 ,F L 2 Cv1= Cv 2
1
2

L2

(p − F )
∆pmax (2) =F

Fpv

p1

p2I
1
L 1
2

p2II
∆pm ax (1) = F

p2III

p2IV
pv

pvc
HANDBOOK
FOR CONTROL
VALVE SIZING
 * PARCOL

HANDBOOK
FOR CONTROL
VALVE SIZING

CONTENTS

NOMENCLATURE

VALVE SIZING AND SELECTION

1 PROCESS DATA

2 VALVE SPECIFICATION

3 FLOW COEFFICIENT
3.1 KV coefficient
3.2 Cv coefficient
3.3 Standard test conditions

4 SIZING EQUATIONS
4.1 Sizing equations for incompressible flu-
ids (turbulent flow)
4.2 Sizing equations for compressible fluids
(turbulent flow)
4.3 Sizing equations for two-phase fluids
4.4 Sizing equations for non turbulent flow

5 PARAMETERS OF SIZING EQUATIONS

5.1 Recovery factor FL

5.2 Coefficient of incipient cavitation xFZ and
coefficient of constant cavitation Kc
5.3 Piping geometry factor Fp
5.4 Combined liquid pressure recovery fac-
tor and piping geometry factor of a con-
trol valve with attached fittings FLP
5.5 Liquid critical pressure ratio factor FF
5.6 Expansion factor Y
5.7 Pressure differential ratio factor xT
5.8 Pressure differential ratio factor for a
valve with attached fittings xTP
5.9 Reynolds number factor FR

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 * PARCOL
Symbols Description Units (note)

Cd Specific flow coefficient = Cv/ d2 various

Cv Flow coefficient U.S. gallons/min
d Nominal valve size mm
D Internal diameter of piping mm
Fd Valve style modifier dimensionless
FF Liquid critical pressure ratio factor dimensionless
FL Liquid pressure recovery factor for a control valve without attached dimensionless
fittings
FLP Combined liquid pressure recovery factor and piping geometry factor dimensionless
of a control valve with attached fittings
FP Piping geometry factor dimensionless
FR Reynolds number factor dimensionless
Fγ Specific heat ratio factor = γ/1.4 dimensionless
KB1 and KB2 Bernoulli coefficients for inlet and outlet of a valve with attached dimensionless
reducers
Kc Coefficient of constant cavitation dimensionless
Kv Flow coefficient m 3/h
K1 and K2 Upstream and downstream resistance coefficients dimensionless
M Molecular mass of the flowing fluid kg/kmole
pc Absolute thermodynamic critical pressure bar
pv Absolute vapour pressure of the liquid at inlet temperature bar
pvc Vena contracta absolute pressure bar
p1 Inlet absolute pressure measured at upstream pressure tap bar
p2 Outlet absolute pressure measured at downstream pressure tap bar
∆p Pressure differential between upstream and downstream pressures bar
∆p max Maximum allowable pressure differential for control valve sizing bar
purposes for incompressible fluids
qm Mass flow rate kg/h
qv Volumetric flow rate m 3/h
qm(max) Maximum mass flow rate in choked condition kg/h
qv(max) Maximum volumetric flow rate in choked condition m 3/h
Rev Valve Reynolds number dimensionless
T1 Inlet absolute temperature K
u Average fluid velocity m/s

Note - Unless otherwise specified

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 * PARCOL
Symbols Description Units
v Specific volume m 3/kg
x Ratio of pressure differential to inlet absolute pressure dimensionless
xcr Ratio of pressure differential to inlet absolute pressure in critical dimensionless
conditions (∆ p/p1)cr
xFZ Coefficient of incipient cavitation dimensionless
xT Pressure differential ratio factor in choked flow condition for a valve dimensionless
without attached fittings
xTP Value of x T for valve/fitting assembly dimensionless
Y Expansion factor dimensionless
Z Compressibility factor - ratio of ideal to actual inlet specific mass dimensionless
γ Specific heat ratio dimensionless
ρο Specific mass of water at 15.5°C i.e. 999 kg/m 3 kg/m 3
ρ1 Specific mass of fluid at p1 and T1 kg/m 3
ρr Ratio of specific mass of fluid in upstream condition to specific mass of dimensionless
water at 15.5°C (ρ1/ρο - for liquids is indicated as ρ/ρο)
ν Kinematic viscosity (ν = µ /ρ) Centistoke = 10 -6 m 2/s
µ Dynamic viscosity Centipoise = 10 -3 Pa ⋅ s

