Applications & Design with Analog Integrated Circuits as ce} NNN Se. “ae 33" iB 216:e CLT IST TIS S15. Cod Applications & Design with Analog Integrated Circuits J. Michaelgacob Purdue University & RESTON PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. A Prentice - Hall Company Reston, VirginiaAN Contents Preface xi g nal Amplifier Integrated Circuit 1 Introduction to the Opera 1-1 ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUIT 1 1-2 THE IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 6 1-3 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS 8 1-4 GENERAL BREADBOARDING HINTS 14 SUMMARY 20 PROBLEMS 21 Amplifiers and Feedback 23 2-1 OPEN LOOP OPERATION 24 2-2 EFFECTS OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK 33 2-3 INVERTING AMPLIFIER 36 2-4 INVERTING SUMMER 39 2-5 NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER 46 2-6 VOLTAGE FOLLOWER 47 2-7 NONINVERTING SUMMER 49 2-8 DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER 54 SUMMARY 58 PROBLEMS 59 viiviii ~~ Contents Power Supplies and Integrated Circuit Regulators 68 3.1 FULL WAVE RECTIFIED, CAPACITIVE FILTERED POWER SUPPLIES 69 3-2 SIMPLE OP AMP REGULATOR 77 3-3 THREE TERMINAL REGULATORS 83 3-4 THE 723 GENERAL PURPOSE REGULATOR 104 3-5 TRACKING REGULATORS 125 3.6 SWITCHING POWER SUPPLY 130 SUMMARY 134 PROBLEMS 137 Operational Amplifier Characteristics 143 4.1 DC CHARACTERISTICS 144 4-2 AC CHARACTERISTICS 157 SUMMARY 178 PROBLEMS 180 Single Supply Amplifiers 184 5-1 OPERATING THE OP AMP FROM A SINGLE SUPPLY 185 5-2 NORTON AMPLIFIER 200 SUMMARY 228 PROBLEMS 229 Waveform Generators 235 6-1 SQUARE WAVE GENERATORS 236 6-2 RAMP GENERATORS 261 6-3 SINE WAVE GENERATORS 280 6-4 FUNCTION GENERATORS 295 SUMMARY 304 PROBLEMS 306 Active Filters 310 7-1 INTRODUCTION TO FILTERING 311 7-2 LOW PASS FILTER 328 7-3 HIGH PASS ACTIVE FILTER 354 7-4 BANDPASS FILTER 363 7-5 NOTCH FILTER 378 7-6 STATE VARIABLE FILTER 381 SUMMARY 398, PROBLEMS 401Contents Nonlinear Circuits 407 8-1 DIODE FEEDBACK CIRCUITS 409 8-2 LOGARITHMIC AND ANTILOGARITHMIC AMPLIFIERS 427 8-3 MULTIPLIER INTEGRATED CIRCUIT 442 8-4 VARIABLE GAIN AMPLIFIERS 469 SUMMARY 486 PROBLEMS 488 Index 493Preface The integrated circuit, particularly the operational amplifier, has become the true building block of analog electronics, Transistors, like vacuum tubes (remember those?) before them, are being used only in those applications where very high frequency or high power demand their unique abilities, The bulk of analog signal processing, however, is now being done with integrated circuits. This book presents a detailed overview of the use of operational amplifiers, integrated circuit regulated power supplies, Norton amplifiers, waveform gener- ator integrated circuits, active filters, log amplifiers, multipliers and other analog integrated circuits. Characteristics and limitations of each integrated circuit are discussed. Extensive applications and designs are outlined; operation of each application is derived or analyzed; and its performance limitation are pointed out. This book will enable you to select the appropriate device and circuit con- figuration for your need, calculate the component values required, build, and analyze the overall circuit’s behavior. Throughout, the book is tutorial, not overly brief (as with many handbooks). Several years experience teaching analog integrated circuits courses at both the associate degree and bachelor degree engineering technology levels precipi- tated the writing of this book, A reasonable ability in algebra is needed. Passages using calculus have been kept to a minimum, and can be skipped without loss in your ability to apply that information, Although originally intended as a sopho- more or upper class electrical engineering technology text, extensive transistor cireuit knowledge is not required. Combined with a basic diode and transistor characteristics supplement, the first four or five chapters work well for the first course in analog electronics in engineering technology, industrial electronics or for personal instructi xiPreface Integrated circuits are treated as functional devices. Analysis of internal tran- sistor circuitry is minimized; used only briefly when discussing device limitations. This is not a book on the design of analog integrated circuits. It is.a text on the application of the integrated circuit devices. As such, circuits using these devices are rigorously analyzed and all performance or design equations are derived. This, math is grouped to allow you to go directly to the use of the equations, if you choose. To help organize your thoughts, give you specific goals, and help you evalu- ate what you have learned, each chapter begins with a