Maths 1 Extension Notes #1(b) Not Examinable
Ferrari’s Solution of a Quartic Equation
1 Introduction
Example 1. Factorise x4 + 9.
Solution. We use the fact that M 2 − N 2 = (M + N )(M − N ).
First note that (x2 + 3)2 = x4 + 6x2 + 9, and so
(x2 + 3)2 − 6x2 = x4 + 9
√
(x2 + 3)2 − ( 6x)2 = x4 + 9
√ √
((x2 + 3) + 6x)((x2 + 3) − 6x) = x4 + 9
√ √
(x2 + 6x + 3)(x2 − 6x + 3) = x4 + 9.
The quadratics can’t be factorised any further, and so the full factorisation is
√ √
x4 + 9 = (x2 + 6x + 3)(x2 − 6x + 3).
2 Factorising a quartic
Now consider the general quartic x4 + 2ax3 + bx2 + 2cx + d. The key to factorising this
quartic is to find numbers A, B, and C such that
x4 + 2ax3 + bx2 + 2cx + d ≡ (x2 + ax + A)2 − (Bx + C)2
and then to use the fact that M 2 − N 2 = (M + N )(M − N ) .
Example 2. Solve the quartic equation x4 + 2x3 − x2 − 2x − 3 = 0 for x.
Solution. Note that, for our quartic, we have a = 1, and so we must find numbers A, B,
and C such that
x4 + 2x3 − x2 − 2x − 3 ≡ (x2 + x + A)2 − (Bx + C)2 .
Expanding the brackets on the right hand side gives
(x2 + x + A)2 = (x2 + x + A)(x2 + x + A)
= x4 + x3 + Ax2 + x3 + x2 + Ax + Ax2 + Ax + A2
= x4 + 2x3 + (2A + 1)x2 + 2Ax + A2
and (Bx + C)2 = B 2 x2 + 2BCx + C 2 . Now
(x2 + x + A)2 − (Bx + C)2 = x4 + 2x3 + (2A + 1)x2 + 2Ax + A2 − (B 2 x2 + 2BCx + C 2 )
= x4 + 2x3 + (2A + 1 − B 2 )x2 + 2(A − BC)x + A2 − C 2
1
Therefore, we must find numbers A, B, and C such that
x4 + 2x3 − x2 − 2x − 3 ≡ x4 + 2x3 + (2A + 1 − B 2 )x2 + 2(A − BC)x + A2 − C 2 .
By comparing coefficients, we see that
−1 =
2A + 1 − B 2 ⇔ B 2 = 2A + 2 (1)
−1 = A − BC ⇔ BC = A + 1 (2)
2 2
−3 = A − C ⇔ C 2 = A2 + 3 (3)
Now (1) × (3) gives B 2 C 2 = (2A + 2)(A2 + 3) = 2(A + 1)(A2 + 3) and (2)2 gives (BC)2 =
(A + 1)2 . We can now eliminate (BC)2 to obtain
(A + 1)2 = 2(A + 1)(A2 + 3)
2(A + 1)(A2 + 3) − (A + 1)2 = 0
(A + 1)(2(A2 + 3) − (A + 1)) = 0
(A + 1)(2A2 + 6 − A − 1) = 0
(A + 1)(2A2 − A + 5) = 0.
We have a cubic equation for A. We only need to find one solution, so choose A = −1. Now
(1) gives B 2 = 0 ⇒ B = 0 and (3) gives C 2 = (−1)2 + 3 = 4 ⇒ C = ±2. Since we only
choose one solution, we choose C = 2.
Now
x4 + 2x3 − x2 − 2x − 3 ≡ (x2 + x + A)2 − (Bx + C)2
= (x2 + x − 1)2 − (0x + 2)2
= (x2 + x − 1 + 2)(x2 + x − 1 − 2)
= (x2 + x + 1)(x2 + x − 3)
Hence
x4 + 2x3 − x2 − 2x − 3 = 0
⇔ (x2 + x + 1)(x2 + x − 3) = 0
⇔ (x2 + x + 1) = 0 or (x2 + x − 3) = 0
⇔ (x2 + x − 3) = 0
q √
−1 ± 1 − 4(1)(−3) −1 ± 13
⇔x = =
2 2
2
3 The general case
Given a general quartic x4 + 2ax3 + bx2 + 2cx + d, we need to find numbers A, B, and C
such that
x4 + 2ax3 + bx2 + 2cx + d ≡ (x2 + ax + A)2 − (Bx + C)2 .
When we expand the brackets on the right-hand side, we get
x4 + 2ax3 + bx2 + 2cx + d = x4 + 2ax3 + (2A + a2 − B 2 )x2 + 2(A − BC)x + A2 − C 2 .
By comparing coefficients, we see that
b
= 2A + a2 − B 2 ⇔ B 2 = 2A + a2 − b (1)
c = A − BC ⇔ BC = A − c (2)
d = A2 − C 2 ⇔ C 2 = A2 − d (3)
Now (1) × (3) gives B 2 C 2 = (2A + a2 − b)(A2 − d) and (2)2 gives (BC)2 = (A − c)2 . We can
now eliminate (BC)2 to obtain
(A − c)2 = (2A + a2 − b)(A2 − d)
We have a cubic equation for A, which we can solve by using the cubic formula. Since a
cubic equation has three solutions, we can normally choose A to be one of three values: if
possible choose A so that B 2 and C 2 are positive.
Once we have found A, B, and C, then, by using the fact that
(x2 + ax + A)2 − (Bx + C)2 = [x2 + ax + A + (Bx + C)][x2 + ax + A − (Bx + C)]
we can factorise the quartic into a product of two quadratics, and hence we can fully factorise
the quartic by factorising the two quadratics.
4 The quintic and above
A quintic is a polynomial of degree 5. An obvious question to ask is if there is a formula for
solving the general quintic equation ax5 + bx4 + cx3 + dx2 + ex + f = 0.
Consider the formula for solving a quadratic equation:
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
ax2 + bx + c = 0 ⇔ x = .
2a
Notice that the formula is built up from the coefficients a, b and c. The same is true for
cubic and quartics: we build the solution starting from the coefficients, and then using the
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and nth roots. This process of
finding the solution is called a solution by radicals.
In 1824, a mathematician called Abel proved that the general quintic equation is not solvable
by using radicals, and the same is true for even higher degree polynomial equations.
An example is x5 − 6x + 3 = 0: this equation has five solutions, but we can’t build the
solutions starting from the numbers 1, −6 and 3.
Hence
there is no “formula” to solve the general quintic ax5 + bx4 + cx3 + dx2 + ex + f = 0