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 * PARCOL
SIZING AND SELECTION OF CONTROL 2 - VALVE SPECIFICATION
VALVES
On the ground of the above data it is possible to
The correct sizing and selection of a control valve finalise the detailed specification of the valve
must be based on the full knowledge of the proc- (data sheet), i.e. to select:
ess.
- valve rating
1 - PROCESS DATA - body and valve type
- body size, after having calculated the maxi-
The following data should at least be known: mum flow coefficient Cv with the appropriate
sizing equations
a - Type of fluid and its chemical-physical and - type of trim
thermodynamic characteristics, such as pres- - materials trim of different trim parts
sure “p”, temperature “T”, vapour pressure - leakage class
“pv”, thermodynamic critical pressure “pc”, - inherent flow characteristic
specific mass “ρ”, kinematic viscosity “ν” or - packing type
dynamic viscosity “µ”, specific heat at con- - type and size of actuator
stant pressure “Cp”, specific heat at constant - accessories
volume “Cv ”, specific heat ratio “γ”, molecu-
lar mass “M”, compressibility factor “Z”, ratio
of vapour to its liquid, presence of solid parti- 3 - FLOW COEFFICIENT
cles, inflammability, toxicity.
3.1 - FLOW COEFFICIENT “Kv”
b - Maximum operating range of flow rate related
to pressure and temperature of fluid at valve The flow coefficient Kv, is the standard flow rate
inlet and to ∆p across the valve. which flows through a valve at a given opening,
i.e. referred to the following conditions:
c - Operating conditions (nor mal, max., min.
etc.). - static pressure drop (∆p(Kv) ) across the valve
of 1 bar (105 Pa)
d - Ratio of pressure differential available across - flowing fluid: water at a temperature from 5 to
the valve to total head loss along the 40° C
process line at various operating conditions. - volumetric flow rate in m3 /h

e - Operational data, such as: The value of Kv can be determined from tests
using the following formula:
- maximum differential pressure with closed
valve ∆p( Kv ) ρ
K v = qv ⋅ (1)
- stroking time ∆p ρ ο
- plug position in case of supply failure
- maximum allowable leakage of valve in where:
closed position
- fire resistance ∆p(Kv) is the static pressure drop of 105 Pa
- max. outwards leakage ∆p is the static pressure drop from upstream to
- noise limitations downstream in Pa
ρ is the specific mass of fluid in kg/m3
f - Interface information, such as: ρo is the specific mass of water in kg/m3

- sizing of downstream safety valves The equation (1) is valid at standard conditions
- accessibility of the valve (see point 3.3).
- materials and type of piping connections
- overall dimensions, including the necessary 3.2 - FLOW COEFFICIENT “Cv”
space for disassembling and maintenance
- design pressure and temperature The flow coefficient Cv , is the standard flow rate
- available supplies and their characteristics which flows through a valve at a given opening,

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 * PARCOL
i.e. referred to the following conditions: 4 - SIZING EQUATIONS

- static pressure drop (∆p(Cv)) across the valve Sizing equations allow to calculate a value of
of 1 psi (6895 Pa) the flow coefficient starting from different oper-
- flowing fluid: water at a temperature from 40 ating conditions (type of fluid, pressure drop, flow
to 100° F (5 ÷ 40° C) rate, type of flow and installation) and making
- volumetric flow rate: expressed in gpm them mutually comparable as well as with the
standard one.
The value of Cv can be determined from tests
using the following formula: The equations outlined in sub-clauses 4.1 and
4.2 are in accordance with the standard IEC
∆p( Cv ) ρ 534-2-1
C v = qv ⋅ ⋅ (2)
∆p ρ ο
4.1 - SIZING EQUATIONS FOR INCOMPRESSIBLE
where: FLUIDS (TURBULENT FLOW)

∆p(Cv) is the static pressure drop of 1 psi (see In general actual flow rate of a incompressible
above) fluid through a valve is plotted in Fig. 2 versus
∆p is the static pressure drop from upstream to the square root of the pressure differential ( ∆p )
downstream expressed in psi. under constant upstream conditions.
ρ is the specific mass of the fluid expressed in
Ib/ft3 The cur ve can be splitted into three regions:
ρo is the specific mass of the water expressed in
Ib/ft3 - a first normal flow region (not critical), where
the flow rate is exactly proportional to ∆p .
Also the above equation (2) is valid at standard This not critical flow condition takes place un-
conditions as specified under point 3.3. til pvc > pv .
- a second semi-critical flow region, where the
3.3 - STANDARD TEST CONDITIONS flow rate still rises when the pressure drop is
increased, but less than proportionally to ∆p .
The standard conditions referred to in definitions In this region the capability of the valve to con-
of flow coefficients (Kv , Cv) are the following: vert the pressure drop increase into flow rate
is reduced, due to the fluid vaporisation and
- flow in turbulent condition the subsequent cavitation.
- no cavitation and vaporisation phenomena - In the third limit flow or saturation region the
- valve diameter equal to pipe diameter flow rate remains constant, in spite of further
- static pressure drop measured between up- increments of ∆p .
stream and downstream pressure taps located
as in Fig. 1 This means that the flow conditions in vena
- straight pipe lengths upstream and down- contracta have reached the maximum evapo-
stream the valve as per Fig. 1 ration rate (which depends on the upstream
- Newtonian fluid flow conditions) and the mean velocity is close
to the sound velocity, as in a compressible fluid.
Note: Though the flow coefficients were defined
as liquid (water) flow rates nevertheless they are The standard sizing equations ignore the
used for control valve sizing both for incompres- hatched area of the diagram shown in Fig. 2,
sible and compressible fluids. thus neglecting the semi-critical flow region. This

2D 6D (*) Straight pipe lengths upstream and

downstream the valve
p1 p2 D = Nominal pipe and valve diameter
L = Valve dimension
p1,p2 = Pressure taps

20D (*) L 10D (*)

Fig. 1 - Standard test set up

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 * PARCOL
approximation is justified by simplicity purposes
and by the fact that it is not practically important
to predict the exact flow rate in the hatched area;
on the other hand such an area should be
avoided, when possible, as it always involves
vibration and noise problems as well as mechani-
cal problems due to cavitation.

Basic equation
Valid for standard test conditions only.