detailed list of performance objectives. These list precisely what you will learn to do as you read the chapter. The problems at the end of the chapter are based on these objectives. Not only are you expected to repeat what was done in the chapter, but many of the problems require you to apply the techniques used to new circuits. This gives you the chance not only to drill, but also to think and stretch your ability. As compared to other linear integrated circuit texts, this book has several unique features. The coverage is as broad as most handbooks, but provides the rigor to help you understand why circuits are built as they are, as well as how they are built. Chapter three gives a unique, practical, simple design and analysis approach to regulated power supplies, which consistently produces results easily verifiable in the lab. The use of operational and Norton amplifiers, biased from a single supply is given an entire chapter, Active filters are presented rigorously. All transfer functions and tuning parameters are completely derived. However, appli- cation of these results is given equal emphasis with many design and analysis ‘examples. First through sixth order filters with varying damping for low pass, high pass, band pass, notch and state variable circuits are illustrated. The charac- teristics and applications of nonlinear circuits are given extended treatment in a full chapter. I must express my appreciation to those students whose ideas and suggest- ion’ lead to this book. The critical evaluation of those students who suffered through the original manuscript and modifications was very helpful. My deepest gratitude and apologies must go to my wife and children who were more than understanding of all of the stolen hours.Applications & Design with Analog Integrated CircuitsCHAPTER 1 Introduction to The Operational Amplifier Integrated Circuit Integrated circuit technology has allowed the construction of inexpensive, reliable digital systems, such as the pocket calculator and digital watch. The same basic techniques have allowed the construction of inexpensive, complex analog ampli- fiers with very stable characteristics. These integrated circuits (ICs) are amazingly easy to use, Because of this simplicity, and because of a high performance cost ratio, analog integrated circuits have replaced most discrete transistor amplifier circuits. This chapter introduces the operational amplifier, the most widely used analog IC. It is treated as a functional block. Its characteristics are described and techniques and considerations for breadboarding are presented without a detailed analysis of the internal configuration. OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1, Briefly describe the two IC fabrication techniques. 2, State the differences between an analog and a digital circuit. Give examples of each, 3. List the characteristics of an ideal amplifier. 4, Compare actual operational amplifier characteristics to those of an ideal amplifier. 5, State the requirements and precautions associated with operational amplifier power supplies. 6, Identify IC packages and lead convention. 7. Describe good breadboarding techniques. 1-1 ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUIT What is an analog integrated circuit? To begin the study of analog integratedIntroduction to The Operational Amplifier Integrated Circuit circuits, you should first understand what makes them unique. What is the differ- ence between an integrated circuit and a circuit built with discrete transistors? How do analog circuits differ from digital circuits? An integrated circuit (IC) is a group of transistors, diodes, resistors, and sometimes capacitors wired together on a very small substrate (or wafer). From five to tens of thousands of components can be contained in a single integrated ircuit. Functions as simple as single-stage amplifiers to those as complex as complete computers have been built in a single integrated circuit. This drastic decrease in size has also yielded a similar reduction in weight, power consump- tion, and production cost, while giving a proportional increase in reliability. Integrated circuits have swept every field of electronics and are strongly altering the automotive, medical, entertainment, and business industries, There are two main IC fabrication techniques monolithic and hybrid. Mono- lithic integrated circuits are built in a wafer of silicon. Transistors and resistors (rarely capacitors) are produced by diffusion processes, just as discrete transistors are. However, instead of the individual transistors being cut apart, they are interconnected by very thin metal runs. Isolation between transistors relies on reverse-biased junctions