∆p with qv in m3/s ∆p with qv in gpm

qv = K v ⋅ ∆p in bar (105 Pa) qv = Cv ⋅ ∆p in psi
ρ /ρ ο ρ /ρο

Note: Simple conversion operations

among the different units give the
following relationship : Cv = 1.16 Kv

Normal flow (not critical) F 2

It is individuated by the relationship: ∆p < ∆pmax =  LP  ⋅
 Fp 
(p −F ⋅pv )
1 F

qm
CV =
865 ⋅ FRp ⋅ ∆p ⋅ ρ r

1.16 ⋅ q v
CV =
∆p
FpR ⋅
ρr

qm
∆p max = FL p1 − FF ⋅ p v
IEC normal flow IEC limit flow

approximation of IEC
equations
2%

normal flow semi-critical flow limit flow or "choked flow"

noise and vibration flashing (p2 <p v )

∆p = K c (p1 − pv ) flow
f rate affected by cavitation
beginning of cavitation ∆p = x FZ (p1 − p v )

∆p

Fig.2 -Flow rate diagram of an incompressible fluid flowing through a valve plotted versus downstream
pressure under constant upstream conditions.

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 * PARCOL
2
2
Limit flow  FLPP
It is individuated by the relationship: ∆p ≥ ∆pmax =   ⋅ (p1 − FF ⋅pv )
 p
F
q m (max )
Cv =
865 ⋅ FLP ⋅ (p1 − FF p v )ρr

1.16 ⋅ q v (max )
Cv =
(p1 − FFp v )
FLP ⋅
ρr

If the valve is without reducers F P = 1 and FLP = F L

4.2 - SIZING EQUATIONS FOR COMPRESSIBLE Such an effect is taken into account by means
FLUIDS (TURBULENT FLOW) of the expansion coefficient Y (see 5.6), whose
value can change between 1 and 0.667.
The Fig. 3 shows the flow rate diagram of a com-
pressible fluid flowing through a valve when Normal flow
changing the downstream pressure under con- It is individuated by the relationship
stant upstream conditions. The flow rate is no
longer proportional to the square root of the pres- x < F γ ⋅ xT or 2/3 < Y ≤ 1
sure differential ∆p as in the case of incom-
pressible fluids. This deviation from linearity is
qm
due to the variation of fluid density (expansion) Cv =
from the valve inlet up to the vena contracta. 27.3 ⋅ Fp ⋅ Y ⋅ x ⋅ p1 ⋅ ρ1
Due to this density reduction the gas must be
accelerated up to a higher velocity than the one
reached by an equivalent liquid mass flow. Un-
der the same ∆p the mass flow rate of a com- qv M ⋅ T1 ⋅ Z
Cv = ⋅
pressible fluid must therefore be lower than the 2120 ⋅ Fp ⋅ p1 ⋅ Y x
one of an incompressible fluid.

Fig.3 - Flow rate diagram of a

compressible fluid
flowing through a valve
limit flow plotted versus differen-
tial pressure under
density variation effect
limit flow constant upstream
conditions.

vena contracta expansion effect

sound velocity in vena contracta

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 * PARCOL
Limit flow A second physical model overcomes this limita-
It is individuated by the relationship tion assuming that the two phases cross the vena
contracta at the same velocity.
x ≥ Fγ ⋅ xTP and/or Y = 2/3 = 0.667
The mass flow rate of a gas (see above) is pro-
portional to:
q m( max )
Cv = x
18.2 ⋅ Fp ⋅ Fγ ⋅ x TP ⋅ p1 ⋅ ρ1 Y ⋅ x ⋅ρ 1 = Y ⋅ = x/ V eg
V g1

where Veg is the actual specific volume of the

gas i.e.
q v (max ) M ⋅ T1 ⋅ Z
Cv = ⋅ V g1 /Y 2
1414 ⋅ Fp ⋅ p1 Fγ ⋅ x TP

In other terms this means to assume that the

mass flow of a gas with specific volume Vg1 is
equivalent to the mass flow of a liquid with spe-
where: qv is expressed in Nm3/h
cific volume Veg under the same operating con-
ditions.
If valve is without reducers Fp = 1
and xTP becomes xT
Assuming :

Vgl
Ve = f g 2
+ f liq ⋅ Vliq1
Y
where fg and fliq are respectively the gaseous
4.3 - SIZING EQ UATIONS FOR TWO-PHASE and the liquid mass fraction of the mixture, the
FLOWS sizing equation becomes:

No standard formulas presently exist for the cal-

x ⋅ p1
culation of two-phase flow rates through orifices q m = 27. 3 ⋅ Fp ⋅ C v ⋅
or control valves. Ve
4.3.1- LIQUID/GAS MIXTURES
When the mass fraction f g is very small (under
A first easy physical model for the calculation about 5%) better accuracy is reached using the
roughly considers separately the flows of the two first method.
phases through the valve orifice without mutual
energy exchange. For higher amounts of gas the second method
is to be used.
Therefore:
4.3.2- LIQUID/VAPOUR MIXTURES

C v = C v g + C v liq The calculation of the flow rate of a liquid mixed

with its own vapour through a valve is very com-
i.e. the flow coefficient is calculated as the sum plex because of mass and energy transfer be-
of the one required for the gaseous phase and tween the two phases.
the other required for the liquid phase.
No formula is presently available to calculate with
This method assumes that the mean velocities sufficient accuracy the flow capacity of a valve
of the two phases in the vena contracta are con- in these conditions.
siderably different.
Such calculation problems are due to the follow-
ing reasons:

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 * PARCOL
- difficulties in assessing the actual quality of the The most reliable explanation of such results is
mixture (i.e. the vapour mass percentage) at that the two phases flow at quite different veloci-
valve inlet. This is mostly true and important at ties, though mutually exchanging mass and
low qualities, where small errors in quality energy.
evaluation involve significant errors in the cal-
culation of the specific volume of the mixture On the ground of the above considerations it is
(e.g. if p1= 5 bar, when the quality varies from possible to state that:
0.01 to 0.02 the mean specific volume of the
mixture increases of 7.7%). - for low vapour quality (less than about three
percent vapour by mass) at valve inlet the most
While the global transformation from upstream suitable equation is the one obtained from the
to downstream (practically isoenthalpic) always sum of the flow capacities of the two phases
involves a quality increase, the isoenthropic (at different flow velocities).
transformation of the mixture in thermodynamic
balance between valve inlet and vena contracta
may involve quality increase or decrease, de-
C v = C v liq + C v vap
pending on quality and pressure values (see dia-
gram T/S at Fig. 4).
- for high vapour quality at valve inlet the most
- some experimental data point out the fact that suitable equation is the one obtained from the
the process is not always in thermodynamic hypothesis of equal velocities of the two
equilibrium (stratifications of metastable liquid phases, i.e. of the equivalent specific volume.
and overheated steam).

qm
- experimental data are available on liquid-va- Cv =
pour mixtures flowing through orifices at flow x ⋅ p1
rates 10÷12 times higher than the ones result- 27 .3 ⋅ Fp ⋅
Ve
ing from calculation when considering the fluid
as compressible with a specific mass equal to
the one at the valve inlet.

1
Temperature

Fig. 4 - Thermodynamic trans-

formations of a water / vapour
1 mixture inside a valve.
2
In the transformation shown at left side
Vc of the diagram (isoenthropic between
inlet and vena contracta Vc) the vapour
2
quality increases.
Vc
In the transformation at right side the
quality decreases, moving from 1 to Vc.

In both cases the point 2 are on the

same isoenthalpic curve passing
through the point 1, but with a higher
Enthropy S quality.

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 * PARCOL
4.4 - SIZING EQUATIONS FOR NON TURBULENT The effect of fittings attached to the valve is
FLOW probably negligible in laminar flow condition and
it is presently unknown.
Sizing equations of subclauses 4.1 and 4.2 are In equations applicable to compressible fluid the
applicable in turbulent flow conditions, i.e. when correcting factor p 1+p 2/2 was introduced to
the Reynolds number calculated inside the valve account for the fluid density change.
is higher than about 30,000.
The well-known Reynolds number: 5 - PARAMETERS OF SIZING EQUATIONS

Re =ρ ⋅ u ⋅ d In addition to the flow coefficient some other

µ parameters occur in sizing equations with the
is the dimensionless ratio between mass forces purpose to identify the different flow types (nor-
and viscous forces. When the first prevails the mal, semi-critical, critical, limit); such parameters
flow is turbulent; otherwise it is laminar. only depend on the flow pattern inside the valve
Should the fluid be very viscous or the flow rate body. In many cases such parameters are of pri-
very low, or the valve very small, or a combination mary importance for the selection of the right
of the above conditions, a laminar type flow (or valve for a given ser vice. It is therefore neces-
transitional flow) takes place in the valve and the sary to know the values of such parameters for
Cv coefficient calculated in turbulent flow the different valve types at full opening as well
condition must be corrected by FR coefficient.
as at other stroke percentages.
Due to that above, factor F R becomes a
fundamental parameter to properly size the low
Such parameters are:
flow control valves i.e. the valves having flow
coefficients Cv from approximately 1.0 down to
the microflows range. FL - liquid pressure recovery factor for incom-
In such valves non turbulent flow conditions do pressible fluids
commonly exist with conventional fluids too (air, Kc - coefficient of constant cavitation
water, steam etc.) and standard sizing equations Fp - piping factor
become unsuitable if proper coefficients are not FLP- combined coefficient of FL with Fp
used. FF - liquid critical pressure ratio factor
Y - expansion factor
The currently used equations are the following: xFZ - coefficient of incipient cavitation
xT - pressure differential ratio factor in choked
qm condition
CV = xTP - combined coefficient of Fp with xT
865 ⋅ FR ⋅ ∆p ⋅ ρ r
FR - Reynolds number factor
incompressible fluid
1.16 ⋅ q v 5.1 - RECOVERY FACTOR FL
CV =
∆p
FR ⋅ The recovery factor of a valve only depends on
ρr the shape of the body and the trim. It shows the
valve capability to transform the kinetic energy
of the fluid in the vena contracta into pressure
qm T1 energy; it is so defined:
CV = ⋅
67 ⋅ FR ∆p⋅ ( p 1 + p 2 ) ⋅ M
p1 − p2
compressible fluid FL =
qv M ⋅ T1 p1 − pvc
CV = ⋅
1500 ⋅ FR ∆p ⋅ ( p 1 + p 2 ) Since pvc (pressure in vena contracta) is always
lower than p2 , it is always FL ≤ 1. Moreover it is
important to remark that the lower is this coeffi-
The above equations are the same outlined in
cient the higher is the valve capability to trans-
subclauses 4.1 and 4.2 for non limit flow condition
form the kinetic energy into pressure energy
and modified with the correction factor FR.
(high recovery valve).
The choked flow condition was ignored not being
consistent with laminar flow.
Note the absence of piping factors Fp and Y The higher this coefficient is (close to 1) the
which were defined in turbulent regime. higher is the valve attitude to dissipate energy
by friction rather than in vortices, with conse-

- 10 -
 * PARCOL
quently lower reconversion of kinetic energy into longer and this flow rate is assumed as q v(max).
pressure energy (low recovery valve). In prac-
tice the sizing equations simply refer to the pres- FL can be determined measuring only the pres-
sure drop (p1-p2 ) between valve inlet and outlet sure p1 and qv(max) .
and until the pressure pvc in vena contracta is
higher than the saturation pressure p v of the fluid b - Accuracy in determination of FL
at valve inlet, then the influence of the recovery
factor is practically negligible and it does not It is relatively easier determining the critical flow
matter whether the valve dissipates pressures rate qv(max) for high recovery valves (low FL) than
energy by friction rather than in whirlpools. for low recovery valves (high FL ). The accuracy
in the determination of FL for values higher than
The FL coefficient is crucial when approaching 0.9 is not so impor tant for the calculation of the
to cavitation, which can be avoided selecting a flow capacity as to enable to correctly predict
lower recovery valve. the cavitation phenomenon for services with high
differential pressure.
a - Determination of FL
c - Variation of FL versus valve opening and flow
Since it is not easy to measure the pressure in direction
the vena contracta with the necessary accuracy,
the recovery factor is determined in critical con- The recovery factor depends on the profile of
ditions: velocities which takes place inside the valve body.
Since this last changes with the valve opening,
1.16q v (max )
FL = the FL coefficient considerably varies along the
C v ⋅ p1 − 0 .96 p v stroke and, for the same reason, is often strongly
affected by the flow direction. The Fig. 6 shows
the values of the recovery factor versus the plug
Critical conditions are reached with a relatively stroke for different valve types and the two flow
high inlet pressure and reducing the outlet pres- directions.
sure p2 until the flow rate does not increase any

C v1 , F L 1

FL1 >FL 2
(p −F ) Fpv

C v2 ,F L 2 Cv1= Cv 2
1
2

L2

(p −F )
∆pmax (2) = F

Fpv

p1

p2 I
1
L 1
2

p2II Fig. 5 - Comparison be-

∆pm ax (1) = F

tween two valves with

Cv1FL1 equal flow coefficient but
with different recovery fac-
Cv2FL2
p2 tor, under the same inlet
III
fluid condition, when vary-

p2 ing the downstream pres-

IV
pv sure. At the same values
of Cv, p1 and p2 valves
with higher F L can accept
pvc higher flow rates of fluid.

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 * PARCOL
1

5 2
0.95 1
4

6 2, 4

0.9
Pressure recovery factor FL
Coefficiente di recupero FL

7
0.85

5
0.8 3

0.75

0.7

7 1 - seggio doppio - V-port double seat - V-port 1-8110

2 - seggio singolo - fusso apre single seat - flow to open 1-6911
0.65 3 - seggio singolo - flusso chiude single seat - flow to close 1-6911 6
4 - seggio singolo a gabbia - flusso apre single seat cage - flow to open 1-6933
3 5 - rotativa eccentrica - flusso apre eccentric plug - flow to open 1-6600
% del Cv max
6 - farfalla a disco eccentrico eccentric disk 1-2471
7 - seggio doppio - parabolico double seat - parabolic 1-8110 % of rated Cv
0.6
10 50 100

Fig. 6 - Typical FL values versus % value Cv and flow direction for different PARCOL valve types.

5.2 - COEFFICIENT OF INCIPIENT CAVITATION

XFZ AND COEFFICIENT OF CONSTANT CAVI-
TATION Kc
Index of resistance to cavitation
stellite gr. 6 20
When in the vena contracta a pressure lower than
chrome plating (5) the saturation pressure is reached then the liq-
17-4-PH H900 2 uid evaporates, forming vapour bubbles. If, due
AISI 316/304 1 to pressure recovery, the downstream pressure
monel 400 (0.8) (which only depends on the downstream piping
gray cast iron 0.75
chrome-molybdenum alloyed steels (5% chrome) 0.67 layout) is higher than the critical pressure in the
carbon steels (WCB) 0.38 vena contracta, then vapour bubbles totally or
bronze (B16) 0.08 partially implode, instantly collapsing. This phe-
nickel plating (0.07) nomenon is called cavitation and causes well
pure aluminium 0.006
known damages due to high local pressures
generated by the vapour bubble implosion. Metal
surface damaged by the cavitation show a typi-
cal pitted look with many micro- and macro-pits.
Fig. 7 - Cavitation resistance of some metallic
The higher is the number of imploding bubbles,
materials referred to stainless steels AISI 304/
the higher are damaging speed and magnitude;
316. Values between brackets only for qualita-
these depend on the elasticity of the media where
tive comparison.
the implosion takes place (i.e. on the fluid tem-
perature) as well as on the hardness of the metal
surface (see table at Fig. 7).