between the transistors and the silicon substrate (wafer). Design of monolithic integrated circuits requires the tedious preparation of a large number of photographic masks. These are used to control the areas of diffusion for isolation, collectors, bases, emitters, (or channels and gates for field effect transistors), resistors, surface insulation, and connection metalization. These masks are reduced in size and used, one at a time, to produce the desired parts of Figure 1-1 Monolithic IC fabrication mask ( Courtesy of Bell Laboratories )1-1 Analog Integrated Circuit a the monolithic IC. Of course, many separate integrated circuits may be made in each wafer, with many wafers processed simultaneously. The wafers are tested, the good ICs (called chips at this point) are cut apart and placed in one of many different style packages. For monolithic integrated circuits, the initial design of the masks needed to produce the IC is very time-consuming and expensive. However, hundreds to thousands of monolithic ICs can be produced simultaneously. Consequently, large-volume production keeps the price per chip quite low. Figure 1-2 Monolithic IC wafers Figure 1-3 Monolithic IC ( Courtesy of Bell Laboratories ) ( Courtesy of Bell Laboratories ) The major advantage of monolithic integration, then, is low cost per chip if many of the ICs are to be produced. However, there are several disadvantages. Capacitors are very difficult to produce in monolithic ICs. Tuning the IC by adjusting (trimming) internal re- sistor values to meet custom or very demanding specifications is also difficult. Isolation between transistors often is not adequate. It is hard to integrate both digital and analog functions, both bipolar transistors and field effect transistors on the same wafer. All of these disadvantages place some limits on the use of monolithic ICs. In applications where these limitations can not be tolerated, hybrid inte- grated circuits can be used. In hybrid ICs, discrete resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, and even monolithic ICs are placed on a ceramic wafer,:and then interconnected. The wafer actually serves as a miniature chassis with discrete components attached and interconnected. This technique provides excellent iso-Figure 1-4 Hybrid IC modules ( Courtesy of CTS Microelectronics )1-1 Analog Integrated Circuit 5 lation between components, allows the use of practically any device, and can be easily custom tuned before encasing. Although the hybrid IC can eliminate most of the monolithic IC’s dis- advantages, the hybrid IC is considerably more expensive. This is because much of the assembly of hybrid ICs must be done by hand. Most of the devices you will see in this book will be monolithic ICs, and fairly inexpensive. However, a few hybrid ICs will be discussed with applications in Chapter 9, “Nonlinear Circuits.” Integrated circuits are divided into two main groups according to the way they are built (monolithic or hybrid). Two divisions may also be made according to the function of the integrated circuit (analog or digital). The output of an analog IC may be any value whatever, and may change continuously from one value to another. The output of a digital IC will be recognized only as either a logical low level, or a logical high level. Only two output values are accepted. Furthermore, in many digital systems, changes from one level to the other can occur only at specific times. An-analog IC output and a digital IC output are shown in Fig. 1-5. Volts Time (a) Analog IC output. There is continuous variation between values. Volts| Time (b) Digital IC output. Only two output levels are allowed. Figure 1-8 Comparison of analog and digital IC outputs6 Introduction to The Operational Amplifier Integrated Circuit Computers, calculators, digital watches, communication switching, digital in- struments, and some industrial control systems use digital ICs. Analog ICs are used in radio, television, stereo, amplifiers, voltage regulators, signal generators, filters, test instruments, and extensively in industrial measurement and control. 