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 * PARCOL
Critical conditions are obviously reached gradu- the formula Kc = 0.8 FL2. Such a simplification
ally. Moreover the velocity profile in the vena is however only acceptable when the diagram of
contracta is not completely uniform, hence may the actual flow rate versus ∆p , under constant
be that a part only of the flow reaches the va- upstream conditions, shows a sharp break point
porization pressure. The FL recovery factor is between the linear/proportional zone and the
determined in proximity of fully critical conditions, horizontal one. If on the contrary the break point
so it is not suitable to predict an absolute ab- radius is larger (i.e. if the ∆p at which the devia-
sence of vaporization. In order to detect the be- tion from the linearity takes place is different from
ginning of the constant bubble formation, i.e. the the ∆p at which the limit flow rate is reached)
constant cavitation, the coefficient Kc was de- then the coefficient of proportionality between
fined. This coefficient is defined as the ratio ∆p/ Kc and FL2 can come down to 0.65. Since the
(p1 - pv ) at which cavitation begins to appear in coefficient of constant cavitation changes with
a water flow through the valve with such an in- the valve opening, it is usually referred to a 75%
tensity that, under constant upstream conditions, opening.
the flow rate deviation from the linearity versus
∆p exceeds 2%. Usually the beginning of cavi- 5.3 - PIPING FACTOR Fp
tation is identified by the coefficient of incipient
cavitation xFZ. The xFZ coefficient can be deter- As already explained characteristic coefficients
mined by test using sound level meters or accel- of a given valve type are determined in standard
erometers connected to the pipe and relating conditions of installation. The actual piping ge-
noise and vibration increase with the beginning ometry will obviously differ from the standard one.
of bubble formation. Some informations on this The coefficient Fp takes into account the way
regard are given by standard IEC 534-8-2 “Labo- that a reducer, an expander, a Y or T branch, a
ratory measurement of the noise generated by a bend or a shut-off valve affect the value of Cv of
liquid flow through a control valve”, which the Fig. a control valve. A calculation can only be carried
8 was drawn from. A simple calculation rule uses out for pressure and velocity changes caused
by reducers and expanders directly connected
to the valve. Other effects, such as the ones
caused by a change in velocity profile at valve
inlet due to reducers or other fittings like a short
radius bend close to the valve, can only be evalu-
sound pressure level (dB)

ated by specific tests. Moreover such per turba-

tions could involve undesired effects, such as
plug instability due to asymmetrical and unbal-
ancing fluidodynamic forces. When the flow co-
efficient must be determined within ± 5 % toler-
ance the F p coefficient must be determined by
test. When estimated values are permissible the
following equation may be used:

1
Fp =
∆p/(p1-pv) ΣK  C v 
2

1+  
0.00214  d 2 
XFZ

being: ΣK = K 1+ K 2 + K B1− K B2
∆ptr where ∆ptr is the value of ∆p at
x FZ = which the transition takes place
p1 − pv from not cavitating to cavitating
Where C v is the selected flow coefficient, K1 and
flow. K2 are resistance coefficient which take into ac-
count head losses due to turbulences and
frictions at valve inlet and outlet, K B1 and/or
Fig. 8 - Determination of the coefficient of incipient cavitation KB2 = 1 - (d / D)4 are the so called Bernoulli
by means of phonometric analysis. coefficients, which account for the pressure
(Drawn from IEC Standard 534-8-2) changes due to velocity changes due to reduc-
ers or expanders.

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 * PARCOL
(p1 −F F p v ) , but
In case of reducers: 2
∆pmax is no longer equal to F L
2
  d 2  it becomes:
K1 = 0.5 1 −   
  D    FLp 
2

  (p1 − FF pv )
In case of expanders:
 Fp  (see Fig. 9)

2
  d 2  It is determined by test, like for the recovery fac-
K 2 1.01 −   
= tor FL (see point 5.1).
  D  
1.16 ⋅ q v (max )LP
In case of the same ratio d/D for reducers and FLP =
expanders: C v ⋅ p1 − 0. 96p v
2 When FL is known it also can be determined by
  d 2 
K1 + K 2 = 1.51 −    the following relationship:

  D  
FL
FLP = 2
5.4 - RECOVERY FACTOR WITH REDUCERS FLP 1+
FL2
(ΣK)1  C2v 
0.00214 d 
Reducers, expanders, fittings and, generally Where: (ΣK)1= K1 +KB1
speaking, any installation not according to the
standard test manifold not only affect the stand-
ard coefficient (changing the actual inlet and 5.5 - LIQUID CRITICAL PRESSURE RATIO
outlet pressures), but also modify the transition FACTOR FF
point between normal and choked flow, so that
The coefficient FF is the ratio between the ap-
parent pressure in vena contracta in choked con-

q ∆p max = FL p1 − FF pv
q max ≡ FL Cv

q max ≡ FLP Cv

FLP
∆p max = p1 − FF pv
Fp
v
C
q∝

v
pC
F
q∝

∆p

Fig. 9 - Effect of reducers on the diagram of q versus ∆p when varying the downstream pressure at constant upstream pressure.