1-2 THE IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER The operational amplifier, or op amp for short, is a high gain, wide band, DC amplifier with high noise rejection ability. The schematic symbol for an op amp is shown in Fig. 1-6. It has one output and two inputs. The output voltage, with respect to circuit common (ground), depends on the difference in potential be- tween the two inputs. This is illustrated in Fig. 1-7. fs. Figure 1-6 Schematic symbol of an operational amplifier &, = Agile, —)) Where 4g, is the open loop gain of the op amp. Figure 1-7 Output/input voltage relationship of an operational amplifier Operational amplifiers were first used in analog computers to do addition, subtraction, integration, and scaling. They were made from vacuum tubes and required a Yull chassis for each amplifier. Later, the tubes were replaced by transistors. A single op amp then required only one printed circuit card full of components. This reduction in size lowered the price of the op amp and broadened its application. Op amps were used in many signal conditioning areas, test and measuring equipment, and industrial control. With the advent of integrated circuit techniques, it became possible to place the entire op amp in a single eight-lead mini-DIP package. Surprisingly, the cost4-2 The Ideal Operational Amplifier A = of these op amp ICs is comparable to a single discrete transistor. Most small signal analog circuits designed today use the operational amplifier as the basic active device, and fall back on discrete transistors only when the op amp will not solve the problem. If you were going to design an ideal operational amplifier, what character- istics would you want? Since the purpose of the circuit is to amplify a signal, you would want an arbitrarily large gain. That is, no matter how small the input signal (e, — e, in Fig. 1-7), 4o,, would be large enough to provide an output signal (e,) of adequate size. Ao. = © (1-1) This means that the difference between the inputs (e, —e;) can be negligibly small. Second, it is important that all of the output signal be applied to the load. However, the output impedance of the op amp (Zo) forms a voltage divider with the load. This is shown in Fig. 1-8, For all of the op amp’s output voltage to be applied to the load (none dropped across Z,), the output impedance must be zero. (1-2) Zo Foot Figure 1-8 Effect of output impedence on load voltage of an operational amplifier On the input side of an ideal operational amplifier, it is important to assure that the amplifier does not load down the source. The input impedance of the op amp forms a voltage divider with the output impedance of the source. This is illustrated in Fig. 1-9. If all of the source voltage is to be applied to the inputs of the op amp, and none lost across the source output impedance (R,), then the op amp’s input impedance must be arbitrarily large compared to R,. Behe a3)8 Introduction to The Operational Amplifier Integrated Circ zero for simplicity Ry + Zin, Vi=e if Z,=© Figure 1-9 Effect of input impedence on input voltage and source loading for an operational amplifier ri This means that no current will flow into (or out of) the inputs of an ideal op amp. Finally; it is necessary for an ideal amplifier to work equally well at all frequencies. At zero hertz (DC) you would want an input difference in potential of zero volts to produce an output of zero volts. Any deviation from this is called offset. = e2—e1=0 leads to Vou = 0 or Offset = 0 (1-4) Ideal AC amplifiers would provide the same gain at all frequencies. You would not want the gain to decrease at low frequency (low frequency cutoff), or decrease at high frequency (high frequency cutoff). Since the difference between the low and high frequency cutoffs is the bandwidth, an ideal operational ampli- fier would have unlimited bandwidth. Bandwidth = oo (5) 1-3 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS You realize, of course, that the ideal op amp just described can not actually be4-3 Basic Specifications and Requirements r 9 built. But, for a remarkably low cost, monolithic op amps can be manufactured which, when properly used, closely approximate the ideal. In this section, key nonideal characteristics will be discussed, along with simple techniques and pre- cautions for minimizing their effects. 4-3.1 Specifications of Initial Importance Table 1-1 lists the ideal op amp characteristics in the first column and the typical characteristics in the second column for the 741C, a popular general-purpose monolithic op amp IC. TapLe 1-1. Ideal and typical characteristics of a mono- lithic operational amplifier integrated circuit 741C Ideal (typical) Voltage gain Ao. © 2x 10° Output impedance Zp 0 75 ohms Input impedance Lis co ~~: 2 megohms Offset current fg 0 20 nanoamps Offset voltage Vis 0 2 millivolts Bandwidth Bw 2 1 megahertz Although the open loop gain of the op amp definitely is not infinite, generally less than ten percent error will be introduced by assuming that it is infinite. This will be true if for any circuit using op amps you (closed loop) g The typical input and output impedances, though not ideal, need to be considered only for a few demanding industrial measurement or high-speed pulse applications. The output amplitude for most op amps is not limited by the output imped- ance, typically 75 ohms for the 741C. Instead, the amount of current the op amp can source or sink to the load limits the output voltage. In an attempt to make these integrated circuits as foolproof as possible, a short circuit current limit circuit has been added to many op amps. This means that the load impedance can be shorted without overheating the IC. Instead, the output current will be limited to a safe level (25 milliamps for the 741C). The output voltage drops appropriately to keep the current below the safe limit as the load impedance drops. This is very handy. However, be careful! Not all op amps are short-circuit of the circuit to 100 or less. limit the over10 Introduction to The Operational Amplifier Integrated Circuit protected. You must read the manufacturer's literature. Shorting the output of an unprotected op amp will probably damage it. Use an op amp which can withstand a short circuit indefinitely (such as the 7410). Interestingly, it is the last three specifications in Table 1-1 along with several others to be described which limit the op amp’s applications. Some current must flow into the input of a general-pupose op amp to bias its input transistors. This is illustrated in Fig. 1-10. If = then and Figure 1-10 Bias and offset currents of an operational amplifier The effect on the output voltage because of these bias currents is zero. Normally, 1, does not equal J,. There will be some small difference between the two bias currents. 7 - Tottsee = 12 ~ Tt For the 741C, you can see in Table 1-1 that the offset current is typically 20 nanoamps. To determine the effect of this offset current, let the resistors in Fig. 1-10 equal one megohm. The offset current will then cause a difference in potential between the two inputs (e, — e,) of 1 MQ x 20 nA = 20 mV The voltage at one input will be 20 millivolts larger than the voltage at the other input. That may be significant. To minimize the effect of offset currents,4. Basie Specifications and Requirements " Reduce the size of the resistance seen from each input terminal (R) as much as practical + Usually, keeping R in the kilohm range is quite adequate. “The offset voltage results from the impossibility of perfectly matching the input transistors. The result is that even if both 'inputs are shorted together (to cause e, = ¢,), the output will not exactly equal zero. For the 741C, typically the output will be 2 millivolts. Usually, a 2-millivolt error in the output voltage can be tolerated. However, if it can not, there are zeroing techniques to eliminate the offsets, These will be discussed in detail in Chapter 4. The bandwidth specification is actually a measurement of the maximum possible gain at a given frequency. As the frequency increases, the gain falls off proportionally. For the 741C, at no point can the product of the voltage gain and the operating frequency exceed one megahertz. This is shown in Table 1-2. From the table you can see that the open loop gain becomes unusably small above about 10 kilohertz. For that reason, Use the 741C only at DC to upper-audio frequencies. Use a wide band op amp above 10 KHz. Tante 1-2. Possible gains at vari- ous frequencies for the 741C oper- ational amplifier Frequency (Hz) Maximum Possible Gain a 10 100k 100 10k 1k 1k 10k 100 100k 10 Bandwidth = | megahertz = A xf The LM 318 has a bandwidth of 15 megahertz, giving useful gain up to at least 150 kilohertz, Certain operational amplifiers have exceptionally high gain at high fre- quencies (for example, 709). These are usually uncompensated. At first glance, you may think that this is an advantage. However, high-frequency noise is amplified, coupled back into the input through interwiring capacitance, amplified, coupled12 Introduction to The Operational Amplifier Integrated Circuit back to the input, amplified, coupled back, ... . Oscillations result. External com- pensation components must be added to make these op amps usable. This will be discussed in detail in Chapter 4. Generally, to simplify circuits, ‘Use an internally compensated op amp (741C, LM318). Avoid uncompensated ‘op amps (709). 