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 * PARCOL
dition and the vapour pressure of the liquid at - Y is a function of the fluid type, namely the
inlet temperature: exponent of the adiabatic transformation
FF = pvc /pv γ = cp /cv
- Y is function of the geometry (i.e. type) of the
valve
When the flow is at limit conditions (saturation)
the flow rate equation must no longer be ex- From the first hypothesis: Y = 1 - ax, therefore:
pressed as a function of ∆p = p1-p2, but of ∆pvc
= p1 -pvc(differential pressure in vena contracta).
Starting from the basic equation (at point 4.1): q m∞Y x
A mathematic procedure allows to calculate the
p1 − p 2
qv = Cv ⋅ value of Y which makes maximum the above
ρr function (that means finding the point where the
rate dqm/ dx becomes zero.
and from:

q m ∞(1 − ax ) x = x − a x
3
p1 − p2
FL =
p1 − pvc By setting

dq m 1 3a x
the following equation is obtained: = − =0
dx 2 x 2
p1 − p vc
q v = FL ⋅ C v ⋅
ρr 1
= 3a x x=
1
hence:
x 3a
Since pvc depends on the vapour pressure
pvc = FF ⋅ pv therefore:
1 2
i.e.: Y = 1− ⋅a =
pv 3a 3
q v = FL ⋅ C v ⋅
pc
As Y = 1 when x = 0 and Y = 2 /3, when the flow
rate is maximum (i.e. x = xT ) the equation of Y
Supposing that at saturation conditions the fluid becomes the following:
is a homogeneous mixture of liquid and its va-
pour with the two phases at the same velocity
x
and in thermodynamic equilibrium, the following Y =1−
equation may be used: 3x T
pv
FF = 0.96 − 0.28 thus taking into account also the third hypoth-
pc esis. As a matter of fact xT is an experimental
value to be determined for each valve type. Fi-
where pc is the critical thermodynamic pressure. nally the second hypothesis will be taken into
account with an appropriate correction factor:
5.6 - EXPANSION FACTOR Y
Fγ = γ /1.4, which is the ratio between the expo-
This coefficient allows to use for compressible nent of the adiabatic transformation for the ac-
fluids the same equation structure valid for in- tual gas and the one for air.
compressible fluids. It has the same nature of
the expansion factor utilized in the equations of The final equation becomes:
the throttling type devices (orifices, nozzles or
Venturi) for the measure of the flow rate. The Y’ s x
equation is obtained from the theory on the ba- Y = 1−
sis of the following hypothesis (experimentally 3Fy x T
confirmed):
- Y is a linear function of x = ∆p/p1

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 * PARCOL
Cv/d2
15 x 10-3 20 x 10-3 25 x 10-3 30 x 10-3 35 x 10-3 40 x 10-3
(d in mm)
FL .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
d/D FLP FLP FLP FLP FLP FLP
.25 .49 .58 .67 .77 .85 .48 .57 .66 .74 .81 .47 .56 .64 .71 .78 .47 .54 .61 .68 .74 .45 .53 .59 .65 .70 .44 .51 .57 .62 .66
.33 .49 .58 .68 .76 .85 .48 .57 .66 .74 .82 .48 .56 .64 .71 .78 .47 .54 .62 .68 .74 .46 .53 .59 .65 .70 .44 .51 .57 .62 .66
.40 .49 .58 .68 .77 .85 .48 .57 .66 .74 .82 .48 .56 .64 .72 .78 .47 .55 .62 .69 .75 .46 .53 .60 .66 .71 .45 .51 .57 .62 .67
.50 .49 .59 .68 .77 .86 .49 .58 .66 .75 .83 .48 .56 .65 .72 .79 .47 .55 .62 .69 .76 .46 .54 .60 .66 .72 .45 .52 .58 .63 .68
.66 .49 .59 .68 .77 .86 .49 .58 .67 .76 .84 .48 .57 .66 .74 .81 .48 .56 .64 .71 .78 .47 .55 .62 .69 .74 .46 .53 .60 .66 .71
.75 .49 .59 .69 .78 .87 .49 .58 .68 .76 .85 .49 .58 .66 .75 .83 .48 .57 .65 .73 .80 .47 .56 .63 .70 .77 .47 .54 .62 .68 .74

Fig. 10 - Values of FLP for valves with short type reducer at the inlet with abrupt section variation

1
FF 0.96
Fig. 11 -Liquid critical pressure ratio factor

0.9 pv = Vapour pressure (bar abs.)

0.8 pc = Critical pressure (bar abs.)

0.7
pv
FF = 0.96 − 0.28
0.6 pc
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Pv
Pc

Fig. 12 -Critical pressure ratio factor for water

FF 1

0,95 0,96

0,90

0,85

0,80

0,75
221.2

0,70
0,68
0,65

0,60
pv
FF = 0.96 − 0.28 0 50 100 150 200 pc 250
221.2 pv = Vapour pressure (bar abs.)

Y
Fig. 13 -Expansion factor Y.
0.9 The diagram is valid for a given of Fγ value.

0.8
ing
eas
incr
XT
0.7
0.667

∆p
0.6 x=
p1
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

- 16 -
 * PARCOL
Therefore the maximum flow rate is reached If the downstream pressure p2 is further reduced,
when x = Fγ . xT (or Fγ ⋅ xTP if the valve is sup- the flow rate still increases, as, due to the spe-
plied with reducers) ; correspondently the expan- cific internal geometry of the valve, the section
sion factor reaches the minimum value of 0.667. of the vena contracta widens transversally (it is
not physically confined into solid walls). A con-
5.7 - PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL RATIO FACTOR fined vena contracta can be got for instance in a
IN CHOKED FLOW CONDITION xT Venturi meter to measure flow rate: for such a
geometry, once the sound velocity is reached
As already seen the recovery factor does not oc- for a given value of p2 the relevant flow rate re-
cur in sizing equations for compressible fluids. mains constant, even reducing further p2 . Nev-
Its use is unsuitable for gas and vapours because ertheless the flow rate does not unlimitedly in-
of the following physical phenomenon. crease, but only up to a given value of ∆p/p1 (to
Let us suppose that in a given section of the be determined by test), the so called pressure
valve, under a given value of the downstream differential ratio factor in choked flow condition,
pressure p2, the sound velocity is reached. The xT .
critical differential ratio
5.8 - PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL RATIO FACTOR
 ∆p  IN CHOKED FLOW CONDITION FOR A VALVE
x cr =   WITH REDUCERS XTP
 p1  cr
xTP is the same coefficients xT however deter-
is reached as well, being mined on valves supplied with reducers or in-
stalled not in according to the standard set up.