1-3.2 Power Supply Requirements In order for an op amp to operate, power supply voltages must be provided. Normally, bipolar voltages are required. That is, two voltages are needed, one positive and the other equal in magnitude, but negative. Often, these supply voltages are omitted from the schematics. However, Fig. 1-11 illustrates the proper schematic and connections. + Figure 1-11 Bipolar power supply connections for an operational amplifier Three op amp characteristics which are dependent on the power supply voltages are listed in Table 1-3, The manufacturer specifies that the supply volt- ages (+V and —V) may not exceed +18 volts for the 741C. The output voltage ‘magnitude is limited by these supply voltages. The maximum possible output will be about two volts less than the supply voltages. Consequently, when selecting the power supply voltages, you normally want to keep them as low as possible (to minimize power dissipated by the op amp and, therefore, burnup possibilities), while ensuring enough “head room” for the output signal. For example, if the output signal must be +6 volts, you might choose to use two 9 volt batteries (4V=49V,-V=-9¥). Keep the supply voltages small, but they must he at least +2 volts larger than the maximum output desired. It is specified that the difference in potential between the two inputs (differ- ential input voltage) may be no greater than 30 volts for the 741C. Also, neitheral 4.3 Basic Specifications and Requirements Taste 1-3. Power supply dependent specifi- cations for the 741C operational amplifier Absolute Maximum nace net a i power supply voltage £18 volts differential input voltages +30 volts common mode input voltages £15 volts. eS 13 input may be +15 volts away from circuit common (common mode input volt- age). In addition, though not specifically stated, should either input exceed the power supply voltage, damage may occur. If the op amp has a +9-volt supply, neither input should exceed 9 volts, even though the specifications indicate +15 volts. Limit the input amplitude fo less than the power supply voltages. One certain way to damage an op amp is to reverse the supply voltages (ie., +9 volts connected to the —V terminal, —9 volts connected to the +V termin- al). It is very discouraging to spend several hours wiring a complex circuit using many op amps and then to accidently cross the power supply wires, wiping out hours of work and possibly several dollars’ worth of ICs. Use extreme care not to reverse power supply connections. 1-3.3 Packaging Analog integrated circuits are available in many different package styles. These are illustrated in Fig. 1-12. The dual inline pack (DIP) of Fig. 1-12(a) is popular for commercial appli- cations. It is easy to handle, fits standard mounting hardware, and is inexpensive when molded in plastic. Ceramic DIPs are used for high-temperature, high- performance (usually military) equipment. ‘The mini-DIP [Fig. 1-12(b)] provides a low cost/space efficient package. For circuits where space is critical, the flatpack shown in Fig, 1-12{c) gives the most compact package. However, flatpacks are much more difficult to handle than DIPs and often do not dissipate power as well. ‘The metal can package [Fig. 1-12(d)] allows easy connection to a heatsink, and is often chosen when heat dissipation is a chief consideration.4 Introduction to The Operational Amplifier Integrated Circuit Tt @ DIP (b) MintDIP (©) Flatpack (@ Metal can Figure 1-12 Analog IC package styles ( Courtesy of Motorola Semiconductors ) Pins are identified on the pin diagrams included with the manufacturer's specifications, It is standard, however, to view the IC from the rop and count pins counterclockwise from the key, mold mark, or tab. Each package style is identi- fied with a different letter suffix. This is shown in Fig. 1-13. The op amp terminals connect to different pins in each different package style. For example, the output of the 741C is connected to pin 10 of the DIP, pin 6 of the mini-DIP, pin 7 of the flatpack, and pin 6 of the eight-lead metal can. Since it is critical that the proper connections be made to the op amp, the op amp number, package style suffix, and pin numbers should always be recorded on the schematic, This is illustrated in Fig, 1-14. 1-4 GENERAL BREADBOARDING HINTS Once a circuit has been designed, it must be tested. To do this quickly and reliably, a good breadboarding system is needed. It should allow for the easy interconnection and removal of the analog ICs, discrete components, power supplies, and test equipment. It is absolutely critical that connections between the breadboard, the components’ power supplies, and the test equipment be mechan- ically and electrically sound. Most beginners spend more time running down poor or wrong breadboarding connections than they spend actually evaluating the circuit they have built. In this section you will find breadboarding hints which will help you minimize problems and errors in building your circuit for testing. The universal breadboard socket illustrated in Fig. 1-15 provides a popular and convenient technique. It gives two to four busses for power supplies and ground running along the edges. The body provides an array of solderless con- nections properly spaced and sized for most analog and digital ICs, transistors,