 y

   y −1
 
2
x cr = F 1 −  xT 1
2
  γ + 1   x TP = ⋅
(Fp )2
L
x T (K1 + K B1 )  C v 
2
  1+ ⋅ 2 
0.0024 d 

Cd 10 15 20 25 30
xT .40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .40 .50 .60 .70 .20 .30 .40 .50 .15 .20 .25

d/D xTP Fp xTP Fp xTP Fp xTP Fp xTP Fp

.80 .40 .49 .59 .69 .78 .99 .40 .49 .58 .67 .75 .98 .39 .48 .56 .64 .96 .21 .30 .39 .47 .94 .17 .21 .26 .91
.75 .40 .50 .59 .69 .78 .98 .40 .49 .58 .67 .75 .97 .40 .49 .57 .65 .94 .22 .31 .40 .48 .91 .18 .23 .27 .88
.67 .40 .50 .60 .69 .78 .98 .41 .50 .59 .68 .76 .95 .42 .51 .59 .67 .91 .24 .33 .43 .51 .87 .19 .25 .30 .83
.60 .41 .51 .60 .70 .79 .97 .42 .52 .61 .69 .78 .93 .43 .53 .61 .69 .89 .25 .36 .45 .54 .84 .21 .27 .32 .79
.50 .41 .52 .61 .70 .80 .96 .44 .53 .63 .71 .79 .91 .46 .55 .64 .72 .85 .28 .39 .49 .58 .79 .24 .30 .36 .73
.40 .42 .52 .62 .71 .80 .95 .44 .55 .65 .74 .82 .89 .49 .58 .67 .75 .82 .30 .42 .53 .62 .76 .26 .33 .40 .70
.33 .43 .53 .62 .72 .81 .94 .46 .56 .66 .75 .83 .88 .50 .60 .69 .78 .81 .31 .44 .55 .64 .74 .27 .34 .40 .69
.25 .44 .53 .63 .73 .83 .93 .48 .58 .67 .76 .85 .87 .52 .62 .71 .79 .79 .33 .46 .57 .67 .72 .27 .37 .44 .65

Fig. 14 -Calculated values of xTP and Fp for valves installed between two commercial concentric reducers (with abrupt section variation)
Cd = Cv / d 2 (d expressed in inches).
Example: For a 2" valve is: Cv = 80 and xT = 0.65
The valve is installed in a 3" pipe between two short type reducers.
Cd = Cv / d2 = 20 d / D = 2/3 = 0.67
A linear interpolation between xT = 0.6 and xT = 0.7 results in xTP = 0.63

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 * PARCOL
Some practical values of xTP versus some
piping parameters and the specific flow co-
FR Cd=10 efficient Cd are listed in the table at Fig.
14.
Cd=15
Cd=20 5.9 - REYNOLDS NUMBER FACTOR FR

The FR factor is defined as the ratio

between the flow coefficient C v for not
turbulent flow, and the corresponding
coefficient calculated for turbulent flow
under the same conditions of installation.
If experimental data are not available , FR
can be derived by the diagrams of Fig. 15
versus the valve Reynolds number Re v
laminar flow transitional flow turbulent which can be determined by the following
relationship:

Rev
Fig. 15 - FR factor versus Rev for
some Cd values

VALVE S TYLE MODIFIE R Fd

Relat ive f low
Valve ty pe Flow direc
ectti on coe
co eff
ffiicient
0. 10 1. 00
Globe, parabolic plug Flow-to-open 0.10 0.46
(1-6911, 1-6951, 1-6921, 1-6981 e 1-4411) Flow-to-close 0.20 1.00
Butterfly valve Max. opening
1-2471, 1-2512, 90° 0.20 0.7
Whatever
1-2311 60° 0.20 0.5
Number of holes
Cage valve
50 0.45 0.14
1-6933, 1-4433,
100 Whatever 0.32 0.10
1-6971, 1-4471
200 0.22 0.07
Double seat Parabolic Between 0.10 0.32
1-8110 V-port seats 0.10 0.28
Fig. 16 -Typical Fd values for PARCOL control valves. More accurate values on request

The term under root accounts for the valve inlet

velocity (velocity of approach) which, except for
wide-open ball and butterfly valves, can be
neglected in the enthalpic balance and taken as
unity.
Fd factor (“the valve style modifier”) has been
introduced to account for the geometry of trim in
the throttling section.
Being the Cv in Rev equation the flow coefficient
calculated by assuming turbulent flow conditions,
the actual value of C v must be found by an
iterative calculation.

- 18 -
 * PARCOL

This data sheet was derived from IEC 60534-7 with some improvements not affecting the numbering of the original items.

- 19 -
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